VOL 17 N O 4 ANBSTHESIA OCTOBER 1962

Physical principles of clinical measurement

2 Alternating current circuits. Inductance and capacitance

PERCY CLIFFE, MB, BS, PhD, BSc

D. A . P . STRICKLAND, BSC

Department of Clinical Measurement, Westminster Hospital

In the introduction to the present series of articles (Anmthesia, July

1962), it was shown that the concepts of direct and alternating cur-
rents flowing in resistors could readily be appreciated by comparison
with fluids flowing in pipes. The resistor, however, is not the only cir-
cuit element which is important for alternating current circuits. Two
other important components are met, namely, the inductor and the
capacitor. Physiological quantities vary with time, or alternate and so
therefore do both the electrical and mechanical parts which represent
them in many measuring instruments. In the present paper alterna-
ting current circuits will be considered with particular reference to
their inductance and capacitance by comparison with the simple analo-
gous qualities of mass and the stiffness of springs. It will later be
shown how these basic principles apply to the behaviour of such de-
vices as pen or photographic recorders or blood pressure transducers.
M E C H A N I C A L A N D E L E C T R I C A L ANALOGUES

Mechanical and electrical resistances, masses and inductors, and

springs and capacitors form analogous pairs. For all six there are
simple laws governing their behaviour, and for each pair the laws are
precisely analogous.
Mechanical and electrical resistance
When two surfaces move in sliding contact with one another opposing
forces are set up and energy is dissipated in the form of heat. Examples
include a body moving over a fixed surface, a shaft rotating in a bear-
ing and layers of fluid moving past one another. Taking the first
example in illustration, the moving body experiences a force F op-
posing its motion and F is found to be proportional to the velocity v.
To put this law of proportionality on a quantitative basis we define
519
5 20 ANESTHESIA

mechanical resistance r of the system as the force appearing per unit

velocity being opposed and write:
F=w (I)
This is seen to be analogous to Ohm’s law for electricalresistance
V=RI (2)
if we regard force and potential difference as one analogous pair and
velocity and current as the other.
Mass and inductance
When a body is already set into motion (has a velocity v) it is found
that if friction is eliminated or allowed for, no effort is required to
keep it in motion. Inertia is experienced when an attempt is made to
change v and a force of reaction occurs which opposes the change,
whether it be acceleration or deceleration that is effected. For a body
of mass m moving with velocity v this force is proportional to the rate
of change of velocity and is given by the law of Newton:
F=m x (rate of change of velocity)
There are several convenient mathematical abbreviations for rate of
dv
change and - is commonly used to express the phrase in brackets.
dt
This notation is used merely for brevity and does not herald the use
of elaborate mathematics. Then
dv
F=m- (3)
dt
An inductor is an electrical component which exhibits opposition
to change and will be seen to oppose change of current (the analogue
of velocity) by setting up a potential difference (the analogue of
force). Massive objects are familiar and readily visualised. One pur-
pose of the present paper is further to elucidate the properties of
inductors.
Inductors and inductance
Two early observations on magnetism and electicity are relevant to
this topic:
(i) A region of magnetic influence (a magnetic field), which can be
detected by the deflection of a compass needle, can be estab-
lished in the vicinity of a conductor by passing a current
through it.
(ii) A changing magnetic field, whether caused by the presence of
magnets or by currents flowing in conductors, produces an
EMF in a conductingcircuit in its vicinity.
In FIGURE 1 a conductor is illustrated coiled in order to concen-
trate the magnetisation caused by the current I. Since the human
senses do not reveal the magnetisation we imagine ‘lines of magnetic
 ANESTHESIA 521

flux’ as illustrated by the dashed loops which link with the conducting
circuit, just as streamlines and isobars are visualised in the vicinity of
aerodynamic and meteorological systems, respectively.
If the current I is forced to change we imagine the number of
these representational flux lines to change. The EMF which appears in
the conducting circuit, due to change of the magnetic flux that the
current itself is producing, is called the EMF of ‘self induction’. The
laws of Lenz state that this E M F opposes the change which causes it
and that it is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage
(number of flux lines times number of turns linked by them).

lines of magnetic flux

\ i

FIG 2

Reference to standard texts on magnetism shows that in the

historical development of the subject, lines of magnetic flux were not
merely visualised qualitatively to facilitate dealing with magnetic
phenomena, but were also put on a quantitative basis. As a result of
decisions and definitions made while the subject was developing, the
unit of flux is called the ‘maxwell’ (or ‘line’). This can be related to
induced EMF by stating the rate of change of flux linkage (maxwell-
turns per second) which gives rise to one volt and the result is 108
maxwell-turns per second. Such an apparently peculiar numerical
relationship as this is met with merely in consequence of the way in
which the subject developed.
Any conducting circuit exhibits self-induction and a component
manufactured to exhibit it to a known degree is called an ‘inductor’.
The effect is increased by coiling the wire and further by winding it on
a core of material which is highly ‘permeable’to the establishment of
H
522 ANESTHESIA

flux. Such materials are called ‘ferromagnetic’and include iron and

many special purpose alloys.
To discuss the law which is analogous to the law of Newton,
FIGURE 2 shows an inductor symbolically. Had this been a resistor
with a current flowing from A to B through it, then A would have
been made positive in potential with respect to B. This potential
difference may be regarded as attempting to oppose the oncoming
current, i.e., as if there were a battery in place of the component with
its positive terminal at A and its negative one at B. To put the induc-
tor on the same basis, the potential of terminal A with respect to B
(caused by the induction) will be considered. In other words, the
effect of induction is again measured in the sense of opposing the on-
coming current. If the potential of A relative to B is designated V we
know that V is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage, and
that the flux in turn depends on the current. We find then that V is
proportional to the rate of change of current, or
dI
V=L-dt (4)
The constant of proportionality L is the measure of effect (V) per
dI
unit cause (-), and is called the ‘inductance’ of the inductor. The
dt
unit of inductance is the henry (H), which is short for the volt (effect)
per amp.-per-second (cause). F I G U R E 3 illustrates the fact that, un-

A I decreasing
t

Bl
FIG 3

like resistance which opposes actual current, inductance opposes rate

of change of current. Batteries may be imagined in place of the induc-
tor. Thus when the circuit which is sending the current I through the
inductor is making I increase, the imagined battery would need to
oppose as indicated by the arrow shown beside it, and A becomes
positive with respect to B. This is expressed by saying that V (in
FIGURE 2) is positive. If I were to decrease, the imagined battery
would have to reverse, since to oppose the decrease it would attempt
to keep I flowing. Hence B would go positive with respect to A, and V
is said to be negative. V becomes zero if I is constant, since there is no
change to oppose.
 ANBSTHESIA 523
The mechanical analogy is commonplace. The reversal of force of
reaction when changing from increasing velocity to decreasing
velocity can be experienced manually, for example, when wheeling a
patient on a trolley.
Comparison of equations 3 and 4 shows that force and p.d., and
velocity and current, are still analogous and that inductance L is
analogous to mass m. The analogue can be extended, for example, to
cover energy storage. The kinetic energy established in a moving
mass is known to be +mv2. The energy stored in the form of the mag-
netic field associated with an inductor, with inductance L carrying a
current I is found to be +LIB.
Stiffness and capacitance
When a spring is compressed or expanded, a force of reaction (F) is
experienced which increases with the displacement (deformation x of
the ends with respect to one another.) For the simplest springs it is
found that F is proportional to x, or
F=SX (5)
where S expresses the stiffness (force per unit displacement, say in
dynes per cm). It will be noticed that in contrast with mass which op-
poses changing velocity and frictional resistance which opposes actual
velocity, a spring opposes the result of there having been movement,
which has led to it now being deformed. A capacitor will be seen to be
a component which opposes the result of current having flowed.
Capacitors and capacitance
Two pieces of conductor such as two metal plates (illustrated edge-on
by A and B in FIGURE 4) which are separated by an insulated (or
‘dielectric’) gap and then connected to a battery, become ‘charged’.
Electrons flow from the region M of high electron concentration and
reach B, where the gap foils their further attempt to leave their

fellows at M and reach the region of electron deficiency at L. How-

ever, electrons from A are repelled by those reaching B and flow to L,
524 ANBSTHESIA

so momentarily current flows in MB and AL. The plates are left

charged (+Q say at A and -Q at B), a p.d.V having built up to op-
pose the EMF of the battery and so halt the process. Q is called the
charge ‘stored’ because subsequent connection of A to B releases Q
coulombs of electrons from B to neutralize the deficiency at A.
Experimentally it is found that Q and V are proportional to one
another, or
Q=CV (6)
The constant of proportionality C is called the ‘capacitance’ of the
system and is the measure of charge stored per unit of p.d. of neces-
sity developed. The unit, the coulomb per volt, is called the farad (F).
Capacitance is a compliance-likemeasure, being quantity accepted
per unit of opposition set up. It is an historical accident that capacitors
(manufactured components exhibiting capacitance) are specified in
this way and if we take S= 1/C as the reciprocal measure, equation 6
becomes
V=SQ (7)
This is analogous to equation 5, if charge is related to displacement.
This conforms with the analogues met before (equations 1,2 and 3,4)
since I is the rate of change of Q and v is the rate of change of x. The
system is represented in TABLE 1.
Table I
MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT QUANTTIY SYMBOL UNIT
Force F dyne p.d. V volt
Displacement x cm. charge Q coulomb
Velocity V CmlSeC current I ampere

Acceleration a cmlsecz rate of

change of none A/sec.
current

SINUSOIDAL CURRENTS I N INDUCTIVE A N D CAPACITIVE

CIRCUITS

In a previous article (Cliffe and Strickland 1962) it was explained that

in order to deal with alternating phenomena the best starting point is
the simplest of all alternations-the sinusoid. Electrical engineers deal
at considerable length with sinusoidal currents in inductors, capaci-
tors and resistors and in various combinations of these, and as a result
a very complete system of ideas, definitions and symbols has been
developed under the general heading of ‘AC theory’. Much of this
work is highly mathematical in form, but the essential ideas can be
 ANWSTHESIA 525

expressed verbally, as will be done here. An understanding of these

ideas is essential to the development of understanding electrical and
electronic circuits. In addition it is found that the way of thinking
engendered is of value for dealing with mechanical systems and indeed
many other systems such as those involving fluid flow. For example,
although inductors have here been related to massive bodies and
capacitors to springs, further study of the properties of inductors and
capacitors has enabled engineers to elucidate complex problems
which arise in mechanical systems.
SINUSOIDAL CURRENTS I N INDUCTORS

Since the opposing potential difference induced in an inductor is

greatest when the current is changing most rapidly (equation 2), if in
F I G U R E 2 I is sinuosoidally varying,
then V and I are related as shown in
F I G U R E 5. Here V is maximum and
A is positive with respect to B when
I is rising rapidly through zero, and
V falls to zero as I rises less and less
rapidly to reach its peak. The reversal
of V (A negative with respect to B) is
shown when I begins to fall. As was
discussed in the previous article, V is
said to lead I by a quarter of a cycle
(90") and this lagging of I for an in-
ductor is easily remembered when it
is recalled that it is I whose changes
are being opposed.
The peak value of V depends on
(a) the inductance L, since the
FIG 5
larger this is, the greater the
oppositionto changingcurrent.
(b) the frequency, since the higher the frequency, the more rapidly
I changes.
(c) the peak value of I, since the greater this is, the faster I changes
to reach its peak.
By analogy with Ohm's law for resistance the ratio of magnitude of
p.d. to magnitude of current is given a name suggesting opposition,
the special name 'inductive reactance' (or simply reactance if inductive
is understood) being chosen to recall that this is an a.c. phenomenon.
A common symbol is X for reactance and X, to specify reactance of
an inductor.
526 ANESTHESIA

From (a) and (b) above we expect X, to be proportional to L and

to frequency f, and in fact
Peak (or r.m.s) V
-XL=2afL (8)
Peak (or r.m.s) I-
The result is in ohms if f is in c/s x, I
and L is in H. The factor of 2n is ohms I
due to the geometry of the sinusoid.
FIGURE 6 illustrates X, increasing
linearly with increase of frequency
and the broken line shows the
greater reactance of a larger induc-
tance. To appreciate all that has
been said about the phase differ-
ence of 90" and about reactance
depending on inductance and on frequency f
frequency, one needs simply to lift FIG 6
modestly heavy objects
and shake them to and
fro at different rates.
The force of reaction
can be felt to be greatest
when the velocityis least I+- Qorv~ time

and the dependence of

mechanical reactance on I P d - time
mass and frequency is
readily felt. FIG 7

CAPACITORS WITH SINUSOIDAL CURRENT

If, as in F I G U R E 7, a sinsusoidal current from an a.c. source is forced

to flow in a capacitivecircuit,charge is first established one way round,
and then as I reverses, Q is fist removed and then re-established with
reverse polarity. Since Q and V are proportional to one another (equa-
tion 6) they are in phase and are shown by a single curve in F I G U R E 7.
Current being the rate of change of charge is seen to alternate as shown.
Here it is the p.d. which lags the current by a quarter of a cycle (in
contrast with the inductive case). The ratio of peak p.d. to peak current
(0rr.m.s to r.m.s)is called'capacitive reactance' X,. X, is less for larger
capacitance since a larger capacitance accepts more charge before a
given p.d. is reached (see definition and equation 6). X, is also less at
higher frequencies since a given current will have less time, if it alter-
nates more rapidly, to establish charge and thus develop p.d. In fact
Peak (or r.m.s) V 1
Peak (or r.m.s) I =Xc=-- 2afC (9)
 ANAESTHESIA 527

X, is in ohms if C is in farads and f is in c/s, and the factor 2n occurs

in the denominator now. F I G U R E 8 shows X, falling with rise of f r e
quency for a given capacitance and being lower for a larger capaci-
tance (broken line).

SERIES COMBINATIONS

A system having mass and friction will oppose alternating velocity

because the mass opposes the acceleration while the friction opposes
the velocity itself. Since the instant of greatest velocity does not
coincide with that of greatest acceleration (being separated by a
quarter of a cycle for sinuosoidal motion) we expect the total opposi-
tion to be less than the simple algebraic sum. This is experienced when

xc
ohms

frequencyf
FIG 8 FIG 9

skating, for the greatest opposition

caused by one's inertia is on starting
and stopping, while the greatest fric-
tional opposition is not experienced
until the greatest velocity is reached.
In the same way the inductive and
resistive p.d.s for F I G U R E 9 are
shown in F I G U R E 10 to be a quarter
of a cycle (90") out of phase with
one another (in 'quadrature'). The
total p.d. V is less in peak amplitude
than the simple sum of the peak
amplitudes of V, and V, and is in-
termediate in phase. The ratio of
Y
magnitude of p:d. to current is given
the special name impedance (usual symbol Z ) , and reactance and
resistance are special cases as summarised in TABLE 2.
528 ANESTHESIA

Table 2
CIRCLJITS RATIO OF P.D. SYMBOL PHASE RELATIONSHIP
TO CURRENT BETWEEN v AND 1

b Y Impedance Z h Y
Purely reactive Reactance X Quadrature
Purely resistive Resistance R In phase

A combination of friction and stiffness also illustrates the effect of

two opposing forces which reach their maxima at different times, as is
experienced during inspiration. The effect of air-way resistance is
most pronounced at the instants of peak flow, while the effect of
elastic recoil is greatest at the end of inspiration. Similarly a resistor
and capacitor in series and taking alternating current oppose it,
with greatest contribution from the resistor at instants of maximum
current and greatest contribution from the capacitor when full charge
has been accepted. For a resistance R in series with a reactance X the
total impedance can be shown to be
Z= dR2fX2 (10)
This is greater than either R or X but not as large as their simple sum.
In the case of resistance and inductance X is 2nf L, while for resistance
and capacitance X is 1/2nfC. In the latter case the phase of the total
p.d. relative to that of the current is intermediate between being in
phase and lagging by 90".
SERIES RESONANT C I R C U I T

To explain electrical resonance, which is important in radio frequency

telemetering of physiological data for example, an easily visualised
mechanical system will first be considered. This will also assist in the
subsequent explanation of blood pressure transducers and of gal-
vanometer pen recorders which
behave similarly. It is well known
that a combination of mass and VL
1

spring such as a motor car can be

set into violent oscillatory motion
with relatively little effort provided
it is rocked at the correct frequen-
cy. The force of reaction due to the

-
mass opposes the hand most when
acceleration is greatest, while the
opposition due to the springs is
greatest half a cycle later when the
displacement is greatest. These
-i "c
forces are thus exactly out of phase
and tend to cancel one another. FIG 11
 ANBSTHESIA 529

At the resonant frequency these forces are equal and cancellation

is complete, with the result that violent oscillations are set up with
the relativelylittle effort needed to overcome the friction of the system.
Just as the forces of reaction for a mass and spring tend to cancel
and give rise to resonance phenomena, so the reactive p.d.s in a
circuit such as FIGURE 11 tend to cancel. In this circuit R represents
unavoidable imperfection of the reactive components, plus any
actual resistor deliberately included in the circuit. Since VL and V,
respectively lead and lag the current by a quarter of a cycle they are in
antiphase with one another. The total reactance is thus the difference
between the two reactances.

The total impedance (from equation 10) is

The symbol w is an abbreviation for 2nf and is called pulsatance or

angular frequency. At one frequency the reactance terms are equal
and cancel and Z has its smallest value, being then R.This frequency
is called the resonant frequency f, and is given by the fact stated about
the reactances being equal, so
1
2nfrL=-
2nfrC
or
This result is analogous to the result for a mass and spring if we
replace L by m and C by 1/S.
The variation of impedance with frequency may be obtained by
plotting from the equation for Z but this exercise is of less value than
that of following the reasoning now given in steps.
(i) At very high frequencies XLdominates and Zrises as dictated by
x,.
(ii) At very low frequenciesXcdominates and Zrises as dictated by
XC.
(iii) Between the extremes the minimum value of R is approached
as the two reactances more and more closely neutralise each other’s
opposition to the alternating current.
The result is illustrated in FIGURE 12, which also shows the effect
(broken line) of using a higher value of R.This circuit is an example
of a frequency sensitive or selective circuit. Such circuits are of im-
portance in certain electro-medical instruments and where they are
to be met they will be dealt with in terms of ideas rather than mathe-
matics. Notice in this example how the knowledge that for larger re-
530 ANESTHESIA

sistance the tendency as resonance is approached is to a higher mini-

mum value of Z shows at once that a circuit having more resistance
is less sharply frequency sensitive. The less sharp ‘tuning’is shown by
the flatter ‘resonancecurve’ in the broken line of F I G U R E12.
I

fr frequency

FIG 12
FIG 13
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Two resistances R1 and R2 in parallel (FIGURE 13) take a current
from an applied source, which is the sum of the individual currents, or

They are therefore equivalent to a single resistance R for which V/R

gives the same current, so

This reciprocal rule of addition for parallel resistances extends to

any number of resistances, but in the common cases of two resistances
it is convenient to rewrite this as

Substitution of any positive numbers for R1 and R2 in this expres-

sion of product, divided by the sum, always yields an answer less than
either of the original values, which is expected since the increase of
current due to shunting one component with another means reduc-
tion of resistance.
By similar reasoning a resistance and a reactance (L or C) in
parallel give rise to an impedance smaller than either. In fact
Rx
z=2/R2+xz (16)
 A NW S TH B S I A 531
THE PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT

If in Figure 14 we temporarily neglect the resistance R associated

with the inductance we know that the current through L and C res-
pectively lag and lead V by a quarter
of a cycle. This means that the total
current is the difference between the
two since they are in antiphase. The
total impedance is thus greater than
either, and at resonance (the fre-
quency of equal reactance) the total
current is zero, the system becoming C
self-sustaining as energy is con-
tinuously interchanged from inductor
to capacitor and back. The theoreti-
cal infinite impedance is not realised
in practice because energy dissipa-
ting components (unavoidable or FIG14
deliberate) such as R make the phase relationships not exactly 180".
FIGURE 15 shows the resonance curves for less loss (curve 1) and for

f, frequency

FIG 15

more loss (curve 2) and indicates the theoretical lossless case (curve 3).
By reasoning as before it will be seen,
(i) At very low frequencies, since this is a parallel circuit, the high
reactance of C has least effect (draws least current) and the im-
pedance would tend to zero (2nf L) were it not for R.
(ii) At very high high frequencies the rising reactance of L causes it
to take less current and the falling reactance of C (equation 9)
dominates the parallel circuit, causing the impedance to ap-
proach zero.
532 AN& S TH E S I A

(iii) Intermediate to these extremes the high resistive resonant im-

pedance for which the effects of the reactances cancel is ap-
proached. In absence of R the effect is to take zero current from
the supply, i.e., for the impedance Z to approach idnity (curve
3, FIGURE 15). The greater R is made, the less effectively do
the reactances tend to cancel each other’s current requirements
and so the smaller the dynamic impedance (impedance at
resonance), as in FIGURE 15, curves 1 and 2.
It may be shown that the dynamic impedance of this circuit is
L/CR. Results like this are frequently met. Their derivation requires
detailed mathematical treatment of specialised nature, but physical
reasoning often shows them to be not unexpected.
This parallel resonant circuit is another frequency selective one and
is of great importance. As with the series circuit, the smaller the losses
the more sharply is the circuit tuned.
It will be shown that devices such as blood pressure transducers
and pen recorders are naturally resonant and the problem is to
achieve optimum damping or flattening of the resonant peak. In the
frequency selective circuits which have been described, the problem is
to achieve the opposite effect, namely a maximum resonant peak.
However, each problem involves the same basic principles.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank Miss Hazel Ralph for preparing the illustrations.