Literature

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Major forms
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Genres
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Media
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Techniques
Prose Poetry
History and lists
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Outline Glossary of terms
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Discussion
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Literature, most generically, is any body of written works. More restrictively,
literature writing is considered to be an art form, or any single writing deemed to
have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that
differ from ordinary usage.

Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived itself from littera: letter or

handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts, though contemporary
definitions extend the term to include texts that are spoken or sung (oral
literature). The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to
have non-written verbal art forms, and thus it is difficult to agree on its origin,
which can be paired with that of language or writing itself. Developments in print
technology have allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written
works, culminating in electronic literature.

Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction, and

whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major
forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorized
according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or
expectations (genre).

Contents
1 Definitions
2 Major forms
2.1 Poetry
2.2 Prose
2.3 Drama
3 History
4 Awards
5 Essays
6 Other prose literature
6.1 Natural science
6.2 Philosophy
6.3 Psychology
6.4 History
6.5 Law
7 Other narrative forms
8 Genres of literature
9 Literary techniques
10 Legal status
10.1 United Kingdom
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Definitions
Definitions of literature have varied over time: it is a "culturally relative
definition".[1] In Western Europe prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all
books and writing.[1] A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the
Romantic period, in which it began to demarcate "imaginative" writing.[2][3]
Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to
older, more inclusive notions; Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject
of analysis both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works.

The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those

writings that possess high quality or distinction, forming part of the so-called
belles-lettres ('fine writing') tradition.[4] This sort of definition is that used
in the Encyclop�dia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910�11) when it classifies
literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing."[5]
Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what
constitutes "literature": anything can be literature, and anything which is
universally regarded as literature has the potential to be excluded, since value
judgments can change over time.[4]

The formalist definition is that "literature" foregrounds poetic effects; it is the

"literariness" or "poetic" of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech
or other kinds of writing (e.g., journalism).[6][7] Jim Meyer considers this a
useful characteristic in explaining the use of the term to mean published material
in a particular field (e.g., "scientific literature"), as such writing must use
language according to particular standards.[8] The problem with the formalist
definition is that in order to say that literature deviates from ordinary uses of
language, those uses must first be identified; this is difficult because "ordinary
language" is an unstable category, differing according to social categories and
across history.[9]

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a

writing, grammar," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera
"letter".[10] In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung
texts.[8][11]

Major forms
Poetry
Main article: Poetry

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written
words are arranged in such a way to produce a visual image.
Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of
language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible
meaning.[12] Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its being
set in verse;[a] prose is cast in sentences, poetry in lines; the syntax of prose
is dictated by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across meter or the visual
aspects of the poem.[17] Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood
to be something set in metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry
is "any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or Verses".[12] Possibly as a result
of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics), "poetry" before the 19th century was
usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive
or rhetorical art.[18] As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works
being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition;[19][20] hence it
constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose
Main article: Prose
Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech
rather than rhythmic structure; in which regard, along with its measurement in
sentences rather than lines, it differs from poetry.[17][21] On the historical
development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the case of Ancient Greece]
recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively
late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical period".
[22]

Novel: a long fictional prose narrative. It was the form's close relation to real
life that differentiated it from the chivalric romance;[23][24] in most European
languages the equivalent term is roman, indicating the proximity of the forms.[24]
In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late 15th century,
with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a
distinction between fact or fiction.[25] Although there are many historical
prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel",[26] the modern novel form emerges
late in cultural history�roughly during the eighteenth century.[27] Initially
subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst
literary forms, both popularly and critically.[24][28][29]
Novella: in purely quantitative terms, the novella exists between the novel and
short story; the publisher Melville House classifies it as "too short to be a
novel, too long to be a short story".[30] There is no precise definition in terms
of word or page count.[31] Literary prizes and publishing houses often have their
own arbitrary limits,[32] which vary according to their particular intentions.
Summarizing the variable definitions of the novella, William Giraldi concludes "[it
is a form] whose identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity".[33] It
has been suggested that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic
results, both some that are shared with the novel or short story,[34][35] and
others unique to the form.[36]
Short story: a dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to,
or whether one should, distinguish it from any short narrative; hence it also has a
contested origin,[37] variably suggested as the earliest short narratives (e.g. the
Bible), early short story writers (e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly modern
short story writers (e.g. Anton Chekhov).[38] Apart from its distinct size, various
theorists have suggested that the short story has a characteristic subject matter
or structure;[39][40] these discussions often position the form in some relation to
the novel.[41]
Drama
Main article: Drama
Drama is literature intended for performance.[42] The form is often combined with
music and dance, as in opera and musical theater. A play is a subset of this form,
referring to the written dramatic work of a playwright that is intended for
performance in a theater; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters, and
usually aims at dramatic or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A closet
drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read rather than to be
performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized
fully on the page.[43] Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively
recently.

Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial
knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated with
religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known
historical or mythological themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious
themes. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media
have been added to this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of
literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted
for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have
been adapted to printed or electronic media.

History
Main article: History of literature
Inscribed hieroglyphics cover an obelisk in foreground. A stone statue is in
background.
Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II", from the Luxor
Temple, New Kingdom
The history of literature follows closely the development of civilization. When
defined exclusively as written work, Ancient Egyptian literature,[44] along with
Sumerian literature, are considered the world's oldest literatures.[45] The primary
genres of the literature of Ancient Egypt�didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and
tales�were written almost entirely in verse;[46] while use of poetic devices is
clearly recognizable, the prosody of the verse is unknown.[47] The question of
whether Sumerian literature was poetry or prose remains unanswered. It did contain
at least one feature of poetry (left-justified lines), but the style of writing
precludes the detection of certain other identifying features.

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Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal
sagas, accounts of the origin of the world and of customs, and myths which
sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the pre-urban eras. The
epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the great Indian
epics of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary
authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long periods
before being written down.

Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature
itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts
through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing
and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment
purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science,
religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature
becomes very important in terms of learning about our[who?] history. Through the
study of past literature we[who?] are able to learn about how society has evolved
and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout
history. This can even help us to understand references made in more modern
literature because authors often make references to Greek mythology and other old
religious texts or historical moments. Not only is there literature written on each
of the aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout
history (like a book about the history of economics or a book about evolution and
science, for example) but one can also learn about these things in fictional works.
Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord Byron talks
about the Spanish and the French in "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: Canto I"[48] and
expresses his opinions through his character Childe Harold. Through literature we
are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see
how all academic fields have roots in literature.[49] Information became easier to
pass down from generation to generation once we began to write it down. Eventually
everything was written down, from things like home remedies and cures for illness,
or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people
were able to study literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and
academic fields such as the medical field or trades could be started. In much the
same way as the literature that we study today continue to be updated as we[who?]
continue to evolve and learn more and more.
As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for
speculative and philosophical literature in early civilizations, resulting in the
prevalence of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece
and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral
or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of
Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public
audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed
to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles,
particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as
poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long period, the
poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually
influenced poetry in the literary medium.

In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy,

historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of
modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print
cultures.[50] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of
Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769?269 BCE). The
most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism,
of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War)
and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient
Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed
court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo
Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th-
century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.

In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally
transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit
literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500�1000 BCE, and continues with
the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.
The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500�1000 BCE, and the "circum-
Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000?500 BCE,
resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the
Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[51] The period between approximately the 6th to
1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential
Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction
progressing down to the 4th century AD. Other major literary works are
Ramcharitmanas & Krishnacharitmanas.

In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and
Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most
influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included
philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle
authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho
and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early
Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of
tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of
plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays
of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as
Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the
genre.[52]

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, one of the most prolific German writers
Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of
lives of saints and miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the
Middle Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with
strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructional
literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of
printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and
psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples
are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books.

In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human
nature integrated literature with social and political developments. The inevitable
reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later 18th century which reclaimed
the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and
asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th century
went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous
documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was
implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century
fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasizing unconscious
motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such
as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting
internal rather than external realities.

Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in
spite of its fixed formulas, through the enquiries of the skeptical detective and
the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of "mainstream" and
"genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our
own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded
documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War,
and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective realism in general.

Awards
Main article: List of literary awards
There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature.
Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually
on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for first-time writers or
debut novels).[53]

The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes established by the
will of Alfred Nobel in 1895,[54] and is awarded to an author on the basis of their
body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work itself.[b] Other literary
prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International
Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize and the Franz Kafka Prize.

Essays
An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of
view, exemplified by works by Michel de Montaigne or by Charles Lamb.

Genres related to the essay may include the memoir and the epistle.

Other prose literature

Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientific writings are traditionally
ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence;
novels and prose stories earned the names "fiction" to distinguish them from
factual writing or nonfiction, which writers historically have crafted in prose.

Natural science
As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to
most audiences, the "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced
over the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in journals. Scientific
works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit great value, but since the
science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific
instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programs of
literary study. Outside of "history of science" programs, students rarely read such
works.

Philosophy
Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its
practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most
new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers through
history�Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche�have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are
argued to merit the title "literature", but much of it does not, and some areas,
such as logic, have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of
mathematics.

Psychology
Literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a person's
character that would not be obvious otherwise.[55] It benefits the psychological
development and understanding of the reader. For example, it allows a person to
access emotional states from which the person has distanced himself or herself. An
entry written by D. Mitchell featured in The English Journal explains how the
author used young adult literature in order to re-experience the emotional
psychology she experienced as a child which she describes as a state of "wonder".
[56]

Hogan also explains that the temporal and emotional amount which a person devotes
to understanding a character's situation in literature allows literature to be
considered "ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion".[57] This can be
understood in the sense that literature unites a large community by provoking
universal emotions. It also allows readers to access cultural aspects that they are
not exposed to thus provoking new emotional experiences.[58] Authors choose
literary device according to what psychological emotion he or she is attempting to
describe, thus certain literary devices are more emotionally effective than others.
[59]

Furthermore, literature is being more popularly regarded as a psychologically

effective research tool. It can be considered a research tool because it allows
psychologists to discover new psychological aspects and it also allows
psychologists to promote their theories.[60] For example, the print capacity
available for literature distribution has allowed psychological theories such as
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to be universally recognized.

Maslow's "Third Force Psychology Theory" even allows literary analysts to

critically understand how characters reflect the culture and the history in which
they are contextualized. It also allows analysts to understand the author's
intended message and to understand the author's psychology.[61] The theory suggests
that human beings possess a nature within them that demonstrates their true "self"
and it suggests that the fulfillment of this nature is the reason for living. It
also suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing the nature because
a person becomes estranged from his or her true self.[62] Therefore, literary
devices reflect a character's and an author's natural self.[59] In his "Third Force
Psychology and the Study of Literature", Paris argues "D.H. Lawrence's 'pristine
unconscious' is a metaphor for the real self".[63] Thus Literature is a reputable
tool that allows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to the nature of
emotions.

History
A significant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the
genre known as creative nonfiction, as can a great deal of journalism, such as
literary journalism. However, these areas have become extremely large, and often
have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate
information. As a result, the writing in these fields often lacks a literary
quality, although it often(and in its better moments)has that quality. Major
"literary" historians include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom
count as canonical literary figures.

Law
Law offers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato and Aristotle, the law tables of
Hammurabi of Babylon, or even the early parts of the Bible could be seen as legal
literature. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis during the
reign of Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire has a reputation as significant
literature. The founding documents of many countries, including Constitutions and
Law Codes, can count as literature.

Other narrative forms

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of works that originate in
digital environments.
Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved out a niche which often
parallels the functionality of prose fiction.
Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of sequential
artwork, dialogue and text.
Genres of literature
Literary genre is a mode of categorizing literature. The term originates from
French, designating a proposed type or class.[64] However, such classes are subject
to change, and have been used in different ways in different periods and
traditions.

Literary techniques
Main article: list of narrative techniques
A literary technique or literary device can be used by authors in order to enhance
the written framework of a piece of literature, and produce specific effects.
Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches to crafting a work:
whether a work is narrated in first-person or from another perspective, whether to
use a traditional linear narrative or a nonlinear narrative, or the choice of
literary genre, are all examples of literary technique. They may indicate to a
reader that there is a familiar structure and presentation to a work, such as a
conventional murder-mystery novel; or, the author may choose to experiment with
their technique to surprise the reader.

In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was
the case with one of the first modern novels, Pamela by Samuel Richardson. Pamela
is written as a collection of letter-writing correspondence, called "epistolary
technique"; by using this technique, Pamela strengthened the tradition of the
epistolary novel, a genre which had been practiced for some time already but
without the same acclaim.

Literary technique is distinguished from literary device, as military strategy is

distinguished from military tactics. Devices are specific constructions within the
narrative that make it effective. Examples include metaphor, simile, ellipsis,
narrative motifs, and allegory. Even simple word play functions as a literary
device. The narrative mode may be considered a literary device, such as the use of
stream-of-consciousness narrative.

Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and,

in some cases, it is used to improve a work in progress or a classical piece, as
with an ongoing theater production. Literary editors can serve a similar purpose
for the authors with whom they work. There are many types of literary criticism and
each can be used to critique a piece in a different way or critique a different
aspect of a piece.

Legal status
[icon]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2014)
United Kingdom
Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction
since at least 1710.[65] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean any
work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and
accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a
computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a
database.

Literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works
expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).[66]

See also

Book: Literature
Literature portal
icon Writing portal
Main articles: Outline of literature and Index of literature articles
Philosophy and literature
Lists
List of authors
List of books
List of literary magazines
List of literary terms
List of women writers
List of writers
Related topics
Asemic writing
Children's literature
Cultural movement for literary movements.
English studies
Ergodic literature
Erotic literature
Hinman collator
Hungryalism
Literature basic topics
Literary agent
Literature cycle
Literary element
Literary magazine
Modern Language Association
Orature
Postcolonial literature
Postmodern literature
Popular fiction
Rabbinic literature
Rhetorical modes
Vernacular literature
World literature
Notes
This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as the prose poem[13]
and prosimetrum,[14] and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.
[15] Abram Lipsky refers to it as an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished
from poetry by lack of rhythm".[16]
However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the
award was given.