Size Reduction Unit - II

Mechanical operations - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
SIZE REDUCTION or COMMINUTION
 Particles of solids are cut or broken into smaller pieces
 In process industries, solids are reduced by different
methods for different purposes
 Examples:
-Chunks of crude ore are crushed to workable size
-Synthetic chemicals are ground into powder
- Sheets of plastic are cut into tiny cubes or diamonds
 Commercial products must often meet stringent
specifications regarding the size and sometimes the shape
of the particles they contain
 The importance of reducing the particle size ;
(a) Increases the reactivity of solids
(b) Permits separation of unwanted ingredients by
mechanical methods
(c) Reduces the bulk of fibrous materials for easier
handling and for waste disposal
Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran
Advantages of size reduction
 Content uniformity
 Uniform flow
 Effective drying
 Increases surface area or viscosity
 Uniform mixing and drying
 Improve rate of absorption . Smaller the particles
greater is absorption.
 Improve dissolution rate.
Disadvantages of size reduction

 Drug degradation
 Contamination
 Size of solids may be reduced in many different ways, but
only 4 are commonly used in size-reduction machines:
(1) Compression -is used for coarse reduction of hard
solids, to give relatively few fines
(2) Impact (crash) - gives coarse, medium or fine
products
(3) Attrition (wear)
/rubbing - yields very fine products from soft,
nonabrasive materials
(4) Cutting -gives a definite particle size and sometimes
a definite shape, with few or no fines

Mechanism of size reduction
 Impact —particle concussion by a single rigid force
(hammer).
 Compression—particle disintegration by two rigid
forces (nutcracker).
 Shear —produced when the particle is compressed
between the edges of two hard surfaces moving
tangentially.
 Attrition —arising from particles scraping against
one another or against a rigid surface (a file).

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMINUTED PRODUCTS
 Objective of crushing & grinding-to produce small
particles from larger ones
 Smaller particles are desired because of:
-their large surface
-their shape, size and number
 One measure of the efficiency of the operation is
based on the energy required to create new surface,
since the surface area of a unit mass of particles
increases greatly as the particle size is reduced
 Unlike an ideal crusher or grinder-an actual unit does
not yield a uniform product, whether the feed is
uniformly sized or not
 The product always consists of a mixture of particles
(from maximum size-very small particles)
 Some machines especially in the grinder class, are
designed to control the magnitude of the largest
particles in their products, but the fine sizes are not
under control
 In some types of grinders, fines are minimized, but
they are not eliminated
 If the feed is homogenous, both in the shapes of the
particles and in chemical and physical structure, then
the shapes of the individual units in the product may
be quite uniform; otherwise, the grains in the various
sizes of a single product may differ considerably in
shape

crusher
Grinder

 The ratio of the diameters of the largest and smallest
particles in a comminuted product is on the order of
ˆ
 Because of this extreme variation in the sizes of the
individual particles, relationships adequate for
uniform sizes must be modified when applied to such
mixture
 Unless they are smoothed by abrasion after crushing,
comminuted particles resemble polyhedrons with
nearly plane faces and sharp edges corners
 The particles may be compact with length, breadth
and thickness nearly equal; or they may be plate like
or needlelike

Factors affecting size reduction
 Hardness
 Material structure
 Abrasiveness
 Softening temperature
 Moisture content
 Crushing strength
 Friability
 Stickiness
 Soapiness
 Explosive
 Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health
Energy and Power Requirement
 The cost of power is a major expense in crushing and
grinding
 During size reduction, the particles of feed material are
first distorted and strained
 The work necessary to strain them is stored temporarily in
the solid as mechanical energy of stress, just as mechanical
energy can be stored in a coiled spring
 As additional force is applied to the stressed particles, they
are distorted beyond their ultimate strength and suddenly
rupture into fragments
 New surface is generated
 Since a unit area of solid has a definite amount of surface
energy, the creation of new surface requires work, which is
supplied by the release of energy of stress when the particle
breaks
 By conservation of energy, all energy of stress in excess of
the new surface energy created must appear as heat
EFFICIENCEY
 Size reduction is one of the least energy efficient of all the
unit operations.
 Laboratory studies of crushing have shown that less than 1
percent of the energy delivered to the solids is used to
create new surface; the rest is dissipated as heat.
 In operating machines energy must also be supplied to
overcome friction in the bearings and other moving parts.
 The mechanical efficiency, the ratio of the energy delivered
to the solids to the total energy input to the machine,
ranges from 25 to 60 percent.
 η=surface energy created/energy absorbed by material
=es(Awb-Awa)/Wn

Crushing Laws And Work Index
 The power requirement for crushing and grinding was proposed by Bond.
 Rittinger’s and Kick’s Law :
 The work required in crushing is proportional to the new surface created.
This is equivalent to the statement that the crushing efficiency is constant
and, for a giving machine and material, is independent of the sizes of feed
and product. The relationship between the diameter of the particles and
the energy required for grinding is expressed from the equation below:
𝐾 𝑝
d =− 𝑛
where K and n are constant.
𝑝
 For n = 2 and if the sphericities Фa (before size reduction) and Фb (after size
reduction) are equal and the machine efficiency is constant, the Rittinger’s
law can be written as
𝑃
=𝐾 −
ṁ
where P is the power required,
m is the feed rate to crusher,
Dsa is the average particle diameter before crushing,
Dsb is the average particle diameter after crushing,
and Kr is Rittinger’s coefficient
 Kick’s law: for n =1, the work required for crushing a given mass of material is
constant for the same reduction ratio, that is the ratio of the initial particle size to
the finial particle size
𝑃
=𝐾
ṁ
 where Kk is Kick’s coefficient.
 Bond’s Law: for n= 1.5. the work required to form particles of size Dp from very
large feed is proportional to the square root of the surface – to-volume ratio of the
product Sp/Vp
Kb – a constant that depends on the type of machine and on the material being
crushed
Work Index, Wi - defined as the gross energy requirement in kilowatt-hours per ton
(2000 lb) of feed needed to reduce a very large feed to such a size that 80% of the
product passes a 100µm screen

 If Dp in mm, P in kW, in ton/hr
 If 80% of feed passes a mesh size of Dpa mm and 80% of

the product a mesh of Dpb mm,
or
(English uni1t)
 The work index includes the friction in the crusher and

the power given by the above equation is gross power
What is the power required to crush 100 ton/hr of limestone if
80 percent of the feed passes a 2-in. screen and 80 percent of
the product a 1/8-in. screen?
 Solution: Given data: ṁ= 100 ton/hr,
Dpa=2 in. = 2×25.4=50.8 mm; Dpb=1/8 in. = 0.125×25.4=3.175
mm
 From 28.2 (above), the work index for limestone is 12.74.
other quantities for substitution into work index formulae.
 Power requirement,
P =100×0.3162× . /√ . - /√ .
P = 169.6kW(227hp)
 It is desired to crush 10 ton/h of iron ore hematite.
The size of the feed is such that 80% passes a 3-in
(76.2 mm) screen and 80% of the product is pass to
1/8-in (3.175-mm) screen. Calculate the gross power
required in English unit. Use a work index Wi for iron
hematite is 12.68.

 Calculate the power ratio to crush the coffee extract
from 38 mm to 17 mm and from 10 mm to 6 mm. Use
Rittinger’s law.
 From Rittinger’s Law:
𝑃
=𝐾 −
ṁ
 𝑃 = 𝐾r . - )
 𝑃 = 𝐾r . - )
𝑃 𝑃
 = 0.4875 or = 2.051
𝑃 𝑃

Equipment for Size Reduction
 Size reduction equipment is divided into:
- Crusher
- Grinder
- Ultrafine grinder
- Cutting machine

A. Crusher (coarse and fine)
1. Jaw crushers
2. Gyratory crushers
3. Crushing rolls
B. Grinders (intermediate and fine)
1. Hammer mills; impactors
2. Rolling-compression mills - a. Bowl mills ; b. Roller mills
3. Attrition mills
4. Tumbling mills - a. Rod mills ; b. Ball mills; pebble mills
c. tube mills; compartment mills
C. Ultrafine grinders
1. Hammer mills with internal classification
2. Fluid-energy mills
3. Agitated mills
D. Cutting machines
1. knife cutters; dicers; slitters
Crusher
 Do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid
material into small pieces
 A slow speed machines for coarse reduction of large
quantities of solids
 Primary crusher- breaking solids into 150-250mm size
 Secondary crusher- reduced the particle from primary
crusher to 6mm in size
 Reduce the solid size by compression
 Type of crusher- jaw crusher, gyratory crusher, smooth-
roll crusher and toothed-roll crusher
 Primary crushers are chiefly used in mining, cement
manufacture and similar large scale operations.
Grinder
 Reduce crushed feed to powder
 Product from a crusher is often fed to a grinder for
further reduction.
 The product from an intermediate grinder might pass
a 40-mesh screen.
 Most product from a fine grinder would pass a 200-
mesh screen with 74 μm opening.
 Reduce the solid size by impact and attrition,
sometimes combine with compression
 Types of commercial grinder – hammer mills and
impactors, rolling compression machine, attrition
mills and tumbling mills.

Ultrafine Grinder
 Mills that reduce solids to fine particles are called ultrafine
grinders.
 Accepts feed particles not larger than 6 mm.
 The product size is typically 1 to 50 μm.
 Reduce the solid size by attrition
 Many commercial powders must contain particles averaging 1 to
20 μm in size, substantially all particles passing a standard 325-
mesh screen that has opening 44 μm wide.
 Ultrafine grinding of dry powder is done by grinders, such as
high speed hammer mills, provided with external or internal
classification, and by fluid energy or jet mills.
 Ultrafine wet grinding is done in agitated mills.
 Types: Classifying hammer mills, fluid energy mills, agitated

mills and colloid mills.
Cutting machine
 Give particles of definite size and shape 2-10mm in
length
 Reduce the size by cutting, dicing and slitting
 Type:
-Granulators- yield more or less irregular pieces
-Cutters – produce cube, thin squares or diamonds.

Crushers
 Jaw and gyratory crushers are heavy equipments. In a jaw crusher, the
material is fed in between two heavy jaws, one fixed and the other
reciprocating, so as to work the material down into a narrower and
narrower space, crushing it as it goes.
 The gyrator crusher consists of a truncated conical casing, inside
which a crushing head rotates eccentrically. The crushing head is
shaped as an inverted cone and the material being crushed is trapped
between the outer fixed, and the inner gyrating cones, and it is again
forced into a narrower and narrower space during which time it is
crushed. Jaw and gyratory crusher actions are illustrated in Figure
1(a) and (b).
Fig. 1- Crushers: (a) jaw, (b) gyratory

 Crushing rolls consist of two horizontal heavy
cylinders, mounted parallel to each other and close
together.
 They rotate in opposite directions and the material
to be crushed is trapped and nipped between them
being crushed as it passes through.
 In some case, the rolls are both driven at the same
speed.
 In other cases, they may be driven at differential
speeds, or only one roll is driven.
 A major application is in the cane sugar industry,
where several stages of rolls are used to crush the
cane.
Equipment's based on the mechanism of
Impact
 1. Hammer mills: In a hammer mill, swinging hammerheads are attached to
a rotor that rotates at high speed inside a hardened casing. The principle is
illustrated in Figure 2(a).
 The hammer mill consists of a steel casing in which a central shaft is enclosed
to which a number of swinging hammers are attached. When the shaft is
rotated the hammers swing out to a radial position. On the lower part of the
casing a screen of desired size is fitted which can be easily replaced according
to the particle size required.
 The material is crushed and pulverized between the hammers and the casing
and remains in the mill until it is fine enough to pass through a screen which
forms the bottom of the casing.
 Both brittle and fibrous materials can be handled in hammer mills, though
with fibrous material, projecting sections on the casing may be used to give a
cutting action.
 The hammer mills are available in various designs and shapes. In
pharmaceutical industry they are used for grinding dry materials, wet filter
cakes, ointments and slurries.
 The hammer mill is capable of producing intermediate grades
of powder from almost any substance, apart from sticky
materials that choke the screen.
 Applications include the powdering of barks, leaves, roots,
crystals and filter cakes.
 With cutting edges to the hammers, the method has proved to
be especially useful for granulation, the damp masses being cut
to granules by the hammers when they are found to produce
greater uniformity than is obtained by sieve granulation.
Figure 2 -Grinders: (a) hammer mill,

(b) plate mill
Advantages
 It is rapid in action, and is capable of grinding many different types of
materials.
 They are easy to install and operate, the operation is continuous.
 There is little contamination of the product with metal abraded from
the mill as no surface move against each other.
 The particle size of the material to be reduced can be easily controlled
by changing the speed of the rotor, hammer type, shape and size of the
screen
Disadvantages
 The high speed of operation causes generation of heat that may affect
thermo labile materials or drugs containing gum, fat or resin. The mill
may be water-cooled to reduce this heat damage.
 The rate of feed must be controlled carefully as the mill may be
choked, resulting in decreased efficiency or even damage.
 Because of the high speed of operation, the hammer mill is susceptible
to damage by foreign objects such as stones or metal in the feed.
Magnets may be used to remove iron, but the feed must be checked
visually for any other contamination.
2. Plate mills:
 In plate mills the material is fed between two circular plates,
one of them fixed and the other rotating.
 The feed comes in near the axis of rotation and is sheared and
crushed as it makes its way to the edge of the plates; see Figure
2(b).
 The plates can be mounted horizontally as in the traditional
Buhr stone used for grinding corn, which has a fluted surface
on the plates.
 The plates can be mounted vertically also. Developments of the
plate mill have led to the colloid mill, which uses very fine
clearances and very high speeds to produce particles of
colloidal dimensions.
 Equipment based on the mechanism of Attrition: Size
reduction by attrition can be effected in the laboratory by using
pestle and mortar or, if a small-scale mechanical method is
required, the roller mill can be used.
3. Roller mills:
 Roller mills are similar to roller crushers, but they have smooth
or finely fluted rolls, and rotate at differential speeds.
 They are used very widely to grind flour. Because of their simple
geometry, the maximum size of the particle that can pass
between the rolls can be regulated.
 If the friction coefficient between the rolls and the feed material
is known, the largest particle that will be nipped between the
rolls can be calculated, knowing the geometry of the particles.
 The roller mills use the principles of attrition for the size
reduction of solids in suspensions, pastes, or ointments. Two or
three rolls, usually in metal or in porcelain, are mounted
horizontally with a very small, but adjustable, gap between.
 The rolls rotate at different speeds, so that the material is
sheared as it passes through the gap and is transferred from the
slower to the faster roll, from which it is removed by means of a
scraper.
 The method is very effective for size reducing and dispersing
solids in semi-solid media.
Triple Roller mill:
 Various types of roller mills consisting of one or more rollers
are commonly used but triple roller mill is preferred. It is fitted
with three rollers that are composed of a hard abrasion-
resistant material.
 They are fitted in such a way that they come in close contact
with each other and rotate at different speeds.
 The material that come, in-between the rollers is crushed and
reduced in particle size. The reduction in particle size depends
on the gap between the rollers and difference in their speeds.
 In figure 3, the material is allowed to pass through hopper A,
in-between the rollers B and C where it is reduced in size. Then
the material is passed between the rollers C and D where it is
further reduced in size and a smooth mixture is obtained.
 The gap between rollers C and D is usually less than the gap
between B and C, after passing the material between rollers C
and D the smoothened material is continuously removed from
roller D by means of scraper E, from where it is collected in a
receiver.
 On large scale, mechanical ointment roller mills are used
to obtain an ointment of smooth and uniform texture.
 The performed coarse ointments are forced to pass through
moving stainless steel rollers where it is reduced in particle
size and a smooth product which is uniform in composition
and texture is obtained. For small scale work, small
ointment mills are available.
Figure 3 -Triple-Roller mill
Angle of nip, Cos α = (r+d)/(r+R)

R – Radius of feed; r – Radius of roll; d – Half the minimum distance between
the rolls.
Equipments based on the Combined Impact and
Attrition:
 The mechanisms of impact and attrition can be combined in
two forms of mill.
 In the ball mill the particles receive impacts from balls or
pebbles and are subjected to attrition as the balls slide over
each other.
 In fluid energy mills the impacts and attrition occur between
rapidly moving particles.
 1.Colloid mill:
 Colloid mill works on the principle of shearing. The colloid
mill is useful for milling, dispersing, homogenizing and
breaking down of agglomerates in the manufacture of food
pastes, emulsions, coatings, ointments, creams, pulps, grease
etc.
 The main function of the colloid mill is to ensure a
breakdown of agglomerates or in the case of emulsions to
produce droplets of fine size around 1 micron.
 The material to be processed is
fed by gravity to the hopper or
pumped so as to pass between the
rotor and stator elements where it
is subjected to high shearing and
hydraulic forces as illustrated in
figure 4.
 Material is discharged through a
hopper whereby it can be
recirculated for a second pass. For
materials having higher solid and
fibre contents conical grooved
discs are preferred. Cooling and
heating jacket arrangements are
provided as a standard feature on
both these mills.
Figure 4 - Colloidal mill
 Rotational speed of the rotor varies from 3,000-20,000 r.p.m. with the
spacing between the rotor and stator capable of very fine adjustment
varying from 0.001 inch to 0.005 inch depending on the size of the
equipment. Colloid mills require a flooded feed, the liquid being
forced through the narrow clearance by centrifugal action and taking
a spiral path.
 In these mills almost all the energy supplied is converted to heat and
the shear forces can unduly increase the temperature of the product.
Hence most colloid mills are fitted with water jackets and it is also
necessary to cool the material before and after passing through the
mill.
Advantages
 Extremely fine particle distribution through optimal shear force.
 High capacity with minimal space requirements
 Rapid handling and easy cleaning
 Virtually unlimited application due to highly flexible homogenization
system Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran
2. Ball mill:
 Ball mill is a type of crusher, is a cylindrical
device (figure 5-a) used to grind (or mix)
materials like ores, chemicals, ceramics
and paints. Ball mills rotate around a
horizontal axis, partially filled with the
material to be ground plus the grinding
medium.
 Different materials are used for media
(figure 5-b), including ceramic balls, flint
pebbles and stainless steel balls.
 An internal cascading effect reduces the
material to a fine powder. Industrial ball
mills can operate continuously fed at one
end and discharged at the other.
 Large to medium ball mills are
mechanically rotated on their axis, but
small ones normally consist of a cylindrical
capped container that sits on two drive
shafts (pulleys and belts are used to
transmit rotary motion).
 A rock tumbler functions on the same
principle. High quality ball mills are
potentially expensive and can grind
mixture particles to as small as 0.0001 mm,
enormously increasing surface area and
reaction rates.
 The material to be ground is added so that it is slightly more than fills the
voids between the pellets. The shell is rotated at a speed which will cause
the pellets to cascade, thus reducing particle sizes by impact. It has been
proposed that in the plastics industry the term ball mill be reserved for
metallic grinding media, and the term pebble mill for non-metallic grinding
media.
 There are many types of grinding media suitable for use in a ball mill, each
material having its own specific properties and advantages. Common in
some applications are stainless steel balls. While usually very effective due to
their high density and low contamination of the material being processed,
stainless steel balls are unsuitable for some applications, including:
 Black powder and other flammable materials require non-sparking lead
antimony, brass, or bronze grinding media
 Contamination by iron of sensitive substances such as ceramic raw
materials. In this application ceramic or flint grinding media is used.
Ceramic media are also very resistant to corrosive materials.
 Ball mills are very effective for grinding smooth, aqueous or oily dispersions
by wet grinding since it will give particles of 10 microns or less.
Critical speed of ball mill
 The faster the mills are rotated the further the balls are carried
up inside the mill and the greater the power consumption and
capacity of the mill.
 If the speed is too high, however the balls are carried over and
the mill is said to be centrifuging. The speed at which
centrifuging occurs is called the critical speed.
 From balance of between gravitational and centrifugal force,
Critical Speed nc, may be found as,
𝑔 = / 𝑅−
𝑔 = 4𝜋 𝑅 − / 𝑅−
2 = 1/4𝜋2 × 𝑔/(𝑅−𝑟)
nc= = 1/ 2𝜋 × √ 𝑔/(𝑅−𝑟)
 EFFICIENCY = ( − )/ × 100% [where, x= amt. of material
before grinding; y= amt. of material after grinding]
Advantages:
 1. Ball mill is capable of grinding a wide variety of materials of
differing character and of different degrees of hardness.
 2. It can be used in a completely enclosed form, which makes it
especially suitable for use with toxic materials.
 3. It can produce very fine powders.
 4. It can be used for continuous operation, and a classifier can
be used in conjunction with the mill, so that particles of
suitable size are removed while oversize particles are returned.
 5. It is equally suitable for wet or dry grinding processes.
Disadvantages
 1. Wear occurs, principally from the balls, but partially from the
casing and this may result in the product being contaminated,
with abrasive materials this may exceed 0.1 percent, but even
ordinary substances may be contaminated with 0.03 percent
metal after grinding.
 2. In some cases, this may not be significant, but in others it
may be of great importance.
 3. Soft or sticky materials may cause problems by caking on the
sides of the mill or by holding the balls in aggregates.
 4. The ball mill is very noisy machine, particularly if the casing
is of metal, but much less so if rubber is used.
 5. Relatively long time of operation.

3. Fluid energy mill:
 It consists of a loop of a pipe, which has a
diameter of 20 to 200 mm, depending on the
overall height of the loop which may be up to
about 2 meters, a fluid, usually air, is injected
at high pressure through nozzles at the
bottom of the loop, giving rise to a high
velocity circulation in a very turbulent
condition, as shown in Figure .
 Solids are introduced into the stream and, as a
result of the high degree of turbulence,
impact and attritional forces occur between
the particles. A classifier is incorporated in
the system, so that particles are retained until
sufficiently fine.
 The feed to the mill needs to be pre-treated to
reduce the particles size to the order of 100
mesh, enabling the process to yield a product
as small as 5 micrometers or less. Despite this,
mills are available which are capable of
outputs up to 4 mg per hour.
Advantages:
 1. The particle size of the product is smaller than that produced
by any other method of size reduction.
 2. Expansion of gases at the nozzles leads to cooling,
counteracting the usual frictional heat which can affect heat-
sensitive materials.
 3. Since the size reduction is by inter-particulate attrition there
is little or no abrasion of the mill and so virtually no
contamination of the product.
 4. For special cases with very sensitive materials it is possible to
use inert gases.
 5. Having a classifier as an integral part of the system permits
close control of particle size and of particle size distribution.
Factors influencing choice of Size Reduction machinery
 1. Nature of the raw material
 2. Nature of the product;
 3. Degree of comminution required
 4. Heat generation from the material for size reduction
Open circuit operation: In many mills the feed is broken into

particles of satisfactory size by passing it once through the mill.
When no attempt is made to return oversize particles to the
machine for further reduction.
Closed circuit operation: is the term applied to the action of a

mill and separator connected so that the oversize particles are
returned to the mill.

Principle of size enlargement
 Size enlargement is any process whereby small particles are
gathered into larger, relatively permanent masses in which the
original particles can still be distinguished. The term encompasses a
variety of unit-operations or processing techniques dedicated to
particle agglomeration.
 Reasons include: reduce dusts ; increase bulk density ; to improve
mixing, prevent segregation ; control surface to volume ratio
 Methods include: Granulation ; Compaction/tabletting ; Extrusion
 Agglomeration is the formation of aggregates through the sticking
together of feed and/or recycle material. These processes can be
loosely broken down into agitation and compression methods.
 Although terminology is industry specific, agglomeration by
agitation will be referred to as granulation. Here, a particulate feed
is introduced to a process vessel and is agglomerated, either batch
wise and continuously, to form a granulated product.
 Agitative processes include fluid-bed, pan (or disc), drum,
and mixer granulators. The feed typically consists of a
mixture of solid ingredients, referred to as a formulation,
which includes an active or key ingredient, binders, diluents,
flow aids, surfactants, wetting agents, lubricants, fillers, or end-
use aids (e.g., sintering aids, colors or dyes, taste modifiers).
 The agglomeration can be induced in several ways. A solvent or
slurry can be atomized onto the bed of particles which either
coats the particle or granule surfaces promoting agglomeration,
or the spray drops can form small nuclei in the case of a powder
feed which subsequently can agglomerate.
 The solvent or slurry may contain a binder, or solid binder may
be present as one component of the feed. Alternatively, the
solvent may induce dissolution and recrystallization in the case
of soluble particles. Slurries often contain the same particulate
matter as the dry feed, and granules may be formed, either
completely or partially, as the droplets solidify in flight prior to
reaching the particle bed.
 Spray-drying is an extreme case with no further, intended
agglomeration taking place after granule formation.
Agglomeration may also be induced by heat, which either leads
to controlled sintering of the particle bed or induces sintering
or partial melting of a binder component of the feed, e.g., a
polymer.
 An alternative approach to size enlargement is by compression
agglomeration, where the mixture of particulate matter is fed
to a compression device which promotes agglomeration due to
pressure. Either continuous sheets of solid material are
produced or some solid form such as a briquette or tablet.
 Heat or cooling may be applied, and reaction may be induced as
for example with sintering. Carrier fluids may be present, either
added or induced by melting, in which case the product is wet
extruded.
 Continuous compaction processes include roll presses,
briquetting machines, and extrusion, whereas batch-like
processes include tableting. Some processes operate in a semi
continuous fashion, such as ram extrusion.
 At the level of a manufacturing plant, the size- enlargement
process involves several peripheral, unit operations such as
milling, blending, drying or cooling, and classification, referred
to generically as an agglomeration circuit. In addition, more
than one agglomeration step may be present as in the case of a
pharmaceutical process which often involves both an agitative-
granulation technique followed by the compressive technique
of tableting.

Granulation

The classification of manufacturing methods
wet granulation: suitable for materials that are stable to

granulation moisture and heat
dry granulation: suitable for materials that are sensitive to
moisture and heat
powder compression : suitable for materials that are
sensitive to moisture and heat, fill material possessing, good
direct flow ability and compressibility
compression
crystal compression：suitable for materials with proper
crystal form and good flow ability

wet granulation
drug adhesive
sieving prilling
excipients
lubricant
processing press
dry mix
granule
Mechanical operations - Dr. K.

Dhanasekaran
dry granulation
adhesive
drug
press processing
smash sieving mix smash
cake granule
excipient
mix press

powder compression
adhesive
drugs
mix press
smash sieving mix
excipients

 crystal compression
drugs adhesive
smash sieving
mix mix press
excipients

Compressed tablet manufacture wet granulation
 The steps of wet granulation
weighing and blending the ingredients(disintegrant)
(liquid binder)
preparing a damp mass
Internal
screening the damp mass into pellets or granules
drying the granulation
sizing the granulation by dry screening External
adding lubricant and disintegrant, and blending
tableting by compression

Briquetting process
Piston Press
 The piston press consists of a reciprocating piston that forces
the raw material falling from the feed hopper into a tapered die.
 There are two types of piston press: the die and punch
technology; and the hydraulic press.
 Hydraulic press process consists of first compacting the
biomass in the vertical direction and then again in the
horizontal direction. The material is pushed by a piston press
against the frictional force caused by die taper and is heated to
150-200°C during the process.
 The piston presses are normally provided with a relatively long
channel, which serves to maintain the shape of the briquettes
while they undergoing cooling after emerging from the die.
Screw Press
 The screw presses work on the principle of the unit operation
referred to as extrusion, which is commonly used with
processing of polymer materials.
 During this process, the raw material particles move from the
feed port with the help of a rotating screw, through the barrel
and against a die, resulting in significant pressure gradient and
friction due to biomass shearing.
 The temperature in the system is increased as the heat is
generated due to combined effects friction.
 Finally, the heated biomass is forced through the extrusion die
to form the briquettes or pellets with the required shape.
 If the die is tapered, the biomass is further compacted
 If the heat generated within the system is not sufficient for
smooth extrusion, heat is provided from outside either using
band or tape heaters.
Pelletization Overview
 Pelletization is a process which is closely related to the
briquetting processes.
 The main difference is that the dies have smaller diameters
(usually up to about 3 cm). A pellet press is composed of a die
and generally of two or three rollers.
 The die is arranged as holes bored in a thick steel disk or ring.
 Loose milled material is fed into the pelletizing cavity.
 The rotation of the die and roller pressure forces material
through the die holes. The raw material is frictionally heated.
 The densified material emerges from the die as strands of
uniform section and cut with knives into the desired length.
 Pellets are cut off when coming out from the die or they can be
cut with adjustable knives to a desired length.
 Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran
FLOCCULATION
 Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from
submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles. Microfloc
particles collide, causing them to bond to produce larger, visible
flocs called pinflocs.
 Floc size continues to build with additional collisions and interaction
with added inorganic polymers (coagulant) or organic polymers.
Macroflocs are formed and high molecular weight polymers, called
coagulant aids, may be added to help bridge, bind, and strengthen
the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate.
 Once floc has reached it optimum size and strength, water is ready
for sedimentation. Design contact times for flocculation range from
15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more, and flocculation requires
careful attention to the mixing velocity and amount of mix energy.
 To prevent floc from tearing apart or shearing, the mixing velocity
and energy are usually tapered off as the size of floc increases. Once
flocs are torn apart, it is difficult to get them to reform to their
optimum size and strength. The amount of operator control available
in flocculation is highly dependent upon the type and design of the
equipment.
COAGULATION
Rapid Mix
Adequate Contact
FLOCCULATION
Slow Mixing
Increase Floc Size
FLOCCULATION TANK
Impeller
Overflow
Feed
Thank You

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Disadvantages of size reduction

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

 If 80% of feed passes a mesh size of Dpa mm and 80% of

 The work index includes the friction in the crusher and

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

 Types: Classifying hammer mills, fluid energy mills, agitated

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Fig. 1- Crushers: (a) jaw, (b) gyratory

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Figure 2 -Grinders: (a) hammer mill,

Figure 3 -Triple-Roller mill

Angle of nip, Cos α = (r+d)/(r+R)

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Open circuit operation: In many mills the feed is broken into

Closed circuit operation: is the term applied to the action of a

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

wet granulation: suitable for materials that are stable to

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K.

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

mix mix press

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

drying the granulation

sizing the granulation by dry screening External

adding lubricant and disintegrant, and blending

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

Mechanical operations - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran

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