1

Introduction
Pipe is a hollow or tubular section but not necessarily of circular section which can be
any shape used to convey flowable substances from one location to other location. Pipes are
classified in to two types depending on the materials used

i. Rigid pipes
ii. Flexible pipes

Rigid pipes has significant inherent strength to support loads without aid from the backfill. Ex.
Precast concrete pipes, cast iron pipes. Flexible pipes has obtained its ability to support loads
from supporting side fill soil adjacent to its sides. Ex. Steel pipes, aluminium, ductile iron pipes.

Pipes made up of rolled mild steel plates are mainly used on long pipelines with diameters
ranging from 450 mm to 3000 mm and larger in size. Cast iron and ductile iron pipes are
generally used for diameter up to and less than 450 mm.

The steel pipeline can be laid underground or laid above ground supported at intervals on chairs
made up of reinforced cement concrete or steel. They are also laid with ring girders and stools
resting on reinforced cement concrete pedestals and footings. Laying of underground pipeline
is preferred when the alignment of pipeline is passing through developed area. These are mainly
laid under the existing roads with minimum over burden height equal to pipe diameter to avoid
damage to the pipeline and avoiding excessive external pressure

The life of a steel pipeline is greatly dependent on the quality of the protective coating. Steel
pipes have been found good condition even after 50 years though they have depreciated
materially within the initial span of 20 years.

Formerly the joints in steel pipes were made by riveting. During last 50 years riveting have
become out-dated and uncommon. The joints are now welded. They may be fabricated either
by transverse and longitudinal welding or transverse and spirally welded.

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2
Design criteria for Mild Steel Pipeline
After performing detailed study of the various manuals and codes which are available for the
design and selection of pipelines for water supply. It is understood that the main criteria in the
design of mild steel pipe is selection of pipe wall thickness (shell thickness). The wall thickness
of mild steel pipeline carrying water under pressure is affected by a number of factors which
are as follows.

i. Internal pressure:
 Static pressure.
 Surge or water hammer pressure.
ii. External pressure:
 Load due to earthfill. (for underground pipes)
 Live load above the trench.
 Collapse pressure on account of vacuum.
iii. Method of laying and supporting system: pipeline may be laid either underground
or above ground. In case of underground pipeline shell thickness depends on
 Type of bedding.
 Nature and quality of backfill.
 Height of backfill over the top of pipe.
 Permissible deflection of pipe.
 Quality of compaction of backfill.

In case of pipeline laid above ground, shell thickness depends on

 Spacing between two consecutive supports.
 Angle of supports.
 Gradient of pipeline.
 Whether expansion joints are provided or otherwise.

2
 iv. Practical requirements:
 Thickness required from the point of handling and fabrication.
 Minimum thickness recommended by any national and international
standards. Thickness finally selected shall be that which meets the severe
requirement

2.1 Internal pressure: When designing for internal pressure, the minimum thickness of a
pipe should be selected to limit the circumferential tension stress to a certain level. This stress
is frequently termed as hoop stress. The internal pressure used in the design should be that to
which the pipe is actually subjected during its lifetime.

Pd
Shell thickness t = --- (2.1)
2f
Allowable tensile stress shall be related to the yield stress (Fy) of pipe material and not on the
basis of its ultimate tensile strength. A design stress equal to 60 % of the specified minimum
yield strength and further corrected for weld efficiency is often accepted for steel water
pipeline. As per AWWA manual a design stress equal to 50 percent of the specified minimum
yield strength is often accepted for steel water pipe. The stress of transitory surge pressures,
together with static pressure, may be taken at 75 percent of the yield point stress. Minimum
yield stress specified in I.S. 3589-2001 for welded pipes for water and sewage shall be adopted
as follows.
Table 2.1 Mechanical Properties at Room Temperature
Steel Grade Minimum Tensile Strength Minimum Yield Strength
(MPa) (MPa)
Fe-330 330 195
Fe-410 410 235
Fe-450 450 275

2.2 External Pressure: Pipe shell thickness must be able to resist external loading also.
Such loading may take the form of outside pressure either atmospheric or hydrostatic. Both of
which are uniform and radially acting collapse forces. When pipelines are installed above
ground, and the pipe is subject to vacuum, the wall thickness must be designed to withstand
collapse due to the vacuum. The buried pipe must resist earth pressure on account of fill load.

3
 2𝐸 𝑡 3
Collapse pressure Pe = ( ) --- (2.2)
(1−𝑚2 ) 𝑑

According to as per I.S. 5822-1970 the pipe selected shall also be strong enough to withstand
rd.
the effect of partial vacuum corresponding to 1/3 to the atmospheric pressure which may
occur within the pipe. Substituting Pe = 0.033 MPa

2 X 2.1 X 105 𝑡 3
0.0333 = ( )
(1−0.32 ) 𝑑

t = d / 240 --- (2.3)

Having selected the shell thickness required for resisting internal as well as external pressure
detail design may be done using higher value for method of laying proposed for the installation
of pipeline.

2.3 Practical requirements:

i. Minimum thickness recommended from handling and fabrication consideration by
I.S. 3589-1991 as follows
Table 2.2 Minimum specified thickness of pipe
Outside diameter (Do) of Minimum shell thickness Ratio d/t
pipe in mm in mm
168.3 to 406.6 4 40 to 100
Above 406.6 to 559.0 5 80 to 112
Above 559.0 to 914.0 6 93 to 152
Above 914.0 to 1219.0 7 130 to 144
Above 1219.0 to 1620.0 8 150 to 200
Above 1620.0 to 2032.0 10 160 to 200

ii. The minimum thickness recommended by American water works association

(AWWA) is given by the formula.

t = D / 288 (for diameter <1350 mm) --- (2.4)

t = (D + 500) / 400 (for diameter > 1350 mm) --- (2.5)

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3
Design of underground pipeline
Mild steel pipelines laid underground are invariable designed as flexible conduits. The
thickness of shell of such pipelines is dependent on elasto-plastic properties of pipe material
and those of surrounding soil. The thickness also depends on safe limits of vertical deflection
of the pipe shell in addition to the magnitude of external load on the pipe and the internal
pressure which the pipe has to withstand. The shell thickness is decided by the following
criteria.
i. The radial deflection of the pipe is within the safe specified limits under extreme
conditions of external loading when internal pressure is atmospheric or sub
atmospheric with or without the support of surrounding soil.
ii. The maximum compressive stress in the shell under loading conditions is well below
the level of permissible stress to avoid failure of pipe with adequate factor of safety.
iii. The maximum tensile stresses in the shell under maximum internal pressure and
minimum permanent external load is within the permissible limit with adequate
factor of safety
3.1 Permissible stresses
The permissible stress in the pipe shall be related to the yield stress (Fy) of pipe material
making due allowance for welded joints. Efficiency of weld joints is normally assumed as
90 % for shop welding and 80 % for field welding respectively.
i. Working stress for combined bending and direct compressive stress shall not
exceed 50 % of the yield stress making due allowance for weld efficiency.
ii. Working stress for combined bending and direct tensile stress shall not exceed
60 % of the yield stress making due allowance for weld efficiency.
iii. To ensure adequate factor of safety against failure by buckling, direct
compressive stress shall not exceed 30 % of the yield stress.

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3.2 Permissible deflection
The recommended values of permissible deflection, expressed as % of nominal
diameter of pipeline in water works practices are:

Table 3.1 Limits of Permissible deflection

Sr. No. Description Allowable deflection
Pipeline with cement mortar
1 lining from inside and cement Upto 2 % of diameter
sand gunniting from outside

Pipeline with cement mortar

2 lining from inside and flexible Upto 3 % of diameter
coating from outside
Pipeline with flexible lining
3 from inside and flexible Upto 5 % of diameter
coating from outside

3.3 External loads

Underground pipeline either lay in trench or under embankment is subjected to carry
any one or all the following external loads.
 Fill load
 Load due to traffic. It may be uniformly distributed or
concentrated type.
 Load due to water inside the pipeline.
 Self-weight of pipeline.
 Weight of internal lining.
 Weight of external out coating.
 Load of water surrounding the pipeline.
 External radial load due to partial vacuum.

Fill load: The load theory developed by Martson is widely used to calculate the vertical earth
load acting on top of buried pipes of most commonly encountered construction conditions. In
general, Martson theory states that the load on a buried pipe is equal to the weight of the prism

6
of soil located directly above the pipe to the level of the ground, referred to as the prism load,
plus the effects of shear forces along the edges of the prism. The prism load Wp is defined by

Wp = ϒ x H x Bc --- (3.1)

Load Determination by Martson theory:

The general form of Marston’s equation used to calculate the load, W, acting on a
buried pipe can be expressed as:
W = C x w x B2 --- (3.2)
C = dimensionless coefficient that takes into account the effect of:
(a) The ratio of the height of fill to the width of trench of pipe (H/B),
(b) The shearing forces acting along the edges of the prism, and
(c) The relative settlement between the prism and the adjacent soil for
embankment Installations.
Three types of situations are normally met during laying of buried pipelines.
1. Narrow trench condition
2. Embankment condition-positive projection condition
3. Embankment condition-negative projection condition

3.3.1 Narrow trench condition: Narrow trench is the trench having width equal to or
less than the two times the diameter of pipe. Trench condition is one where the pipe is installed
in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and then back-filled. Under vertical
load, a flexible metal pipe installed in a trench condition will deflect more than a well
compacted side fills leading to a proportional share of the total load between the pipe and the
side fills. The vertical' load, W, on a flexible pipe for trench condition is then expressed as

We = Cd x ϒs x Bc x Bd --- (3.3)

Where

H
1 (−2 X k X m X 𝑏 𝑑 )
Cd = (1 − 𝑒 )
2𝑋𝑘𝑋𝑚

1−sin 𝑥
K =
1+sin 𝑥

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 Fig. 3.1 Trench Installation Fig. 3.2 Positive Embankment Installation

3.3.2 Embankment installation (positive projection)

A positive projecting installation is one where the pipe is installed directly on
top of the natural ground and then Covered with embankment material. If the pipe is
buried in an embankment having positive projection condition the fill load on pipeline
is given by the following expression:
We = Cc x ϒs x Bc2 --- (3.4)
Cc is load coefficient expressed interms of following:
 Ratio of cover height to pipe diameter (H/Bc)
 Product of settlement ratio and projection ratio

3.3.3 Embankment installation (negative projection)

A negative projecting installation is one where the pipe is installed in a relatively
narrow and shallow trench with its top below the natural ground, and then covered with
the embankment material. If the pipe is buried in an embankment having negative
projection condition the fill load on pipeline is given by the following expression.

We = Cc x ϒs x Bd2 --- (3.5)

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 Fig. 3.3 Negative Embankment Installation

3.4 Deflection: Splanger has developed expression for deflection and bending
moments in elastic ring subjected to vertical load. The deflection Dx in elastic ring
subjected to vertical load is

Dx = Dl x KƟ x We x R3 / EI --- (3.6)

Where
I = t3 / 12
In addition to vertical load We if ring is subjected to radial pressure due vacuum of
intensity Pe then Dx is given by the following expression

DI x KƟ x We1 x R⌃3
Dx1 = --- (3.7)
E x I −2 Pe x R⌃3 x KƟ
The bending moment at bottom and top in the ring is given by the following
expression.
Mb = Kb x We x R --- (3.8)
Mt = Kt x We x R --- (3.9)

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Table 3.2 Coefficient of bending moment and deflection of elastic ring under uniformly
distributed load
Kb Kt Ks KƟ
Load Spread “Ɵ” Angle coefficient coefficient coefficient coefficient
(in degrees) of spread for bottom for top for side for verticle
bending bending bending deflection
0 0.318 0.318 0.182 0.137
30 0.259 0.318 0.180 0.135
0 degree line 60 0.213 0.312 0.175 0.130
load 90 0.182 0.302 0.168 0.122
120 0.162 0.299 0.161 0.116
150 0.153 0.295 0.156 0.111
180 0.150 0.294 0.153 0.110

0 0.294 0.150 0.153 0.110

30 0.235 0.148 0.152 0.108
180 degree 60 0.180 0.143 0.147 0.103
uniformly 90 0.157 0.137 0.140 0.096
spread load 120 0.138 0.131 0.133 0.089
150 0.128 0.126 0.127 0.085
180 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.083

In installations where pipeline is laid in trenches and backfilling is done without proper
control on compaction, the extent of side support available is uncertain. Such installations are
designed in accordance with above expressions. The installations where backfilling is done
taking due care to build up backfilling in layers and compacted. The fill on the sides of the
pipeline offers adequate support mobilizing passive resistance of soil pressure as the pipeline
undergoes deformation and thus increase its load carrying capacity. The distribution of these
pressures is parabolic over an arc of 100 degree as shown in fig.3.4 with the magnitude of
maximum pressure at center is equal to half the product of modulus of passive pressure of fill
and Dx

Pe = e x Dx / 2 --- (3.10)

The deflection of such installation can be worked out from the modified Spangler’s equation
as given below
Case (i) External Load with side support

Dl x KƟ x We x R ⌃3
Δx1 = --- (3.11)
E x I +0.0061 x e′ x R⌃3

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 Where
e’ = exR

Fig.3.4 Deflection of flexible pipe under loading condition.

Case (ii) External Load & vacuum pressure with side support

Dl x KƟ x We1 x R ⌃3
Δx2 = --- (3.12)
E x I +0.0061 x e′ x R⌃3−2 x Pe x KƟ x R⌃3

Case (iii) External Load & internal Pressure with side support

Dl x KƟ x We2 x R ⌃3
Δx3 = --- (3.13)
E x I +0.0061 x e′ x R⌃3+2 x Pi x KƟ x R⌃3
Various studies conducted by researchers in the field, using granular material for backfill
indicate that values of e’ depending upon the compaction of fill.

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3.4.1 Deflection control of underground pipeline:
Mild steel pipelines are basically flexible in nature and undergo deformation due to
external load which exceed permissible limit. Excessive deflection damages protective lining
and coating provided from inside and outside respectively of the pipe to avoid corrosion of the
pipe shell.

3.4.2 Methods to control deflection: Instead of providing more thickness to control the
deflection. Deflection control methods may prove to be economical. Various methods are
available to minimize the deflection or bring down the magnitude of deflection to the desired
permissible level.
i. To improve the angle of bedding.
ii. To increase the shell thickness of pipe.
iii. To reduce the fill load by providing absolutely minimum over burden over the
top of pipe as possible to protect the pipe.
iv. To improve the moment of inertia of pipe shell by providing rings or channel
stiffeners at regular interval.
v. To improve the modulus of elasticity of surrounding soil or backfill material in
the trench by selecting proper material.
vi. To improve degree of compaction of soil by mechanical or chemical means.
vii. To lay the pipeline above ground if feasible which will avoid excavation and
fill load due to surrounding soil and reduce deflection.
viii. To encase the pipeline with cement concrete of adequate thickness all around
the pipe. This ultimately converts flexible pipe into rigid pipe and remains free
from excessive deflection.

Table 3.3 Values of e’ for different degree of compaction

Category Degree of compaction of Value of e’ in kg/ cm2
backfill in trench

Class I Untamped fill 10

Class II Normal Tamping (80% MP) 30
Class III Compacted to 85% MP 50
Class IV Compacted to 90% MP 70
Class V Compacted to 95% MP 100

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3.5 Compressive stress: The second important criteria of design of underground pipeline
is maximum compressive stress developed under combined effect of flexural stress due to
effect of vertical external load and direct hoop compressive stress due to external radial load
on account of vacuum is within permissible limits.

Bending moment in the shell due to external load and pressure can be evaluated for
different loading and side conditions.

Case (i) External load & vacuum pressure with no side support

Kb x We1 x R x E x I
M1 = --- (3.14)
E x I−2 x Pe x KƟ x R⌃3

Case (ii) External Load & vacuum pressure with side support

Kb x We1 x R x E x I
M2 = --- (3.15)
E x I−2 x Pe x KƟ x R⌃3+0.061 x e′ x 𝑅⌃3

Knowing the bending in the shell it is possible to obtain flexural stress & direct compressive
by the following formula.

fb1 = 6 x M1 / t2 --- (3.16)

fb2 = 6 x M2 / t2 --- (3.17)
Hoop compression fc = Pe x R / t --- (3.18)

Therefore Maximum compressive stress = Fc1 = fb1 + fc

Fc2 = fb2 + fc

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3.6 Tensile stress:

The third criteria of design of pipe shell are maximum tensile stress under
combined effect of minimum external load and maximum internal pressure.

Bending moment in the shell due to external load and internal pressure can be evaluated for
different loading and side conditions.

Case (iii) External load & internal pressure with side support

Kb x We2 x R x E x I
M3 = --- (3.19)
E x I + 2 x Pi x KƟ x R⌃3+0.061 x e′ x 𝑅⌃3

Knowing the bending in the shell it is possible to obtain flexural stress & direct compressive
stress by the following formula

ft1 = 6 x M3 / t2 --- (3.20)

Hoop tension ft = Pi x R / t --- (3.21)

Maximum tensile stress Ft1 = ft1 + ft --- (3.22)

3.7 Longitudinal stresses:

In pipe shell in addition to circumferential stress longitudinal stresses also develops.
These may be due to unbalanced forces acting at the deflection points or at the position of
valves and bending stresses resulting from non-uniform bedding in foundation.
The stresses resulting from irregularities in foundation and bedding and or movement
of soil are not amenable for exact quantitative assessment. Every effort is required to minimize
these stresses by careful preparation of bedding. Direct stresses developed at the bends and at
the line valves can be taken care by providing suitable thrust blocks and anchor blocks.

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3.8 Corrosion allowance and Lining:
Steel pipes need protection from inside (lining) and outside (coating). The internal
lining is to prevent corrosion and to produce and maintain smooth surface to enhance flow
capacity.
Underground pipelines are likely to get corroded from outside unless adequately
protected, the extent of corrosion depends on environment condition, corrosion nature of soil.

It is mentioned that providing mild steel flat or mild steel channels in the form of
circumferential stiffener as shown in Fig. 3.5 from outside the pipe at regular intervals is very
effective and economical

Fig 3.5 various types of circumferential stiffeners

Stiffeners when provided can resist the pipe shell from buckling as well as the load carrying
capacity of cylindrical shell is increased and is inversely proportional to the spacing of
stiffeners. The practical spacing of rings, based on Morley’s approach duly corrected for
imperfection in the material and shape of pipe, is given by the expression.

s 2𝐸 𝑡
=( ) ( ) ⌃2.5 --- (3.23)
𝐷 𝑊 𝐷
According to the Morley’s analogy collapse load would be inversely proportional to ring
spacing and their relation between bending stress and spacing of stiffener ring is given by the
expression

s fl t 1.5 e′ p
= x( ) x ( 1 + 0.091 ( ) + 0.325 x ) --- (3.24)
𝐷 W D 𝐸 E

Where fl is net stress equal to maximum stress due to external load minus hoop stress
due to internal pressure in Eq. (27) + 0.325 P/E term will be negative if vapour pressure exist.

15
 The stiffener ring designed on the assumption that the ring and the shell act
independently in resisting bending and total moment per ring spacing is.

(0.117 x Pe x D 2 x s)
M = D3 D3
--- (3.25)
1+ 0.0076 (e′ x EI )+0.027 Pi x EI

Since this moment is resisted by ring and shell jointly, the above relation can be represented as

2 2
(0.117 x Pe x D 2 x s)
fl (t x s / 6 + y x h / 6) = D3 D3
--- (3.26)
1+ 0.0076 (e′ x )+0.027 Pi x
EI EI

D 3 e′ Pi
y x h2 = (0.7 x Pe x D2 x s)/(fl x (1 + ( 𝑡 ) ) x (0.091 E − (0.325 x E ))) − 𝑡 2 x s
--- (3.27)
From the above expression size of stiffener can be calculated assuming spacing of ring or vice
versa

3.9 Buckling: Pipe embedded in soil may collapse or buckle from elastic instability resulting
and deformations. The summation of external loads should be equal to or less than the
allowable buckling pressure. The allowable buckling pressure qa may be determined by the
following:

1
EI
(32 Rw x B′ x E′ x 3 ) 2
D
qa = --- (3.28)
FS

Design factor FS = 2.5 for h/d ≥ 2

= 3 for h/d < 2

Water buoyancy factor Rw = 1-0.33(hw / h), 0 ≤ hw ≤ h

1
B’ =
1+4𝑒 (−0.065𝐻)

16
4
Design of above ground pipeline
4.1 Design of above ground pipeline over saddle supports: The method of
supporting pipeline on saddle supports though uneconomical for large diameters but Find
wide application for pipelines up to 1200 mm. Pipeline supported on saddles can be grouped
under two heads depending upon the mode of construction i.e. 1. Unstiffened pipe 2. Stiffened
pipe with stiffener rings on either side of the support.

Fig. 4.1 Stiffened pipe over saddle support

In water installations both these methods of construction are used though unstiffened
pipes are more common. The shell in unstiffened mode of construction develop high stresses
at support in both longitudinal and circumferential direction near the tips and horns of the
saddles. These stresses are dependent on the magnitude of load or reaction at the saddle
support and the angle of support. The width of the saddle doesn’t influence these stresses. In
practice contact angle varies from 900 to 1200. The difficulties encountered with 1800 contact
angles has been eliminated by reducing the angles to 1200. For equal load the stresses are less
for a large contact angle compared to smaller one.
The maximum value of localized stresses in pipe sitting uniformly on the saddle are
approximately given by the following formula.
fl = K x P / t2 x log e (R / t) --- (4.1)

Where
K = 0.02 – 0.00012 (β – 90).

17
 In addition to the above stress the shell also develops flexural stress “fb” due to
beam action and spanning across saddle supports ring stress “fr” due to internal pressure of
water. Thus total stress in the pipe will be

Total longitudinal stress “f1” = fl + fr + fb --- (4.2)

Where “fr” is equal to 25 % of maximum hoop stress.

Maximum stress will therefore occur at the support where the effect of saddle stress and
bending stress is maximum, for which the pipe shell is designed and this thickness is provided
through the span or in a minimum length equal to two times the diameter of pipe plus saddle
thickness.

Total circumferential stress “f2” = fl + fh --- (4.3)

Maximum permissible longitudinal stress f1 = Fy x 0.6 x eff. of circumferential joint --- (4.4)

Maximum permissible circumferential stress f2 = Fy x 0.60 x eff. Of longitudinal joint. --- (4.5)

4.2 Design of above ground pipeline on ring girder supports:

The above ground pipelines particularly large diameter steel pipelines are laid with
shells stiffened with circular rings supported at two points. In this method of construction the
pipe is stiffened and kept circular with the help of a full circumferential ring fitted on it called
ring girder which prevents distortion of shell at the support.
Such pipes are then subjected to direct stress due to weight of water it carries it carries
dead weight of shell and internal pressure all along its length except for a small portion in
immediate vicinity of the girder, where localized secondary stresses of flexural nature occur.
The load acting on the span is transferred to ring girder by tangential shear and through stool
supports to the ground.

Fig. 4.2 Components of stiffener ring

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Ring girder pipeline is made up of following elements
 Shell
 Ring girder
 Stool supports
 Top and bottom plates
 Roller or rocker and
 Pedestal and footing

Shell: In a pipeline supported by ring girder as shown in fig. 2.6 which prevents large distortion
of shell, the cylindrical shell acts as a pure membrane free from bending stresses all along its
length, except in the portion in close vicinity of supports. At the supports, pipe shell develops
secondary stresses which are flexural in nature. The stresses developed in shell as a result of
internal pressure and gravity load due to weight of shell and water are as follows:

i. Hoop stress.
ii. Stress due to beam action.
iii. Axial stress due to gravity component of self-weight of shell when pipeline is
laid on slopes.
iv. Axial stress due to hydrostatic pressure.
v. Axial stress due to friction at the expansion joint and at supports, due to
temperature variation.
vi. Rim bending stress.

4.3 Pipe deflection as Beam:

The allowable deflection or sag between supports must be found to determine
the necessary grade and no pockets between supports. The maximum theoretical deflection of
pipe can be determine using:

𝑊 𝐿3
Y = 22.5 --- (4.6)
𝐸𝐼

Case (1). If the load is uniformly distributed and the ends are free the deflection
is as calculated by eq. (37).

Case (2). If the load is uniformly distributed and the ends are fixed the deflection
is 0.2 times as that for case 1.

19
 Case (3). If the load is concentrated at the center and the ends are free, the
deflection is 1.6 times that for case 1.

Case (4). If the load is concentrated at the center and the ends are fixed, the
deflection is 0.4times that for case 1.

4.4 Gradient of supported pipelines to prevent pocketing:

If intermittently supported pipelines are to drain freely, they must contain no
sag pockets. To eliminate pockets, each downstream support level must be lower than its
upstream support by an amount that depends on the sag of the pipe between them. A practical
average gradient of support elevations to meet this requirement can be found as follows:

4𝑦
G = --- (4.7)
𝐿

20
5
Literature study
AISI: The basic criteria for the design of steel pipe is resistance to internal pressure. Once the
criteria has been met, the resulting wall thickness is verified for adequacy with respect to
other performance criteria such as:
• External loads
• Handling
• Buckling (external pressure)
For the same pressure requirements, the increase in cost for using a higher strength material is
typically less than the costs associated with the increased wall thickness required for a lesser
strength steel. The use of higher strength steel normally has little benefit, though, for lower
pressure, buried applications. In low-pressure designs, handling or other considerations —
rather than internal pressure — will most often govern the selection of the pipe wall thickness.
Under load, the individual components of the pipe wall (steel, mortar lining and, when
applicable, mortar coating) act together as laminated rings. The combined action of these
elements increases the overall moment of inertia of the pipe, over that of the steel cylinder
alone. The total stiffness, EI, is equal to the sum of all individual values: EsIs + ElIl + EcIc.
In general, the most effective improvement in the system’s ability to resist loading comes from
increasing the passive soil resistance of the backfill and not the pipe stiffness. When the
calculated deflection exceeds the allowable, improvement of the backfill material or level of
compaction should be the prime consideration versus an increase of the steel wall thickness.
As compaction of the backfill material is the single most important factor in developing
resistance to external loads for the pipe, a minimum AASHTO Standard relative compaction
of 85% is recommended for all steel pipe installations.
The significant effect that improved embedment (increased E′) plays in pipe’s ability to resist
external load is easily shown by performing several deflection analyses. Results of such
analyses for one pipe size are depicted graphically in the figure below, where evaluations of
maximum fill height for varying wall thickness (constant E′) have been plotted with evaluations
of maximum fill height for varying E′ (constant wall thickness).

21
 Fig. 5.1 Fill height vs thickness of shell and stiffness of soil
The dotted lines in the above figure highlight that an increase in initial E′ value of less than 200
psi provides the same effective increase in allowable fill height as would be achieved by
doubling the initial wall thickness of the steel cylinder. An obvious conclusion that can be
drawn from this figure is that there is no economic justification for increasing the steel
thickness to enable the pipe/backfill system to accept additional cover. The appropriate
approach is to increase the quality of the soil embedment envelope. When pipelines are
installed above ground, and the pipe is subject to vacuum, the wall thickness must be designed
to withstand collapse due to the vacuum. Analysis should be based on the pipe functioning in
the open atmosphere, absent of support from any backfill material. History has shown that
buried pipelines supported by a well-compacted, granular backfill will not buckle due to
vacuum. When confirmation of this stability is desired, analysis of the external loads relative
to the pipe stiffness can be performed. The sum of external loads should be less than or equal
to the pipe’s allowable buckling pressure.

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6
AASHTO LFRD BRIDGE CODE

The following are the AASHTO LFRD Bridge code guidelines for flexible pipes:

6.1Trench installation: The trench width must provide enough space between the pipe
and the trench wall to allow for safe and proper compaction of backfill material. The
minimum trench width should not be less than the greater of the pipe diameter plus 16.0
in. or the pipe diameter times 1.5 plus 12.0 in.
Trench width max. Of 1. D + 16 in.
2. 1.5D + 12 in.

6.2Embankment installation: The Minimum width of the soil envelope shall be

sufficient to ensure lateral restraint for the buried structure. The combined width of the
soil envelope and embankment beyond shall be adequate to support all the loads on the
culvert. As a guide, AASHTO code recommends that the minimum width of the soil
envelope on each side of the Buried pipe not be less than the width specified in Table 2.6
Table 6.1 Minimum width of soil envelope
Diameter D (mm) Minimum Envelope Width (mm)
< 610 D
610 - 3658 610
> 3658 1525

6.3 Minimum soil cover: The AASHTO code also specifies the minimum cover of a
pipeline under well compacted granular sub-base as shown in fig.2.7. Depending on the
pipe material and the pavement type above it, the minimum cover may include the
pavement thickness and base course, along with the sub-base. The minimum cover for
structural steel plate pipe is D / 8 ≥ 12 in.

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 Fig. 6.1 Minimum cover orientation

Objective of study
1. Analysis and Design of mild steel pipeline
i. Installing above the ground
a. Resting over saddle support
b. Resting over ring girder
ii. Installing below ground or buried condition
a. Trench installation
b. Positive embankment installation
c. Negative embankment installation
2. Studying the effect of varying the thickness of pipe wall and increasing the
stiffness of soil on height of backfill.
3. Comparing the maximum longitudinal and circumferential stresses for half full
condition with full water condition.
4. Study of bending moments developed at top, bottom and sides under half full
condition to full water condition.
5. Study the effects of following parameters on stresses developed in the pipeline.
i. Saddle angle

ii. Spacing of supports

iii. Thickness of shell

6. Study the effect of diameter on saddle support condition.

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 7. Study about the factors to control the deflection

i. Improving angle of bedding

ii. Increasing shell thickness

iii. Increasing the degree of compaction

References:

1. IWWA (2004) “Manual on Design and Selection of pipes for Water Supply” Indian
water works association, Mumbai.
2. AWWA (2004) “Manual M11 for Steel Pipe- guide for design and installation”
American Water Works Association, Washington DC.
3. AASHTO (2012) “LRFD Bridge Design Specifications”. 6th edition, Washington, DC.
4. I.S. 3589-2001 code of practice for Steel pipes for water and sewage.
5. I.S. 5822-1994 code of practice for electrically laying welded steel pipes for water
supply.
6. I.S. 3589-1991 code of practice for Steel pipes for water and sewage
7. AISI (2000) “welded steel pipe design manual”. American iron and steel institute,
Washington DC, America.

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