EEL 841
Solid State Controllers of Drives
Prof. Bhim Singh
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India
1 2
Self Control Mode
 Wound field synchronous motors are generally
operated in self control mode for variable speed
requirements.
 The operation in this mode eliminates hunting and
stability problems and permits the realization of
versatile control characteristics of a dc motor.
 It can be operated at any power factor from lagging to
leading by controlling its field current.
 Operating the motor at unity power factor, the kVA
rating, cost and losses of the variable frequency
supply can be minimized. This maximizes the output
of the motor and reduces its losses.
3 4
Self Control Mode
 The accurate tracking of speed by frequency is
realized by rotor position encoder;
 The rotor position encoder delivers the firing pulses to
the variable frequency converter when the direct axis
(or quadrature axis) of the rotor makes certain
predetermined angles with the axes of the armature
phases.
 Consequently the switches are fired at a frequency
proportional to the motor speed.
 This enables electronic torque angle (δ) control,
providing additional controllable parameter.
 The motor never pulls out of step in self control mode.
5 6
Synchronous Motor Drives
Self Control Mode
 By operating the motor at leading power factor, the
inverter thyristors can be commutated by armature
induced voltages.
 Use of this commutation, known as load commutation,
eliminates need for thyristor commutation circuits.
 Therefore, savings in cost, weight, volume and losses
in thyristor inverter can be achieved.
 Further, the load commutation increases the frequency
range of current source inverter and cycloconverter.
 This is a closed loop control of synchronous motor
drives, which ensures that the armature and rotor
fields move in synchronism for all operating points.
Self Control Mode
 Self control of synchronous motor can be employed
using any variable frequency converter namely, VSI,
CSI, current commutated PWM inverters and
cycloconverters.
 When the motor is fed from VSI or cycloconverter,
the voltage is changed as a function of frequency to
obtain operation at a constant flux below base speed
and at a constant terminal voltage above base speed.
 In case of wound field motor, the field control can be
used to control the speed and torque at most favorable
power factor, usually it is unity.
 The control block diagrams are discussed next.
1
VSI based Self Control Mode CSI based Self Control Mode

7 8

Commutatorless Motor
 Self controlled synchronous motor fed from inverter
produces steady torque for all speeds, as in case of a
DC motor.
 The rotor position sensor and inverter perform the
function same as the brushes and commutator in a DC
Commutatorless Motor
motor.
 In this case, the motor need not operate at value of
’
δ =90˚ to achieve spark-less commutation as in a DC
’
motor.Therefore, δ can be chosen at a suitable value to
satisfy other performance requirements.
 This drive is known as commutatorless DC motor
9
shown in next slide.
10

Commutatorless Motor Commutatorless Motor

DC Supply  Commutatorless AC motor operation is shown below
Phase or ' AC Supply

or '* or '
delay and Inverter or '* Phase
firing f delay and Cyclo-
circuit firing fconverter
circuit
Field Field

Motor Motor

Rotor position
Rotor position
and f*
and f*
Rotor position 11 Rotor position 12

Sensor Sensor

2
 Load Commutation Load Commutation
 The synchronous motor fed from current source
inverter and cycloconverter can be operated at a
leading power factor to achieve load commutation.
 The DC supply for the inverter is obtained from a 6
pulse controlled rectifier with a DC link inductor,
which, constitutes a current source.
 The circuit diagram of a load commutated drive using
converter inverter is shown in next slide.
 The transfer of current from outgoing thyristor to an
incoming thyristor takes place when the respective
line voltage is positive so that it forward bias the
incoming thyristor and reverse bias the outgoing one. Current Source Inverter (CSI)
13 14

Load Commutation Load Commutation

 The firing is synchronized with the machine induced
voltages, the frequency of operation of the inverter is
same as the frequency of induced voltages.
 Hence, the machine always runs in self control mode.
 The terminal voltage or the induced voltage sensor
now essentially acts as a rotor position sensor.
 Since the commutation process of the inverter is only
because of the voltage induced in the load, this
commutation is defined as load commutation.
 For mathematical analysis of the inverter, let us
assume that thyristors 1,5 and 6 are conducting. The
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equivalent circuit is shown in the next slide.
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Mathematical Analysis Mathematical Analysis

From equivalent circuit,
di di
0; since diT 1
L V di di V
T1 Lc T5 T 5 Therefore T1 AC ;
c AC
dt dt dt dt dt 2Lc
V AB 3 V sin t and V AC V sin t 60
2 3 2
The dc link voltage is given by Vd di
Lc T1 V AB VAB 0.5 VAC
dt
The commutation period ends at t= u , when iT 5 0 and iT1 Id
di V
Therefore, by integrating the equation T1 AC and substitution
/3u
1 dt 2Lc
We get, Id V AC d ( t) and after substituting value of VAC
L
From the Equivalent circuit, iT1 + iT5 = Id 2 Lc/ 3
Which, after differentiating, gives di =- it yields, cos cos( u ) 2 I
; u is the commutation overlap angle
T1 diT5 c d

6V
dt dt 17 18

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 Mathematical Analysis Mathematical Analysis
Let is the angle of lead known as commutation lead angle The effect of the commutation overlap is to delay the
fundamental component. The delay is approximately 0.5u when
with respect to the instant when VAC ceases to be positive.
the current waveform is assumed to be trapezoidal.
180 - or 180 - therefore,
Therefore, in presence of overlap, the fundamental
2 Lc I d
cos cos( u ) cos 180 - cos(180 - u) ; component leads the induced voltage by 0.5u .
6V Hence, the power factor angle of the machine = 0.5u leading
2 Lc I d
cos( u) cos ; From the converter side:
6V I 6 I d ; I rms 2 Id and the average dc link voltage
s
After turn-off, T5 remains reversed biased until V AC =0 and decreasing. 3
If this duration is denoted by known as margin angle, then u; For safe V 3 6 V cos
d

commutation t q where tq is the turn-off time of thyristor. When the

In the presence of commutation overlap
overlap angle is zero, the fundamental component of current leads
the average dc link voltage Vd 3 V cos 3
respective phase voltage by an angle . 6 Lc Id
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19

Mathematical Analysis Inverter Control Strategies

The power input to the motor is Pin Vd Id  A number of approaches are possible for inverter
The power developed by the motor is control. A few commonly used control strategies are
P P 3I 2 RV I d
2I 2 R s described here:
m in rms s d d
Therefore, the Torque developed by the motor is  Constant margin angle control
P m1
T V d I d 2I d
2
Rs  Constant commutation lead angle control
mm
 Constant no-load torque angle control
where m is motor's angular speed.
 Commutation lead angle varying linearly with Id
Also Pm 3 VI s cos I rms2 Rs and
 No-load torque angle varying linearly with Id
Pm 3
T VI s cos I rms
2
Rs m
m
21 22

Constant Margin Angle Control Constant Commutation Lead Angle Control

 The operation of the inverter at the minimum safe  A simple control is obtained when the inverter
value of the margin angel gives the highest power operates at constant commutation lead angle β.
factor and the maximum torque per ampere of the  This control ensures commutation at all operating
armature current. points.
 This allows the most efficient use of inverter and  The motor operates at highest power factor at
motor both. maximum torque but the power factor and efficiency
 This control strategy is implemented only is reduced at lower torques compared to constant
approximately because, the minimum value of the margin angle control.
commutation lead angle cannot be accurately  This control scheme offers a performance which is
predicted. inferior to the constant margin angle control but better
 Even then it requires complex control. than the constant no-load torque angle control, which
is discussed in the next slide.
23 24

4
 Constant No-load Torque Angle Control
’
 In this control, the no-load torque angle δ oc is kept
constant and chosen to provide enough commutation
margin angle at the highest value of Id.
 In this control scheme, the drive has low power factor
and efficiency at lower values of I d. However, safe
commutation is ensured even for lower values of Id.
 This control scheme and the constant commutation
lead angle control give increased torque pulsations at
low speeds.
 There are some other control schemes in next slide
which provide a compromise between the complexity
but excellent performance and the simplicity but poor
performance of the above discussed control strategies.
Merits and Demerits of Load commutation
 A load commutated inverter has low cost, weight,
volume and losses as compared to forced commutated
inverters.
 The attainable frequency range of load commutated
inverter is larger than the force commutated one as it
depends on the commutating inductance and turn off
time of the inverter thyristors.
 At very low speeds, load commutation is
unsatisfactory as it is due to induced voltage which is
very low.
 Therefore, below 10% of base speed load
commutation cannot be used.
Cycloconverter with Load Commutation
 The cycloconverter consists of three dual converters
A, B, and C, each consisting of two three pulse
controlled rectifiers.
 During the positive half cycle of phase current i A, iB
+ with self control essentially works as a
and iC the machine draws current from rectifiers A ,
+ +
B , C respectively and during negative half cycles,
- - -  However, its control is not that simple as a dc motor,
from rectifiers A , B and C respectively.
 Therefore, the conduction sequence in pairs shall be
+ - + - + - + - + -
(A , B ), (A , C ), (B , C ), (C , A ) and (C , B ).
 The load commutation is mainly used to change over
from one pair to another.
 The commutation process is
identical as the current
source inverter already discussed in previous slides.
Some Other Control Strategies
 Commutation lead angle varying linearly with Id
 The value of the commutation lead angle is given
byβ = γmin + KβId
 Kβ is suitably chosen to make enough margin angle
available at all operating points.
 No-load torque angle varying linearly with Id
 The value of no-load torque angle is given by
’ ’
δ o = δ om + Kδ’ Id
’
 Here δ om is the value of the torque angle which
provides a margin of γmin for Id = 0
 The value of Kδ’ is chosen to provide a sufficient
26
25 margin angle for all operating points.
Cycloconverter with Load Commutation
27 28
Synchronous Motor Control
 The basic control strategy is to operate the motor at a
constant flux below base speed and at reduced flux
and constant terminal voltage above base speed.
 The variable frequency controlled synchronous motor
commutatorless or a brushless DC motor.
because the synchronous motor operates without
eliminating the armature reaction.
 Consequently, the flux does not depend upon field
current alone, but also on the armature current.
 Further the power factor
control imposes additional
29 constraint on the drive operation and control. 30
5
 General Operation
 The flexibility of field control in a wound field
synchronous motor makes it suitable for simultaneous
control of flux, power factor and speed.
 However in a permanent magnet motor, either power
Wound Field Synchronous factor or flux can be controlled along with speed.
 The armature current is controlled to vary torque and
Motor fed from a Variable speed during below base speed operation.
 The field current and torque angle are controlled to
Frequency Current Source maintain a constant flux and the desired power factor.
 At base speed, the terminal voltage either saturates or
reaches the rated value.
 Therefore, above base speed, the field current and torque
angle are controlled to vary the flux inversely with
31
speed and to maintain the power factor at desired value. 32

Operation at Unity Power Factor

 The drive fed from a variable frequency current source
may operate at leading power factor when load
commutation is used.
 Otherwise, it may operate at unity power factor to
maximize the use of the source and motor ratings and to
minimize the losses.
Unity Power Factor Operation  At unity PF, constant flux operation below base speed is
’
obtained by keeping I m constant at rated value.
’ ’
 Now, if Is is increased to increase torque, I f and δ should
’
also be controlled simultaneously to maintain I m
constant.
 The phasor diagram for unity power factor case is shown
in next slide.
33 34

Operation at Unity Power Factor Mathematical Analysis

From the phasor diagrams
I' I S2 I 2 andtan 1 I S IM
f M
' 90 90 tan 1 I IM
S

where positive sign is for motoring and negative sign is for braking.
IM is the rated value of I'm .
Here, it can be seen that, if, I 'f and '
are varied as a function of IS
then the machine will operate at a constant flux and unity power factor
below base speed.
The torque equation
T 3 pL I ' sin ' Where L is synchronous inductance.
I SS f S
2
3
35 can be rewritten as T
From the phasor diagrams I 'f cos I M and I 'f sin '
IM 2
pLS I S IM
36

6
 Mathematical Analysis Mathematical Analysis
 From the torque expression it can be concluded that, Therefore,
torque is proportional to armature current and it is I 'f I S2 I M a 2 and
independent of frequency or speed. '
90 tan 1
aI S I
 Torque has constant value when operated at maximum M

permissible current. Here, it is difficult to implement previous strategy

 Therefore it can be said that the drive operates at
constant torque below base speed.
 Above base speed (where per unit frequency a>1), V
is held constant. Hence, the magnetizing current must
be reduced to (IM/a).
37
as, I 'f and ' are functions of IS and frequency both.
Since, the power Pm =3VIS .
Therefore, with constant V, the drive operates in
constant power mode.
The variation of T, V, I'f and I'm with per unit speed a
is shown in next slide for the motor operation at constant IS
38

Parameter Variation with PU Speed

Motor Operation at a Leading

Power Factor

39 40

Operation at Leading Power Factor Mathematical Analysis

From the phasor diagram,
 The drive fed from a Is
V

load commutated aXsIs I 'f I S2 I M2 2I S IM cos 90

inverter or = I S2 I M2 2I S IM sinand
cycloconverter ' IM I f'
90 u Vf
operates at a leading sin 180 - ' sin 90
power factor. ' ' ' M
I sin I sin 1 I
 The phasor diagram f
M cos or
I'
cos

of synchronous f

Therefore, the torque equation

motor fed by a load T 3 pL I ' sin ' can be rewritten as
commutated current 90+ S
I S f

I’m 2
source inverter is as 180- ' T 3 pL I cos
shown. I M
2
S S

I’f 41 42

7
 Mathematical Analysis Mathematical Analysis
 From the torque expression it can be concluded that,  For operation above base speed with a constant Φ,
at a constant power factor angle Φ mathematical expressions can be derived by
 Torque is proportional to armature current; and substituting (IM/a) for IM in various equations as:
 The power is proportional to speed.
 The motor operates in constant torque mode. I 'f I S2 I M a 2 2I S I M a sin and
'
 However, the available torque is reduced by a sin 1 I M a I 'f cos
factor cosΦ compared to the unity power factor
3 IS IM
operation. The torque equation T pLS cos and

 Therefore, the power factor shall be as high as 2 a

possible or operation at lowest possible value of Φ. Pm 3V cos IS
i.e. with the constant margin angle control. Therefore, at a given power factor, the motor operates
 All these are for operation below base speed. 43 in constant power mode.
44

Numerical Example - 1 Numerical Example - 1 ……..… Contd..

Q.1. A 100 kW output drive is to be designed to operate at 1000 rpm Solution:
with motor line terminal voltage of 400 volt using a 4 pole motor. i. Motor power output = 100 kW
The mains supply is at 415 Volts, 3 phase 50 Hz. The motor Motor power input = (output/efficiency)
efficiency at rated conditions is to be 95 % and the converter
efficiency 98.5% with the converter losses equally distributed = 100/0.95=105.3 kW.
between the supply converter, inverter and dc link reactor. If the Motor Power Input
IS1
motor converter is operated at a firing angle so as to make the
3 x Line Voltage x Motor Power factor
motor power factor 0.9 per unit find the approximate values for the 105.3 x 1000
following: = = 168.9 amps
i. Rated motor line current.
ii. Rated dc link current. This is the fundamental value of motor current.
iii. DC link voltage on the supply side of the dc link reactor. The RMS line current wil be approximately 5 % above
iv. The supply current the fundamental value. Therefore,
v. The power factor (cos α ) of the supply current. RMS Motor Current = 1.05 x 168.9 = 177.3 amps. 46
45

Numerical Example - 1 ….… Contd.. Numerical Example - 1 ….… Contd..

ii. Rated DC link current iv. Supply current
I dc 3I S (rm s ) 3 x (177.3) 217.2 amps This will be same as the motor input current i.e. 177.3 amps.
2 2 v. Supply Power Factor
iii. Rated DC link voltage cos V 490 0.875 per unit
dc
Power losses in the inverter and DC link reactor shall be 1%, 1.35 x 415
1.35 x VS
therefore, power on the supply side of the DC link reactor is: Supply Power = DC link Power 106.4 106.9 kW
105.3
DC link Power 106.4 Converter Efficiency 0.995
kW 0.99 Supply kVA = Supply Current x Line Voltage x 3 127.4 kVA
DC link Power
DC link voltage = 1000
DC link Current Supply Power Factor = Supply Power 106.9 0.839
106.4 x 1000
= 490 volts Supply kVA 127.4
217.2
48
47

8
 Numerical Example - 2 Numerical Example - 2 ……..… Contd..
Q.2. A self controlled load commutated CSI drive supplies a 546 kW, 3 Solution:
phase, 6600 V, 60 Hz, 6 pole, Y connected motor, with 50 mH i. At constant flux, (v/f) ratio remains constant with the
commutating inductance and 81 Ω synchronous reactance commutation lead angle maintained constant at β c. Hence
(negligible Rs) at unity power factor.
βc can be evaluated by providing 15˚ margin angle at the
The field current is controlled to keep a constant flux up to base
speed with constant commutation lead angle control. The drive is
rated armaturecurrent and speed
not operated above base speed and motor current never exceeds Rated armature current Motor Power Input
its rated value. Calculate: 3 x Line Voltage x Motor Power factor
i. Commutation lead angle β so that a minimum margin angle of 546 x 103
= 47.74 amps
15˚ is available for all operating points.
3 x 6600
ii. Power factor, torque and dc link voltage with the fixed β at the 120 x frequency

value calculated above, for the rated speed and rated armature Rated speed = = 1200 rpm = 125.7 rad/sec.
current.
iii. Repeat part (ii) for 25% of rated armature current. Also V = 6600/ 3 = 3810.5 Volts, = 377 rad/sec., LC 18.85
49
calculate the margin angle. 50

Numerical Example - 2 ……..… Contd.. Numerical Example - 2 ……..… Contd..

When fed from an inverter, T = Pm/ ω = 453.5 x 1000/125.7= 3608 N-m
Irms = Rated armature current 47.74 amps α = 180˚ - βc = 137˚
DC link current I d = 3 . I rms 58.47 amps The DC link voltage
2 36 3
I Vd = Vcos - L c Id 7571 Volt
Supply fundamental current 6 45.6 amps
d
iii. The armature current is now 25% of previous value
2 LcId
cos c cos15 c 43 i.e. IS = 0.25 x 45.6 = 11.4 amps and Id = 14.62 amps
2 L
6V
c
uc min 43 15 28 cos cos c I d 37.8

ii. The power factor angle Φ = βc – 0.5 u = 43 – 14 = 29˚ so the power u c5.2
factor = cos Φ = 0.87 c 0.5u 40.4
Pm = 3VIs cos Φ = 453.5 kW 51
52
Power Factor cos0.76

Numerical Example - 2 ……..… Contd.. References

Power D eveloped 3VI S cos 99 kW Torque Power Synchronous Motor Drives
1. J.M.D. Murphy and F.G. Turnbull, “Power Electronic Control of AC Motors,”
D eveloped / 787.6 N-m Pergamon Press, 1988.
2. G.K.Dubey, “Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives” Prentice Hall, New
DC link voltage = 3 6 Vcos - 3 Lc Id Jersey, 1989.
3. A.E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, Jr., S.D. Umans, “Electric Machinery,” Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2002.
= 6782 Volt 4. B.K. Bose, “Modern Power electronics and AC drives,” Pearson Education
India, 2002.
5. D. Finney, “Variable frequency AC Motor Drive Systems”, Peter Peregrinus
ltd., 1988, London,UK

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