INSTITUTE

FOR
AVIATION STUDIES

Has been on the approved Panel of :

Director - General - Resettlement
Ministry of Defence
Govt. of India

RADIO AIDS THEORY

DGCA LICENSE CLASSES
PPL, CPL, CHPL, ATPL, ATPL (H)
COMPOSITE, GENERAL & Technical General
Venue : Delhi Flying Club
Safdarjung Airport, New Delhi - 110003

INSTRUMENTS THEORY

Contact : Wg Cdr LD Bathla (Retd)

Delhi Flying Club, Safdarjung Airport,
New Delhi - 110003

Res.: H.no.91/Sector-17A, Gurgaon, 122001, Haryana

Tel.: 24618325, 24618931, 9891185033, 0124-3959900, Fax : 24635080
E-mail : dfc_akgupta@hotmail.com
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 Relative Bearing Indications

Fixed Dial System

Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4

0
(a) Rel Brg : 095 a) Rel BRg : 235 (a) Rel BRg : 180 (a) Rel Brg : 3150
(b) +Hdg (M) : 090 (b) +Hdg (M) : 035 (b) +Hdg (M) : 180 (b) Hgd (M) 315
... QDM : 1850 (M) ... QDM : 2700 (M) ... QDM : 000 (M) ... QDM : 0900 (M)

Remember ADF Formula is :

Relative Bearing + Heading (M) = Magnetic Brg to the
station.
2
Errors of ADF:

1. Quadrantal Error (QE)

2. Night Effect
3. Coastal Refraction
4. Static Interference
5. Terrain effect
6. Station interference
7. Loop Misalignment

Quadrantal Error

It is due to reflection and re- radiation of the incoming signals by the electrical axis of the a/c. Max
effects in noticed on a/c relative quadrantal points.

Night Effect

At night; LF/MF band radio waves get reflected by icnosphere and hit the ground somewhere
between 70 to 100 nm ranges upward from NDB. Ill effects of sky waves are:

(a) Distortion of null (indicated on ADF by excessive oscillation of the needle ).

(b) If only sky waves are present ,null will be a good null but indication can again be
erraneous.

Null is
distorted
Minimizing Night effect
(a) Use a lower frequency reducing thereby incidence of sky waves
(b) Use a powerful beacon
(c) Use a station nearest to you
(d) Shielding / removing herizontal members

Presence of sky waves indicated by

→
→

Excessive oscillation of the Needle Fading of signals

3
Take bearings when NDB
is abeam or fore or after to
avoid quadrantal error.
It can be virtually
eliminated by incorporating
a quadrantal error
corrector in the ADF

4
Coastal Refraction:

Refraction is caused by : “differing radio energy absorption properties of land and water.” If a wave
does not leave the coast at 900. It will

“Bend towards the medium of High Density i.e. landmass i.e. Radio wave bends away from
normal when traveling from land to sea.”

To minimize error:

(a) Use an NDB sited on the coastline

(b) Climb up to a higher flight, level
(c) Use signals which leave the coast around 900 of angle

Static Interference:

Static affects accuracy of ADF at all ranges. At ranges less than 50 nm, static and other
noise is potentially dangerous, Monitor VHF aid, if available.

Terrain effect:

It reduces the useful ranges because:-

(a) Field strength of the signal is affected by its passage on land / sea / desert / surface etc.
(b) Inaccurate information is caused by mountains, other obstructions, peaks ,valleys or due to
Diffraction and scattering effect.

This effect can be minimised by Gain in altitude to minimize terrain effect.

Station Interference

When two stations at different locations are transmitting on the same or similar frequency, the
bearing needle will take up a position which is resultant of the field strengths of the two transmis-
sions.

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Homing

It is a procedure where you always keep the nose of the aircraft pointing directly to the station.
All you have to do is to maintain a heading such that ADF pointer is aligned with the nose of the aircraft
at 0000.
In a no wind condition, your magnetic heading will remain constant while homing, but in a
strong cross wind conditions, your aircraft will follow a curved uncertain path over the ground.

Tracking:

The best way for you to get To or From a station is in a straight line which requires tracking if
any wind is present. It involves flying into wind to compensate for its effect on your flight path. In the
above diagram, let us assume track required (M) is 0500 and drift expected is 70S. Your initial heading
to fly will be 0430 (M) and ADF pointer wll read 0070.

6
Tracking can be “IN” or “OUT” as follows :
Tracking in

Tracking Out

As in evident from Tracking In and Tracking Out.

Your ADF should read on the dial : 0000 +_ Stbd draft port
Stbd draft port

1800 +_ Stbd draft port

Stbd draft port

Remember : ADF pointer should read :

0000 + Stbd draft
0000 - Port draft
1800 + Stbd draft
1800 _ Port draft

7
ADF Intercepts

Depending upon the policy in vogue in the airlines or in units, aircraft may regain the desired
track by turning right or left by a fixed of degree from the original track required.Generallly
intercept angle chosen is :-

(i) +
_ Double the correction angle if less than 15 of T.E
ii) +_ 300
(iii) +_ 450
(iv) +_ 600
(v) +_ 900 whichever is greater / as applicable

Following diagram will elucidate:

Intercept angles by aircraft T.E Intercept angle New Heading to regard track
A 7½0 150 0750
B 120 300 0600
C 250 600 0300
D 400 900 0000
E 200 450 1350
F 280 600 1500

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9
 Adjustment of
HOLDING PATTERN

10
 VHF Omni Directional Radio Range

VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE

A basic VOR system provides:-

(i) Course guidance

(ii) Automatic Wind Correction
(iii) Magnetic headings
(iv) Magnetic bearings of the aircraft from beacon

Uses

It is used extensively as an EN-route navigation and Terminal approach and VOR has many
advantages that make it popular and easy to use. These are:-

Advantages

(a) Its frequency range is relatively free from precipitation static and other annoying interfer-
ence caused by storms and various weather occurrences.
(b) It is free from NIGHT EFFECT, thus can be used with confidence at anytime throughout
the 24 hours.
(c) It produces an infinite number of tracks to choose from.
(d) Compared to ADF, VOR indications are easy to see and follow.
(e) Its course Deviation Indicator ( Left/ Right deviation indicator ) can also display ILS
signals.
(f) Aerials are smaller.
(g) Incorporates an equipment failure warning device.
(h) Channel spacing is much better than NDBs.
(i) Can be frequency paired with DME to give fixes.
(j) Its ranges can be accurately forecast before the because are sited, thus avoiding interfer-
ence.
Disadvantages:

(a) Its left / fright indications do not point to the becone. For a continuous indication of
QDMs, an RMI must be used.
(b) Numerous becones are required to give a large area coverage, since it gives line of sight
ranges only.
(c) High ground and man made obstructions can cut-off, reflect and attenuate the signals.
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Frequency :
108-112 MHZ : This band is shared between ILS and VOR, Even decimals are
(Total 40 VOR Channels ) allocated for VOR's
e.g. 108.00,108.05,108.20,108.25

112-117.95 MHZ : Odds as well as even decimals are reserved exclusively for
(Total 120 Channels) VORs.

Principle of VOR : "Bearing by phase comparison" Airborne Rx derives its bearing from the phase
difference between the 30 HZ modulations associated with the radio frequency transmission of the
ground beacon.
A VOR Tx, continuously and electrically transmits radio beacons, called RADIALS, outward in
every direction. You as a pilot however, are concerned with the 360 radials which are numbered
clockwise from magnetic North. These radials appear as spokes of a wheel. An aircraft due
magnetic north of a VOR will measure a phase difference of 00, Likewise, if aircraft is due East, it
shall measure a phase difference of 900 and meaning thereby that aircraft is on a radial of 0900.
Ground based VOR facilities may consist of VOR stations an VOR/ DME, and if you are operating
outside India VORTAC, too.

Ground based component of VOR system looks as shown below : Alongside are shown the
way radials are numbered clockwise from magnetic North

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On enroute Charts of Jeppesen, VORs are depicted as below : Many VOR static's are connected by
specific radials, which from direct routes called victor airways. The compass rise surrounding the
station helps you to visualize the radials.

Some differences between NDB / ADF & VOR

(1) ADF / NDB is LF / MF aid whereas VOR is VHF radial
(2) NDBs transmit vertically polarised waves where as VORs transmit vertically polarised waves.
(3) NDBs transmit omnidirectional signals and an ADF converts it to a directional signal. Whereas
VORs convert this ground and transmit electrically the directional information to VOR airborne
RX.
(4) A cardioid in ADF has a NULL, but in VOR, condition has still some strength left at its minima in
VOR cardioid in termed "LIMACON"
(5) Type of Emission for NDB is NON AIA or NON A2A whereas in VOR , it is "A9W".
(6) NDBs suffer from Night effect and state whereas VOR are free from these.
(7) Ranges of NDB reception do not depend on height but of VOR's fundamentally depend upon
height of VOR Tx and Airborne RX height.
(8) Propagation of NDBs, is by ground wave, that of VOR is line of sight only.
(9) NDB/ ADFs provide Relative bearings where as VORs give magnetic bearing of aircraft from to
status or QDMS/QDRS.
Air borne Equipment :
(a) VOR Antenna
(b) VOR indicator (Left / right indicator or CDI)
(c) VOR receiver
(d) RMI in modern aircraft

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VOR antenna receives the signals and sends the information to VOR indicator and RMI of filled.

VOR aerial :
It is a small horizontal dipole aerial. A VOR aerial also accept ILS localizer signals which are in the
same in the same frequency band.

VOR indicator :
The three base components of an indicator are:
(1) OBS
(2) 70 / FM indicator
(3) Left / Right Deviation Indicator
call sign is transmitted : 7 words / minutes and atleast once every 10 second

Identification
In order to receive reliable course information, you must always identify a station before using it for
navigation. A station may be identified by a three - letter Morse code signal or by a combination of code
and a repetitive voice transmission that gives the name of the VOR. You can monitor the station identi-
fier by selecting the ident feature on the VOR receiver. If you don't hear the identifier, it may mean that
the station is not operating or that you are out of range of the facility. When a station is shutdown for
maintenance, it may radiate a T-E-S-T code(-. … -), or the identifier may be removed. In any case,
do not use a station for navigation unless you can identify it.

Types of VOR Beacons :

TVOR : Terminal VOR, usually low powered located at a major terminal airfield
DVOR : Doppler VOR, Decrecise site error of a conventional VOR
BVOR : Weather Broadcast VOR selected airfield weather information is broadcast in between
the becone identification signals.
VOT : Test VOR, Broadcasts a fixed and directed 1800 radial signal for testing VOR receivers.
VORTAC : VOR and TACAN co-located.
DB VORTAC : A wx broadcasting Doppler VOR co-located with a TACAN
PVOR : Precision VOR
Max Range expected out of VOR : Ranges depend upon aircraft height as it in governed by line
of sight.

Range in nm = 1.25 HT + 1.25 HRx where HT and HRx are heights of Tx and Rx amount

As per this, Ranges expected are:- 10000 Ht 125 nm

20000 Ht 185 nm
25000 Ht 200 nm

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Factors affecting accuracy of VOR
(a) Becon Alignment Error
(b) Site Error : VORs are ground monitoral to +_ 10
(c) Propogation error or Terrain effect : This is due to surrounding terrain effect eg mountain causing
reflections "Scalloping” or Bends may occure due to the effect.
(d) Air borne Equipment Error.
(e) Pilotage Error.
(f) Interfernce Error : This error comes in when using a VOR outside the promulgated range.

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VOR, DME, TACAN, VORTAC
(1) Freq:- 108.0 to 117.95
Identification
(2) Positive method of identifying a VOR is
(a) by its voice identification
(b) by its Morse code identification
(c) voice transmission by Flight Service Station (FSS)

(3) While tuning to a VOR, you hear

• •••
T E S T. This means
(a) Morse code identification.
(b) VOR operational and within tolerance.
(c) VOR on maintenance

(4) Accuracy of VOR course alignment is :-

_ 10
(a) +
_ 2.50
(b) +
_ 50
(c) +
well within the range of a VOR,
(5) A propeller aircraft or a helicopter finds VOR Course Deviation Indicator to fluctuate as much
_ 60
as by +
This could be due to :-
(a) aircraft is flying over sea
(b) aircraft is flying in sky wave region
(c) Modulation phenomena quite fairly prevalent with propeller or helicopter rotor speeds.
(d) VOR station is U/S.

(6) While checking the operational status and accuracy of a VOR Receiver while on ground with the
help of a VOT; with CDI centered.
(a) With the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered, OBS should register 0000 with “TO /
FROM” indication as "FROM" + _ 40
(b) OBS should register 1800 with "To indicator _+ 40
0000 From
0
(c) Both a & b +
_4
1800 TO
(d) None of the above
.
(7) While using a VOT, RMI will indicate:
(a) 1800 on OBS setting of 000
(b) 1800 on OBS setting of 1800
(c) 1800 on any OBS setting
(d) the bearing to the VOT station
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(8) The best assurance of having an accurate VOR receiver is :-
(a) Use of VOT, to check operational status of your on board VOR Receiver.
(b) Periodic calibration
(c) Regular switching on the VOR RX even During through a/c is parked for maintenance

(9) During Airborne and Ground Check of VOR RX, radials received should be:
_ 40 for ground check and +_ 60 for Airborne check
(a) +
_ 40 irrespective of ground or airborne check
(b) +
_ 20 for ground check and +
(c) + _ 40 for Airborne check

G PS
Name some of the errors of GPS
(a) Clock Bias or Timing bias error
(b) Satellite clock error ( Max .5 m in range)
(c) Satellite Ephemeris Error (Max .5 m in range)
(d) Atmosphere propagation Error (Ionosphere Error Max4 m)
(e) Instrument / Receiver Error ( max 1 mtr)
(f) Satellite Geometry Error Depends upon angle of cut
(g) Satellite Availability (SA) deliberate error

Clock Bias at the RX

Is removed by using three simultaneous equations (one for each psendo range)

Different Connection (dGPS)

This connector dominates the effects of Ionosphere error and SA, and is transmitted to the average for
Civil Aviation navigation.

Significant Errors of GPS are

Ioneshperic Error S.A.

see (d) above see (g) above

dGPS - a differential correction is transmitted to compensate the effects of these two

major errors of GPS

Satellite Geometry Error :

GPS constellation has its orbital planes all inclined at 550 to the equator.

17
 GPS

Satellites used in GPS give the same information as a DME

What does a 3-D fix means ? it means lat, long and altitude.
4 Satellites are required for a 3-D fix
GPS frequencies (L-Band)
UHF Band

(154 F0) (120 f0)

L1 L2
where f 0
1575.42 MHZ 1227.6 MHZ
= 10.23 MHZ
Modulated with two cotes P Modulated with P-code only
(Precise) and C/A (course (Precise)
acquisition) used by civil Used by military aircraft
aircraft Accuracy 1-3 mtrs
Accuracy : inherent accuracy
in 30 mtrs, but is deliberately
degruded to 100m.

Satellite have atomic clocks ( 4 in each satellite)

GPS recover clocks are accurate crystal osillators.

Advantages of GPS
• Worldwide use at all operating speeds and attitudes
• Highly accurate
• provides a 3- D fix on a continuous bases
• Unrestricted range
• 24 hours availability
• Entirely space - based
• Can make NDB ,VOR, DME redundant
• Aircraft separation can be reduced
• Can supplement ILS and MLS as an approach aid
• Light weight, relatively inexferrsion and portable.

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19
Errors of Mach Meter :
Accuracy
(a) Instrument Error
+_ 0.01 Mach
(b) Pressure error
(c) Maneuver induced error
(d) D Density NIL
(e) T Temperature NIL
(f) C Compressibility NIL
Mach Number : V
C

C = Speed of sound at msl = 661.7 KTS.

IT decreases with increase in altitude as per a formula:
C = 39 A Where A = Absolute Temp
In general, speed of sound reduces @ 2½ KTS per thousands feet:
Mach number is related to RAS & TAS

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON or
ATTITUDE INDICATOR or
GYRO HORIZON

A vertical Axis Earth gyro is employed, having , freedom in all the three planes. It indicator inPitch
and roll , an aircraft’s attitude
Air-drivers Rotor Spins : 15000 rpm suction = 4" of Hg
Air driven Gyros : As a back up to electrical driven Gyro.
Electorical driven gyros: rpm : 22500, More Accurate (115 V 3 400 ~)
Later generation gyros (electrically driven) have complete freedom in roll and 850 in pitch
Horizon Bar
It is mounted on Quter Global and conveys indication of ROLL

Inner gimbal. Controls indicator in PITCH.

Errors of A/H :

TSI
Acceleration error Turning errors
A false climb, during take off A false bank
Caging :- Gyro should be caged before entering severe manoeuvres

TSI
Turn indicator Slip indicator
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Turn indicator : It indicates rate of turn.
Principle used : Precession
Type of Gyro used : Horizontal Axis Gyro
rpm of rotor : 4000 - 5000 rpm
in some models : 9000 rpm
The speed of rotor in TSI is much lower than in DI or Art Horizon for the reason that the turn
indicator utilises the principle of Gyro precession.
Slip Indicator

It is entirely a mechanical instrument. No gyro part two methods used are :

Pendulous Weight ball in a curved

liqued falled gloss

Skid : The aircraft skids if insufficeient bank is used

SLIP : The aircraft slips of excesive bank is used.
Balanced : Just the right quantity of bank used.
Interpretation of Indication
SLIP : If rate of turn pointer and slip points 9 (or the ball) are displaced in the same direction, the
aircraft is SLIPPING inwards towards the centre of the turn
SKID : If rate of turn pointer and slip pointer (or the ball) are displaced in the opposite direction
the aircraft is SKIDDING Outwards
Balanced turn : When the slip power (or ball) is at Zero position, it is a balanced turn.

TSI
(1) Turn Indicator Indicates "rate of turn" and utilizes the principle of "PRECESSION" it does not
give Angle of Bank.
(2) Gyro Used : Horizontal Axis Rate Gyro
(3) Rotor of Rate Gyro operated :
(a) Electricity or
(b) Air driven
(4) Speed of Rotor of Rate Gyro (Turn Indicator) is considerably lower than that of DI or
Artifical Horizon : e g

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 TSI Art. Hor
9000 rpm 15000 rpm (airdriven)
or
4000-5000 rpm 225000 (electrically driven)

This is because, principle of "Procession is utilized in TSI,

Effect on indications of Rotor Speeds etc

(7) Rotor Speed: If Rotor speed is Less than Rated speed is TSI under reads,
If rotor is higher, TSI over reads

Air Pressure: With low suction pressure than desired value, Rigidity is Lesser
indication is under reading.
i.e. Actual rate of turn is Greater when operating in Low suction Pressure. Thus, if a Leak in
airdriven TSI, exists, indicated rate of turn is Lesser.
(8) Dial of TSI is generally calibrated up to rate 3 or 4

Remember : The scale is graduated to show a 'Rate I turn' ( 3 degree in 2 minutes), a ‘Rate 2 turn’ fore
180 degrees in one minute, 360 degrees in 2 minutes). A rate 2 turns (6 degrees a second) and so on.
This is a means of checking the accuracy of the turn indicator time yourself through a steady turn of
stay 90 or 180 degrees and see if the number of degrees / second matches up with the turn indicator.

22
Rate 1 Turn :- 1 circles in 2 minutes
Rate 2 Turn :- 2 circles in 2 minutes
Rate 3 Turn :- 3 circles in 2 minutes
Rate 4 Turn :- 4 circles in 2 minutes

(9) Advantages of electrically driven gyros vis-à-vis air driven

(a) High Rigidity because of higher speeds and
(b) Not affected by rarer atmosphere at higher altitudes
(c) Therefore greater accuracy
(d) Freedom from filtration cables and moisture corrosion.
(10) Slip Indicator is Not a Gyro Instrument, it is entirely mechanical.
(11) Rate of Turn Pointer and Slip Indicator
(a) If both displayed on : SLIP Indication
SAME side
(b) if both displayed on opposite sides : SKID
Opposite sides
(12) SLIP means : Excessive Bank is to be removed
SKID means : Insufficient Bank
(13) On an instrument check, while taxing and turning,
(a) Turn pointer should be indicating in the correction position
(b) Slip Pointer - Should indicate a SKID ie insufficient Bank
(14) Bank needle of TSI during a SKIDDING steep turn will remain on "SAME SIDE OF Turn"
(15) If Ball is to the LEFT, use Left Rudder, if Ball is to the RIGHT, use " RIGHT RUDDER"
(16) When no YAW Forces are present, the ball will settle at the Lowest Point TSI indications

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
1. The attitude Indicator is a Vacuum powered instrument which senses pitching and rolling movements
about the aeroplanes lateral and longitudinal axis. It provides you with a substitute horizon and it is
especially useful when the natural horizon is :
(a) Clouds
(b) Reduced Visibility
(c) Darkness

2. The attitude indicator is the only flight instrument that provides you both PITCH& BANK
information
3. Modern attitude Indicators normally are very reliable instruments as long as the correct vacuum
pressure is maintained. Still you should cross check it against outside visual reference and other flight
instruments

ERRORS
Turning Errors : These occur both in pitch and bank
Bank Errors : <50
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Pitch Error : One bar width of pitch
Effect is greatest in a 1800 steep turn. At the end of a 3600 turn, the procession induced during the first
1800 is cancelled out by procession in the opposite direction during the second 1800 of turn
Acceleration & Deceleration Errors:
During acceleration horizon bar moves down indicating a climb and also a turn to starboard (In case
of electric instruments, a turn to port).
This is overcome by : monitoring the artificial Horizon with the Turn and slip Indicator and ASI during
the entry take it and climb away.

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 FIRST LAW OF GYRODYNAMICS

Rigidity: If rotor of a perfect displacement gyro is spinning at constant angular velocity and there-
fore constant angular momentum, its angular momentum is unchanged. A torque (External Forces) is
applied to that body.

Simply stating : Rotor spin axis (XX) continues to point in the same direction in inertial space.

If a rotating body is so mounted as to be completely free to move about any axis through the centre of
mass, then its spin Axis remain fixed in inertia space, however much the frame is displaced / turned.
Random torque applied to spin axis affect rigidity of a gyro
Second Law of Gyro dynamics
Precession :
If a constant torque T (External force) is applied about an axis perpeudicular to the spni axis of an
unconstrained, symmocriticl spinning body, Then the spin axis will precess steadily about axis mutually
perpendicator to the axis and the torque axis

25
Rigidity and precession are opposing terms Rigidity is Reluctance to move/ change its direction of spin
axis is Tendency to move.
Rigidity in gyroscope is used to provide “Attiude” information when no natural visual references exist.
For practical use the Gyro must be TIED so that its axis remains Horizontal or Vertical or 900 to
Meridian direction.
Input Devices : The axis about which torque is applied is termed "INPUT Axis"
Out Put Axis : The axis about which Procession takes place
A single degree of freedom gyro has only One input and output axis

Drift = 15.040 S in L, Cos H per house Aim is to have H

angle zero due to
Where L - Latitude erection mechanism
H - Indication of Gyro axis to the horizontal
Topple : 15.040 Cos L ... M per house
Where L - Lat
M - Angle of indication of Gyro axis to Meridian

DIRECTION INDICATOR or DIRECTIONAL GYRO or HEADING INDICATOR

DI utilizes the principle of "rigidity in space" to indicate aircraft heading .It also utilize the property of
"PRECESSION" to provide gyro control and to compensate for apparent wander.
The heading Indicator has no brain (magnet) that causes it to point to the magnetic North Pole. It must
be set to the heading indicated by the magnetic compass. Thus, the magnetic compass is used as the
reference for the Direction Indicator and so when aligned with the compass, the DI will indicate the
heading of the a/c in degree magnetic.

Advantage of HDg indicator is that it does not oscillate in rough weather and is not subject to TURNING
or ACCELERATION Errors when the magnetic compass behaves in an erratic way. Alignment or
Synchronization of DI must be done in straight and level un accelerated flight when the magnetic compass
has settled down.
The greatest advantage of the heading indicator to that at allows you to turn directly to a heading
without the allowance for Lead or Lag that is necessary with a magnetic compass
Disadvantage of Di is that it suffers from apparent winder due to earth's rotation by 150/hrs in Lat,
and must be synchronized at least every 15 minutes interval. Most expensive gyros used in military and
airlines, are connected with a remote indicating compass systems in such a way that this drift/ wander is
automatically compensated for .
A Caging /setting knob: Is used to cage the instrument for aerobatics or to set the proper heading.
After the aerobatics, it is important to remember that the gyro must be uncaged and re synchronized
before the Di is used again.

26
27
28
Gyro Classification as to Freedom of AXIS
(1) Single Degree of freedom
(2) Two degree of freedom
(3) Three degree of freedom
Classification as to application
(1) Rate Gyros
(2) Integrating Gyros
(3) Displacement Gyros
Classification as to type of erection device used
(1) Tied Gyro
(2) Earth Gyro
Classification as to type of maneuver measurement
(1) Horizontal Axis Gyro eg DI
(2) Vertical Axis Gyro eg Artificial Horizon.

29