CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

ChE 68

LABORATORY REPORTS
Each partner in the group is to submit one formal report, one brief technical report and two
technical memos to complete the requirements of the course. The partners are not allowed to
submit the same kind of reports for the same lab and whenever one partner hands in a technical
memo, the other partner must submit either a formal report or a brief technical report. The
guidelines for preparation of reports can be found in the laboratory manual, as well as on the
course website. Although every group performs the same experiments, your data, interpretation,
analysis, background review, etc. should be unique and based on your own ideas. Plagiarism is
not permitted; use your own analysis and thoughts!

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

A good technical report is an essential part of any experimental study. Employers in industry often
complain about the poor quality of the reports prepared by graduate engineers. No matter how
good a technical investigation or study may be, the work is deemed a failure if the facts and ideas
developed in it are not communicated effectively to the supervisor and others who can make
use of the results.

Although the type or style of a report may vary from one organization to another, the object is
always to communicate clearly and concisely. A number of suggestions from the point of view of
people in industry can be found in the book entitled, "Effective Communication for Engineers" [1].
Proper technical report writing is nicely described in the book “Technically Write” [2]. Here are a
few suggestions:
 Organize the information in the report in a logical manner so that the reader can
understand what you are trying to say.
 Use graphs and tables to communicate results whenever possible. Graphs that illustrate
your important findings should be located in the main body of the report. In full reports, as
opposed to technical letters, the same results should also be presented in tables in the
Appendix. Arrange graphs, other diagrams and printed outputs in such a way that they
help to illustrate your points.
 Output data must be presented neatly and each chart titled to describe its conditions.
Graphs and figures can be used very effectively to support your comments and
conclusions.
 Provide meaningful conclusions and material supporting the conclusions. In stating the
conclusions, draw the reader's attention to supporting data or results. If possible, offer a
reasonable "theoretical" explanation for the conclusions. Make statements as quantitative
as possible.
 Do not omit any essential information or explanation. Include safety and chemical hazard
information.

FORMAL REPORTS
1) Title page
2) Abstract
3) Table of Contents
4) Nomenclature
5) Introduction
6) Review of Theory or Literature
7) Description of Apparatus (with sketches)
8) Experimental Procedures
9) Results and Discussion
10) Conclusions
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 11) Recommendations
12) References
13) Appendix

A technical report should tell the reader what was done, what calculations were made, and what
conclusions were reached. Sufficient explanation should also be provided so that the reader can
follow the logic of the writer. The report should be reasonably complete so that it is not necessary
for the reader to refer to the laboratory notebook. The main equations used in the analysis should
be stated. Symbols must be clearly defined. Derivations should not be given except possibly in an
appendix. References should be given to relevant theory in appropriate reference books. Large
amounts of data should be excluded from the main part of the report and put in an appendix if
needed. The main part of the report should be complete in itself so that it is not necessary to read
the appendix unless further details are needed.

The report should begin with a title page, which will give the course number and course title, title
of the experiment, your name and your partner‟s name, the date the experiment was performed,
the due date, the Department address, your email address and your signature. An abstract should
follow the title page and should contain a brief statement of the purpose of the investigation, a
brief explanation of how the results were obtained, and a concise, quantitative description of the
main results and conclusions. It should be no longer than one page (no graph or table in the
abstract!).

A Table of Contents should follow the abstract and then a Nomenclature page. All pages in the
report should be numbered (except title page) with the Abstract through Nomenclature being
numbered i, ii, iii, . . . and the main part of the report starting on page 1.

The organization of the balance of the report is left to the student‟s discretion. However, the
following should be kept in mind. The leading paragraphs of the main part of the report should
include information about the purpose of the investigation, its importance in industry and sufficient
theoretical background to inform the reader of the fundamental laws which apply to that
particular experiment. The sources of equations and information used in the theoretical
background should be referenced. The references should be listed on the last page of the body
of the report and just before the first appendix. Details of the theory and derivation of equations
should be referenced rather than included in full in the text of the report.

A schematic diagram of the apparatus and a complete description of the equipment and
material used should be included in the next section of the report followed by the procedure. The
procedure should be presented in paragraph format (using complete sentences) and provide
the reader with sufficient information to repeat the experiment (do not repeat the instructions from
the manual, describe what you did). Technical brochures which describe the equipment and/or
procedural manuals which include operating details may be referenced rather than summarized.

The raw data obtained from the experiment should be included next. If a large amount of data
was collected, it should be presented in a table in the appendix. In that case, the most significant
data and results can be included in one or two tables in the body of the report. A sample
calculation should be given in the appendix of the report and should be presented in a logical
sequence with accurate referencing to the experimental data used (what values were used and
where they are found in the report, e.g. table number). Results of calculations should be given,
usually in the form of tables and graphs as appropriate, and fully discussed (discussion of
experimental error, comparison to theory or other literature, conclusions drawn, etc). Conclusions
should be summarized following the results. State the conclusions clearly and concisely. They may
be presented in numbered statements (no discussion). Sources of error or suggested modifications
in the procedure may be included in recommendations for future work. Ultimately, the experiment
was conducted for a specific purpose. The report must indicate what was determined from
conducting the investigation with respect to this purpose.

2
BRIEF TECHNICAL REPORTS
A brief technical report should include:
1. Title page
2. Summary
3. Results and discussion
4. Conclusions
5. Recommendations
6. Appendix.

It is equivalent to the formal report but with the abstract replaced by a summary and the absence
of the introduction, theory/literature review, materials and methods sections. The summary should
include: a brief introduction stating the nature and purpose of the investigation, a brief
explanation of the procedures used and a summary of the important results. There should be an
appendix which includes only raw experimental data and a sample calculation.

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM
A technical memo is a brief memorandum to the supervisor/instructor. It should state concisely
the experimental conditions, results, discussion, conclusions and recommendations. A brief table
of results or a graph could be included to support the conclusions. The text should not exceed two
double-spaced typewritten pages.

EVALUATION AND MARK DISTRIBUTION

Careful measurements, correct calculations, logical deductions and clear conclusions are all
necessary for a good report. However, even if all these are present but the report is not well written,
some of the positive effects of the investigation will be lost. Technical content, clarity, innovative
interpretations, and conciseness are important. Proper spelling, grammar and correct use of the
English language are also important and will have an effect on the final mark. Although every
group performs the same experiments, your data, interpretation, analysis, background review,
etc. should be unique and based on your own ideas. Plagiarism is not permitted; use your own
analysis and thoughts!

3
 EXPERIMENT 1
Draining Time for a Tank with an Outlet Pipe

Objective:
The purpose of this exercise is to observe the effect of system variables on the drain time
of a tank and develop a mathematical model that describes the depth of fluid in the tank as
a function of time, pipe dimensions, and fluid properties. Model-generated results should
be compared to observed experimental results.

Theory:
An overall mass balance can be combined with the mechanical energy balance to give a differential
expression describing the change in fluid height with respect to time. In order to create a useful
model, velocity in the outlet pipe must be expressed as a function of the liquid depth in the tank.
Models of varying complexity can be generated depending on the mechanical energy balance terms
retained in the derivation.

For instance, if pressure and frictional effects are neglected, an energy balance between the top
surface of the fluid and the drain pipe outlet will yield the following expression

U b2  2 g h  L  (1)

where h is the liquid depth, L is the pipe length, Ub is the velocity of the fluid exiting the pipe, and
g is acceleration due to gravity. Such simplifying assumptions, however, may result in a model
that does not represent the physical system and consequently cannot accurately predict system
behavior.

In general, friction cannot be neglected and lost-work term(s) must be included in the general
energy equation. The lost work due to friction with pipe walls is

L U b2
hf  4 f (2)
D 2gc

For laminar flow f = 16/Re (3)

For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a popular approximation (Blasius) is

f = 0.079/Re1/4 (4)

where hf is lost work due to friction with pipe walls, f is the Fanning friction factor, D is pipe
diameter, gc is the gravitational conversion factor, Re = ρUD/μ , μ is the fluid viscosity, and ρ is
the fluid density. Check the references [McCabe et al. (2001), Perry (1997) or Geankoplis (1993)]
for other empirical expressions for friction loss, including loses due to entrance and exit effects.

Equipment:
Metal and plastic tanks and a selection of pipes and fluids are available.
Sample dimensions of the exit pipes for the metal tank are:

Diameter (in): 0.302 0.148 0.182 0.182 0.182

Length (in): 24 24 12 3 orifice
4
Procedure:
1. Determine the tank diameter by a suitable means (e.g., by filling with weighed amounts of
water). Be sure the pipes are clean.
2. Fill the tank and allow it to drain through each of the outlet pipes. Record the depth as a
function of time. Do this for all the fluids supplied (normally a 50% glycerin solution and
water are the fluids tested). Be sure to save all the glycerin solution. Measure lengths,
temperatures, and other properties that are needed for your model. Determine the
reproducibility of your experimental runs and the precision of your experimental
measurements.

Analysis:
Estimate experimental error in individual measurements and the error between repeat runs.
Determine the observed effect of controlled variables (pipe length, pipe diameter, and fluid
viscosity) on the drain time. Solve your model(s) for the fluid height vs. time and compare
with the experimental data. The models can be solved in a variety of ways depending on
the complexity of the model.

Report:
Describe the design of your experiments and the results obtained, including an error
analysis. Provide thoughtful and quantitative discussion of observed results, explain trends
using physical principles and relate your experimental observations to results predicted by
your model. Express any discrepancies between observed and predicted results in terms of
quantified experimental uncertainties or model limitations.

5
 EXPERIMENT 2
Characteristic Tests on Centrifugal Pump at Constant Speed

Objective
To study the characteristics of the centrifugal pump at constant speed.

Description:
1. The pump is run by a single phase motor.
2. The pressure gauge is fitted to the delivery side and a vacuum gauge to the suction side.
3. The energy input to the pump can be measured through an energy meter.
4. There is a collecting tank with a level indicator.

Procedure:
1. Prime the pump with water.
2. Close the gate valve.
3. Start the motor.
4. Note:
a. The pressure gauge reading , G.
b. The vacuum gauge reading, V
c. Time for 10 revolutions in the energy meter by means of stopwatch.
d. Time for 10cm. rise in the collecting tank by means of stopwatch
e. Difference of level between the pressure and vacuum gauge.
f. Take at least 6 sets of readings by varying the head from minimum when the gate valve is
fully open to maximum at shut off. This can be done by throttling the delivery valve

Tabulation:
No. P, g PVac, g Time for h Qactual trev Pinput Poutput pump Cd % slip

Results:

Constant speed of the pump, N = 1440 rpm

Area of the collecting tank, A = 0.495 x 0.495, m2
Energy meter constant, EMC = 1200, rev/kwhr
Distance between the centers of vacuum gauge and pressure gauge, X= 0.35, m

The following graphs are drawn taking head (H) on X axis:

1. Head vs Actual discharge
2. Head vs Efficiency of pump
3. Head vs Output power

6
 EXPERIMENT 3
Calibration of an Orifice Meter

Introduction
The flow conditions at the primary and secondary flow in the orifice discharge tank should be
carefully taken into account. The equations needed to determine Cu, Cc, Cd and the flow rate starts
from understanding the theoretical flow conditions. (Carey, 2015; Conor, 2011)
At a downstream position, area decreases at the vena contracta at a distance of between
half the orifice diameter, do/2, and a complete diameter do.

Figure 1. Theoretical Cross-Section of Orifice Discharge (Koc & Gunel)

For the primary flow, it starts at point M and ends at point N. M is the surface and N is in the
plane of the vena contracta. Using Bernoulli’s principle, the total head at M is:
u 2m
 Pm  z m Eq. 1
2g

and at N, it is:
u 2n
 Pn  z n Eq. 2
2g

Equating 1 and 2 gives:

u 2m u2
 Pm  z m = n  Pn  z n Eq. 3
2g 2g

Pm and Pn are both equal due to atmospheric pressure and negligible. Also, the velocity at M is
much bigger than the velocity in N.
z m  z n  Ho Eq.4
u 2n
 Ho Eq. 5
2g

Changing the notation from n to o gives the ideal or theoretical velocity for N. Similarly, the actual
velocity which is less than uo can be obtained and may be calculated from the pitot tube.
7
 u o2
 Ho Eq.6
2g
u o  2gH o Eq. 7
u c2
 Hc Eq. 8
2g
u c  2gH c Eq. 9

Coefficients
The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of actual velocity to ideal velocity. Knowing equations 6
and 7, from the previous section, Cu is:
u 2gH c
Cu  c 
uo 2gH o
Hc
Cu  Eq. 10
Ho

The coefficient of contraction is the ratio of area Ac of jet, to the area Ao of the orifice or other
opening.
 2
d
Ac 4 c
Cc  
Ao  d2
o
4
2
d 
Cc   c  Eq. 11
 do 
The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual discharge to ideal discharge.
Q VA
Cd  c  c c
Qo Vo A o
Cd  C u Cc Eq. 12

Standard values for the coefficients are given in the table below (Koc & Gunel). In general, an
orifice with a smoother entrance at the opening has a higher value for its coefficient of discharge.

Orifice Cu Cc Cd
Sharp-edged 0.97-0.99 0.61-0.66 0.6-0.65
Bell-mouthed 0.97-0.99 0.61-0.66 0.97

Procedures
The orifice discharge tank was set up on the hydraulic bench which will supply the water through
the inlet pipe. The sharp-edged orifice was attached to the bottom of the tank followed with the
bell-shaped orifice. The pump of the hydraulic bench was started and the flow was adjusted so that
the level in the tank stays just above the overflow pipe in the tank. The vertical inlet pipe was also
adjusted so that its outlet was just below the surface of the water in the tank. The diffuser was
made sure to be just below the water level in the tank. Once the conditions were allowed to
stabilize, the head pressures Ho and Hc were recorded. This was used to calculate Cu. Next, Cc was

8
measured by finding the diameter of the existing water jet at the vena contracta. This needs to be
an average diameter by measuring din and dout. This was done by moving the blade attached to the
pitot tube to the other side of the water jet. The distance was recorded as dout by counting the
number of turns done on the micrometer. One turn equals one millimeter. For measuring din, the
blade was moved to the center of the water jet where it could be fully covered by the water. Finally,
Cd was calculated for each trial by multiplying Cu and Cc. The time it took for the tank to reach 15
L was also recorded. This was repeated for five trials. To measure the accuracy of the Cd calculated
to the theoretical value, a Cd-flow rate distribution graph was constructed. The R2 value for both
graphs in each orifice must be equal or closer to 1.

Results

Table 1. Laboratory data for sharp-edged orifice

Trial 1 2 3 4 5
V(L)
t(s)
Ho (mm)
Hc (mm)
din(mm)
dout(mm)
dc (mm)
(Ho)1/2(mm)1/2
10x-4 x Q (m3/s)
Cu
Cc
Cd

Table 2. Laboratory data for bell-mouthed orifice

Test 1 2 3 4 5
V(L)
t(s)
Ho (mm)
Hc (mm)
din (mm)
dout(mm)
dc (mm)
(Ho )1/2(mm)1/2

10x-4 x Q (m3/s)
Cu
Cc
Cd

9
 EXPERIMENT 4
Calibration of Rectangular Weir

Theorem of Torricelli
The theorem of Torricelli, enunciated in his De Motu Gravium Naturaliter Accelerate, 1643, states
that the velocity of a fluid passing through an orifice in the side of a reservoir is the same as that
which would be acquired by a heavy body falling freely through the vertical height measured from
the surface of the fluid in the reservoir to the, center of the orifice.

This theorem forms the basis of hydrokinetics and renders the weir and orifice applicable to stream
measurement. The truth of this proposition was confirmed by the experiments of Mariotte,
published in 1685. It can also be demonstrated from the laws of dynamics and the principles of
energy.

In deducing a theoretical expression for flow over a weir it is assumed that each filament or
horizontal lamina of the nappe is actuated by gravity acting through the head above it as if it were
flowing through an independent orifice. In fig. 1 the head on the successive orifices being H1, H2,
H3, etc., and their respective areas A1, A2, A3 , etc., the total discharge would be

 1 1 1

Q  M 2g A1H1  A 2 H 2  ...  A n H n2 ...
2 2

 

Fig 1.Torricellian theorem applied to a weir.

If the small orifices A be considered as successive increments of head H, the weir formula may be
derived by the summation of the quantities in parentheses. H comprises n elementary strips, the
H H 2H
breadth of each is . The heads on successive strips are , etc., and the total becomes
n n n

MLH  H 2H 3H 
Q 2g     .......
n  n n n 

LH
Where = A1 + A2, etc., for rectangular weir. The sum of the series 1 + 2 + 3 + to n =
n
3 3
2 2 MLH H 2 2 2
n . Hence the discharge is Q  2g  n  MLH 2gH
3 n n 3 3

10
Specifically for rectangular weir:
WATER SURFACE RECTANGULAR NOTCH
► ► ► ► ► ►
h
► ► ► H
∂h
Z
WEIR CHANNEL WEIR
C B
PARALLEL FLOW
Fig 2.Rectangular weir
Consider the flow in an element of height 𝛿ℎ at a depth h below the surface. Assuming that the
flow is everywhere normal to the plane of the weir and that the free surface remains horizontal up
to the plane of the weir, then velocity through element 2gh

Therefore: Theoretical discharge through element dQ  v  dA  2gh  b  dh

Integrating between h = 0 and h = H

Bernoulli equation for ideal flow:

H H 1
Total theoretical discharge Q th   2gh  B  dh  B 2g  h 2  dh
0 0

3
2
So, Q th  B 2g H 2
3
The discharge from a rectangular notch will be considerably less, approximately 60% of the
theoretical analysis due to these curvature effects. A coefficient of discharge is therefore
introduced so that:

3
2 Volume
Q act  C d Q th  C d B 2g H 2 
3 time
e intercept
Cd 
2
B 2g
3

11
Procedures
Setting up the Apparatus:

Taking Sets of Result: Flow Characteristics over Weir

The hydraulic bench flow control valve is slowly opened to admit water to the channel until the
water discharged over the weir plate. Water is admitted to the channel. The water flow is adjusted
by using the hydraulic bench flow control valve to obtain heads (H). After water flow condition is
stabilized, total head above weir is read by moving the needle until it touches the surface of the
water. The volume flow rate is then determined simultaneously by measuring the time required to
collect 5L of water in the volumetric tank. Repeat this procedure opening the bench valve further
to produce an increase in depth. Continuous taking of readings with increasing flow rate is made
until the level reaches the top of the notch, but making sure not to allow spillage to occur over the
plate top adjacent to the notch. The results are recorded in the tables.

T ABLE 1. F LOW VARIABLES FOR RECTANGULAR NOTCH

Water Quantity Upstream Depth Total Head Time
(L) (m) above Weir (s)
H (m)
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

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T ABLE 2. C ALCULATED DISCHARGE AND OTHER VARIABLES
Qave (m3/s) Log H Log Qave H3/2 H/B

T ABLE 3. E XPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DISCHARGE COEFFICIENTS

Qtheo Cd, theo Cd, exp Percent Error

(m3/s) Cd

13
 EXPERIMENT 5
Energy Loss of a Pipe in Turbulent Flow

Introduction

Fluid flow in a pipe is accompanied by the energy losses as a result of the interaction between the
viscous stresses on the pipe wall and the fluid. The energy losses may be in the form of pressure
drop in the system due to friction. This experiment will focus on the energy losses in turbulent
flow in the pipe, the relationship between head loss (loss in pressure), friction factor, flow rate and
Reynolds number for turbulent flow in a smooth pipe will also be investigated.

The aim and objective of this experiment was to determine experimentally the head loss in a
smooth cylindrical pipe and to establish its relationship with the fluid flowrate in the pipe.
Furthermore, the dimensionless groups (Reynolds number and friction factor) will be determined
from the results generated in the experiment using their relationships with other parameters for the
purpose of analysis. From the values obtained for the Reynolds number, the flow was classified as
either laminar or turbulent with a transition region existing between the two flows.

Procedures

Place the unit on the channel guides of the hydraulic bench or on the base of the hydraulic group.
Connect the flexible input duct of the device directly to the driving mouth of the bench and then
close V1 and set VT1 it in turbulent flow position. Next close the flow control valve of the
hydraulic bench, start the pump and open the control valve of the supply. Open the control valve
completely V2, prepare the test pipe and the rest of the conducts and use the three-ways valves
VT3 of the water manometer, to allow it circulate through all the ducts until all the air has been
expelled. Select the bourdon manometers with VT2 and VT3 at turbulent flow position, when high
pressures are obtained. In order to get the maximum flow, open valve V2 of the unit completely
then take the readings in the manometers. Using the bourdon manometers, measure the flow in
function of the opening of valve V2. Measure the water temperature. Continuously repeat the
procedures for number of trials to get experimental analysis of the energy losses.

Results
Table1. Relationship between pressure drop and flowrate

Trials Volume Time Flowrate ΔP ΔP

(L) (s) (m3/s) (bar) (Pa)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

14
 EXPERIMENT 6
Calculation of Discharge Coefficient Using an Orifice

Introduction
This report discusses an experiment to determine the discharge coefficient of the flow of fluid
using orifice plate.

An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe. It is used for
measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting flow. Either a volumetric or mass flow
rate may be determined. It uses the same principle as a venturi nozzle, namely Bernouli’s Theory
which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the
fluid. When a fluid (whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up
slightly upstream of the orifice but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through the hole, the
velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases.

By measuring the difference in fluid pressure across tappings upstream and downstream of the
plate, the flow rate can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation using coefficients established from
extensive research.

Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged circular orifices and installed concentric with the
pipe and with pressure tappings at one of three standard pairs of distances upstream and
downstream of the plate. There are many other possibilities. The edges may be rounded or conical,
the plate may have an orifice the same size as the pipe except for a segment at top or bottom which
is obstructed, the orifice may be installed eccentric to the pipe, and the pressure tappings may be
at other positions. Variations on these possibilities are covered in various standards and handbooks.
Each combination gives rise to different coefficients of discharge which can be predicted so long
as various conditions are met, conditions which differ from one type to another.

Procedure
First, supply water to the hydraulic bench that is sufficient for the whole operation. Install the
Orifice Discharge (FME 04) apparatus on the bench. Orifice Discharge has a hole in the base to
accept different mouthpiece. Each mouthpiece has a different profile that can affect the flow of the
water. In installing the FME 04, a hose is connected to the inlet pipe of the apparatus to the quick
release connector on the bench. Water is delivered to the tank through an inlet pipe which is then
adjustable in height and fitted with a diffuser that can be used to reduce the disturbances in the
tanks. A traverse assembly is mounted beneath the base of the tank enables the pitot tube to be
positioned at the center of the get. These allow the head over the orifice and the total head of jet to
be measured and compared. Lastly get 6 trials using different position of the control valve that
produces different pressure, to distinguish discharge coefficient of the mouthpiece at a constant
volume. A steady flow in the entire system and maintaining the water level in the tank must be
observe before collecting the desired data.

15
Results:

Table 1: Manometer Reading(R) and Time (t) at 5-liter of water.

Manometer Volume of
trials reading water (m3) t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Tave
1
2
3
4
5
6

Table 2: Collected data with the calculated actual discharge (Qac).

Manometer Volume of
Reading(m) water
Exp. (m3) tave Qactual
1
2
3
4
5
6

16
 EXPERIMENT 7
Energy Losses in Bends

Introduction
Energy losses in pipe flows are the result of friction between the fluid and the pipe walls and
internal friction between fluid particles. When the direction of flow is altered or distorted, as when
the fluid is flowing round bends in the pipe or through fittings of varying cross-section, energy
losses occur which are not recovered. This energy is dissipated in eddies and additional turbulence
and finally lost in the form of heat. However, this energy must be supplied if the fluid is to be
maintained in motion, in the same way, as energy must be provided to overcome friction. Minor
head losses occur at any location in a pipe system where streamlines are not straight, such as at
pipe junctions, bends, valves, contractions, expansions, and reservoir inlets and outlets.

The additional loss of head in flow through pipe bends is known as bend loss and is usually
expressed as a fraction of the velocity head as , where V is the average velocity of flow through
the pipe. The value of K depends on the total length of the bend and the ratio of radius of curvature
of the bend and pipe diameter R/D. The radius of curvature R is usually taken as the radius of
curvature of the centre line of the bend.

Bends are provided in pipes to change the direction of flow through it. An additional loss of head,
apart from that due to fluid friction, takes place in the course of flow through pipe bend. The
curvature of bends causes secondary flow, which is the cause of the energy losses. Secondary flow
can be thought of as turbulence when a change of area occurs. The less gradual the change in area
gives a less magnitude of the energy loss. The loss coefficient of bends varies greatly from each
bend because of the varying radius of curvature and pipe diameter. In-general, more restricted the
passage is, greater is the loss of head. Losses in fittings, bends, and valves are proportional to the
velocity of the fluid flowing through. Thus, purpose of this experiment is to measure the head loss
and loss coefficient through bends especially in the gate valve.

Procedure
The Energy Losses in Bends (ELB) module is first installed in the hydraulic bench. The hydraulic
bench was filled with appropriate amount of water sufficient to perform the experiment. A
hosepipe was connected from the outlet of the hydraulic bench to the inlet pipe of the ELB and
another one from the outlet flow of the ELB into the volumetric tank of the bench. The hydraulics
bench’s flow control valve was completely closed, while the gate valve and the module’s flow
control valve were fully opened.

The bench was switched on then the bench’s valve was gradually opened until maximum to remove
the air in the pipe network. The tubes running from the pressure taps on either side of the mitre
bend with the hose clamps in order to prevent air from getting into the system are clamped and
checked .The gate valve are closed completely. Followed by opening fully the flow-control valve
and the pump valve of the hydraulic bench. Then the gate valve was approximately half opened.
In each trial conducted measure pressure drop across the valve from the pressure gauges and the
flow rate was adjusted by used of the control valve. In this experiment four trials is conducted with
varying volume simultaneously at half and fully open gate valve. Once measurements have started
never adjust the gate valve. Lastly, recorded volume flow rate was determined by timed collection
in order to calculate the minor head loss and the loss coefficient in gate valve. The procedure was
repeated for the fully opened gate valve.

17
Results

Trial 1
Volume (L) 10 20

100% Opened 50 % Opened

Time (sec)
Inlet Gauge
Gauge Reading (bar)
Outlet Gauge
Volume (L)
Time (sec)
Inlet Gauge
Gauge Reading (bar)
Outlet Gauge

Equivalent Minor Head Loss and Loss Coefficient for Gate

Valve for Trial 1
Volume ( L ) 10 20
Q (m3/sec)
50% Opened

V (m/sec)
Minor
Head Loss
(m)
Loss
Coefficient
Q (m3/sec)
100% Opened

V (m/sec)
Minor
Head Loss
(m)
Loss
Coefficient

18
 EXPERIMENT 8
Sedimentation

Introduction:
Sedimentation is a phase separation process in which the solid particles settle out from the slurry
under the action of gravity force. In a sedimentor a suspension or a slurry is separated into a
supernatant clear liquid and a thick sludge. The process is termed thickening if the concentrated
sludge is the main desired product and it is called clarification if the recovery of the clear liquid is
the prime requirement.

A slurry taken in a graduated cylinder can be observed to study the hindered settling phenomenon
of aggregated flocs of fine particles. The well mixed slurry in the cylinder up to a given height will
develop a clear liquid zone at the top having a clear boundary with the slurry below it. This is
because the hindered settling of fine particles as flocs displaces the liquid upward to form a clear
liquid zone. The continuous down-ward movement of solid flocs and up-ward movement of the
displaced liquid make the interface boundary to descend down continuously. In other words, the
effective settling height varies with time and hence the settling rate also varies with settling time.
Therefore, the measurement of the height of the interface at different time intervals can be used as
a pointer to follow the settling process.

Objective:
1. To analyze the settling characteristics of a given solid-liquid slurry.

Procedure:
1. A slurry of barium sulphate having a concentration of 40 g/lit is prepared by reacting the
required amount of barium chloride with 10 % sulphuric acid solution and is taken in a
measuring cylinder to a height about 30 cm.
2. The well stirred slurry is allowed to settle and the time taken for every cm fall of the
interface is noted.
3. The readings are taken up to 20 cm fall of the interface between the clear liquid and the
slurry and are tabulated.
BaCl2 2H2O + H2SO4  BaSO4  + 2HCl + 2H2O
4. The same slurry is taken into a large diameter beaker and the experiment is repeated. The
results are compared to find the wall effect.

Tabulation:

S. No Settling time ,min Height of the slurry, cm

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

19
 S.No Settling rate, slope Slurry concentration, cm
cm/min
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Calculation:
1. A curve connecting the height of the interface from the bottom of the slurry on the ordinate
and the settling time on the abscissa is plotted.
2. From this graph, using arbitrarily chosen values of settling time, the corresponding tangents
to the settling curve and the values of slope and intercept (y-axis) are determined and
tabulated.

The slope of the tangent gives the settling rate in cm/min. The corresponding slurry concentration
(C) values are calculated from the intercept values as follows:
C Z
C 0 0
ZI

where:
C0 = initial concentration of the slurry g/ lit
Z0 = initial height of the slurry cm
ZI = intercept of the tangent on the ordinate cm

Using these values another curve connecting the settling rate (cm/min) with concentration of the
slurry (g/lit) is plotted.

Results and Discussion

The settling characteristics of the given slurry was studied by plotting the curves connecting:
1. settling time vs. interface height.
2. Settling rate vs. slurry concentration.

20
 EXPERIMENT 9
Fluidization of Solids with Liquid Water

Introduction

Fluidization has been an integral part in chemical engineering processes since the 1940’s.Fluidized
beds became widely known with petroleum cracking beds, which utilized fluidization to
significantly enhance the efficiency of the petroleum industry. In addition, polymers production,
coal combustion, aquatics, and the food industry now involve the use of fluidization.

Fluidization is the interaction between a liquid (or gas) and solid in which the solid moves freely
throughout a bed. Important parameters in the analysis of the fluidized bed include properties of
both the liquid and solids stream. All the parameters listed below affect fluidization. These include:
 Particle diameter
 Particle shape
 Liquid density (in this lab – water)
 Particle density
 Porosity
 Liquid viscosity

Thus, properties of both the liquid and solids stream affect fluidization behavior.

This experiment will study liquid/solid fluidization, also known as particulate fluidization.
Particulate fluidization utilizes an upward flow of liquid to fluidize a bed of solid particles.
Fluidization is the point at which a packed bed of solids begins to exhibit fluid-like properties,
such as movement of the solid particles in the bed and the expansion of the bed. This is shown in
Figure 1 by the label Vmf, which is the minimum fluidization velocity. Fluidization occurs when
the upward and downward forces on the particles are equal. The downward force is defined as the
force of gravity minus the buoyancy force of the particle. The upward flowing liquid exerts a drag
force (the upward force) on the particles. Once the liquid velocity is increased to a certain value,
the drag force is equal to the weight of the bed and the solid particles begin to rise and undergo
fluidization. The liquid velocity at the point at which particles just begin to fluidize is known as
the minimum fluidization velocity.

There are also two main types of particulate fluidization, turbulent and slugging. Turbulent and
slugging behaviors are determined by pressure drop after fluidization
 Figure 1 represents a situation where the fluidization type is exclusively turbulent while
 Figure 2 represents a situation where the fluidization type is only slugging.

In particulate fluidization, the solid particles are continuously agitated and mixed. The particles
act independently from one another in a liquid/solid system as opposed to a gas/liquid system,
where the particles tend to stick together. Once the liquid supply is shut off, the solids settle back
to their original position. If the solid particles are forced to the top of the column due to fluid
flowing faster than the particles settling velocity, the particles at this point are no longer fluidized
but are acting as a packed bed.

21
Figure 1

Figure 2

Objectives
1. To evaluate fluidization in all columns.
2. To compare and analyze the effects of the varying parameters on fluidization.
Procedure
Each column should be operated by the student to obtain experimental data of the following:
1. Liquid flow rate via the large rotameter. (Do not use the small or medium rotameter. Both
do not provide enough flow to fluidize the columns.)
2. Pressure drop from differential pressure transducer.
3. Particle bed height using the scales on equipment. (Remember to record the bed eight
before fluidization begins.)

Each of the aforementioned parameters should be measured when the particles have not reached
their minimum fluidization velocity and when the particles are fluidized. Data should be recorded
twice to show reproducibility.

1. Turn the power on. The switch is located above the pressure gauges.

22
 2. Make sure that all of the pressure valves on each of the columns are closed. There are two
for each column. One at the top of the column and one at the bottom. See equipment
description.
3. Make sure that all of the water valves are closed on each column.
4. Pull the yellow level, behind the large rotameter, to the “on” position to feed water to the
system.
5. Open the pressure valves, both the top and bottom on, on desired column. Start with column
1.
6. Open the gate valve to the desired column. (The gate valve is the red valve underneath the
column that allows the water to flow into the column.)
7. Slowly increase the water flow rate.

Note: If water flow rate is increased too fast, the pressure transducer can be ruined.
8. Record the pressure drop for a minimum of 10 flow rates (even with column one where
there is no solid particulate.) Make sure to get a reading at the zero velocity mark in case
adjustments need to be made. The pressure is measured in psi.
9. Decrease the flow rate of the liquid to zero.
10. Close the pressure valves and the water valve for column
11. Open the pressure valves and the water valve for column 2 (large glass beads).
12. Very slowly increase the water flow rate.
13. Record the pressure drop, flow rate, and fluidization characteristics of the column (packed
bed, turbulent, or slugging).
14. Please note that until minimum fluidization is reached, the solid acts as a packedbed.
15. At the point where the particles barely begin to fluidize (rise), record the flow rate and
pressure drop. This is the point of minimum fluidization.
16. Continue to slowly increase the water flow rate, recording the bed height, pressure drop,
and fluidization characteristics for at least 10 flow rates. If slugging fluidization takes
place, record the average bed height.
17. For each column, continue recording until the maximum flow rate of 25 on the large
rotameter is achieved.
18. If the column begins to pack at the top, record the flow rate and all 3 pressure readings at
that point and label it as a “packed bed” again.
19. Slowly decrease the water flow rate to zero to allow the particles to settle down to the
bottom of the column.
20. Close the pressure valves and the water valve of column 2 (large glass beads).
21. Repeat the process for all ten columns.

Shut-down
1. Close pressure valves for all ten columns.
2. Close the liquid valves for all ten columns.
3. Decrease all rotameters to zero.

Data Analysis
Once all the data is collected, three graphs for each trial should be composed.
 Pressure Drop (kPa) vs. Water Velocity (m/s)
 Bed Height (m) vs. Water Velocity (m/s)
 Friction factor vs. Reynold’s Number

23
 EXPERIMENT 10
Particle Size Analysis
(Dry Sieving Method)

Introduction
Sieve analysis is a versatile and more reliable method for sizing or separation of a given sample
material into different size fractions. Generally, the dry sieving is adopted for free flowing powder
samples of size range varying from 105 down to 40 micrometer.

A standard test sieve is generally made of a woven wire mesh cloth of specified wire thickness
with square openings, fixed to a rectangular or circular frame. A powder can be separated in two
size fractions by means of vibrating the sieve loaded with the sample to enable the particles of size
less than that of the mesh openings to pass through and the oversize to remain in the sieve.

Standard sieves are made according to recommended norms to maintain opening size interval
between successive sieves. In other words, the ratio between successive sieves is kept as a constant
such as 1.414 and hence the sieve size varies in geometric progression

Objectives
1. to determine the particle size distribution of a given dry sample powder using a set of
standard test sieves
2. to fit the particle size distribution using Rosin Rammler and Bennet (RRB) model

Procedure
1. The given test sieves are arranged one above other in such a way that the lowest size sieve
opening is at the bottom and the highest at the top.
2. The bottom pan is stacked below the finest sieve, known amount of powder sample is
loaded on the top sieve and then closed with the lid.
3. The arranged sieve set is placed in a mechanical sieve shaker and it is operated for a definite
time (say 5 min).
4. Then the amount of the material present in each sieve is weighed separately and the values
are tabulated along with their corresponding sieve opening.

Rosin –Rammler – Bennett (RRB) model:

There are wide ranges of mathematical functions which have been used to describe size distribution
data.

One of the commonly used function of RRB model is:

F x 1  e X / X ' 
n'

where,
F(x) = mass % passing
x = aperture size.

when X = X', F(x) = 1 – 1/e = 63.2% passing.

c = 36.8% retained.

The above equation is rearranged to give

24
  1 
ln    X' lnX  lnX' 
 1  Fx 

When left hand side of the equation is plotted against ln X, a straight line of slope n' results if the
dispersion follows the RRB model

Special graph paper is also available to facilitate the above mentioned plot.

Calculation:
1. The sieve mean diameter of a particular size fraction is calculated as arithmetic mean of
the sieve in which the material lies and the sieve just above from which the material passed
through.
2. Then the normalized weight percent data, weight fraction data, and cumulative wt. %
undersize data are calculated. The curves connecting weight % retained vs. sieve mean
diameter and cumulative wt. % undersize vs. average particle are plotted.

Tabulation
Sieve Average Sieve Weight Weight % Weight fraction Cumulative
S. No
No Particle size, m size, m retained, g retained retained undersize
200
140
100
70
50
35
25
15
10
8

Results:
80% passing size of the powder sample, d80 = _______ m
Weight average particle size = _______ m
Volume surface average particle size = _______ m

25
 EXPERIMENT 11
Reynolds Number

Introduction
Reynolds number is one of the named dimensionless group of variables denoted as NRe. Its
magnitude is independent of the units used, provided the units are consistent. Reynolds studied the
conditions under which one type of flow changes into the other and found that the critical velocity,
at which laminar flow changes into turbulent flow, depends on four quantities: the diameter of the
tube and the viscosity, density, and average linear velocity of the liquid.

In a pipe, flow is always laminar at Reynolds number below 2100, but laminar flow can resist up
to the Reynolds numbers of several thousand under special conditions of well-rounded tube
entrance and very quiet liquid in the tank. Under ordinary conditions, the flow in a pipe or tujbe is
turbulent at Reynolds numbers above about 4000. Between 2100 and 4000 a transition region is
found where the flow may either be laminar or turbulent, depending upon conditions at the entrance
of the tube and on the distance from the entrance.

Procedure:
1. Open the control valve.
2. Remove air bubbles from fittings and hoses.
3. Adjust flow to give a difference in pressure of 2 inches of water in the manometer.
4. Collect a known amount of water and record the time required. The time should be at least
1 minute.
5. Read and record h1 and h2 along with the manometer fluid (water or mercury).
6. Increase the difference in pressure by about 2 inches of water. If the difference exceeds the
limits of the water manometer, close the valve which is connected to the water manometer
and increase by 1 inch of mercury.
7. Repeat steps 4 thru 6 until the flow rate reaches a maximum (about 10 inches of mercury).

Data and Results

Qty, mL Time, sec h1, in h2, in Velocity, Loss, m NRe/100

m/s

Sample calculations:

26
EXPERIMENT 12

27