. D.V.

S de S Gamage
 Former Deputy Director, Veterinary Research Institute, Sri Lanka
 Former National Coordinator – Animal Genetic Resources FAO /Sri Lanka,
 National Consultant, FAO/TCP/SRL/2204 “Dairy Cattle & Buffalo Improvement Project” (2010-2011)
 Livestock Specialist - JICA Survey Team (2012) for “The Preparatory Survey on the Project for Improvement of Agriculture
Production and Productivity in Dry Zone areas.”
Table 1: Milk Production Gains (1991 to 2007)
Country Growth Yield(ton/ Country Growth Yield(ton/ Country Growth Yield(ton/
animal) animal) animal)
Thailand 2362% 3.00 India 174% 0.97 Mongolia 70% 0.27
China 946% 0.63 Afghanistan 161% 0.25 N Korea 52% 2.20
Taiwan 504% Iran 151% 2.20 Cambodia 45% 0.17
Viet Nam 427% 1.55 Myanmar 129% 0.45 Bhutan 37% 0.25
S Korea 235% 6.62 Bangladesh 93% 0.10 Malaysia 27% 0.48
Pakistan 230% 1.18 Nepal 76% 0.38 Japan 20% 7.45
Indonesia 186% 0.01 Laos 75% 0.20 Sri Lanka -31% 0.38
FAO – APHCA 2010 Philippines -55% 1.92
Methodology: This is a result of an extensive analysis of primary data derived from the Department of Census and Statistics, Department
of Animal Production and Health and the Department of Agriculture, concurrently with information drawn from two field surveys. The
first field study included collection of secondary data from the central and provincial government and private sector whereas, the second
field survey was to collect data from the farming community, grass root level service providers, input suppliers and marketing agents.
Finally the intervention approaches were developed utilizing the above data and discussed in detail with specialists from respective areas
and thereafter reviewed and interventions developed. Period of Study: March 1 – September 30, 2012

Underperformance in Milk Production in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka fresh milk was never a staple of a sizable majority of the population, but buffalo curd was a
popular food. Milk consumption was introduced on a regular basis after the advent of colonial rulers. Since then
successive governments established supporting systems required for the viable growth of a milk industry.
However, the supply of milk has not kept pace with the steady growth in demand. The milk industry could now
supply only 30% of national milk requirement. Hence, to meet this shortfall milk and milk products were
imported at the rate of a 6.64% annual growth from 1985 to 2012, or from 30,000 to 83,818 metric tons (DC&S
2012). Government policy on milk for the last several decades has been to decrease the reliance on imported
milk powder. The interventions used to achieve this goal are, to introduce the milk production trait into the local
cattle population, improve animal health service provision, subsidies and loans, dissemination of information
and encourage improvement of the milk market channels. These interventions are not sufficient enough to
support the required growth in the milk supply.
However, with all these interventions the supply of local milk production has not kept pace with the steady
growth in demand (see table 1). Milk industry is predominantly a smallholder activity where a proportion of 30-
60% income is generated from farm activities. Smallholdings of 1.8 million utilize 75% of agricultural land in
Sri Lanka, where 90% are below two hectares. A third of these are mixed farming of crop and livestock.
However, even without much financial and infrastructure interventions to the Dry Zone from the private sector
or the government, it has supplied 64 % of the national milk and 60% of the national ruminant meat during the
past several decades having 74.0% (760,580), 66.6% (151,587) and 78.7% (257,986) proportion of the cattle,
goat and buffalo respectively (DAPH 2008). It is gross underperformance as the livestock sector has the
potential to more than double the production in the DZ. This case study is an attempt initially to identify the root
cause of underperformance in this area.
Table 2: Mixed Farming System – Dry Matter Supply
Mixed Farming System – Ruminants
Components Supply Constrains
Grazing Unirrigated Highland Seasonal use for crop cultivation
Restricted entry, invasive alien weed species and high
Villus
stocking density of wild life
Grazing land Marginal areas in neglected pasture land with insuffient dry
matter yeild and poor water availability
Grass land

Scrub land
 Forest Entry prohibited
High availability during cropping season, wasted and
Cropping land - irrigated underutilized, and bulkiness of residue is a constraint
Crop residue
Mechanized harvesting
Cropping land - rainfed High availability during rain season
Cut and carry Non-utilized land around cropping area Improper harvesting causes wastage in grasses, legumes and
browsing plants
Feed from farm Foliage and poor quality material Unpredictable amount
External feed Compounded feed Not avaiable in large quantities, high prices
Livestock in the DZ produces all this milk and meat by consuming poor quality annual and perennial grass,
browsing vegetation, and non-food biomass from crop residue, where this increased efficiency of land and water
has not been clearly documented. However, this area has the potential to double its milk and meat production
within the next three years with purposeful investments. This is possible as such purposeful investments from
the private sector with partial support from the Government have increased the annual maize production of
40,000 m. tons in 2005 to 160,000 m. tons by 2011 primarily from the DZ (DC&S 2012). It should be
highlighted that the DZ livestock produce is achieved through minimum input of external resources. The DZ is a
valuable resource to animal production on condition that its livestock have access to feed resources not available
to its Wet Zone counterparts.
Table 3: Farm Data from the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka
Crossbred milking Farm Crossbred cows Total Milk Aver. Milk (lts)/ Percent Percent cows Percent milk
cows / farm number in milk (lts) cow/day farms in milk production
Below 5 40,853 83,730 233,842 2.79 86.1% 48.0% 58.3%
5 to 10 3,801 29,336 61,857 2.11 8.0% 16.8% 15.4%
10 to 15 1,158 15,221 26,757 1.76 2.4% 8.7% 6.7%
16 to 20 635 11,853 21,307 1.80 1.3% 6.8% 5.3%
Above 20 1,023 34,409 57,190 1.66 2.2% 19.7% 14.3%
Average 47,470 174,549 400,953 2.30 Aver cows / farm 3.7
Farm registration 2008, Department of Animal Production & Health
Table 4: Farm Data from the Wet and Intermediate zones of Sri Lanka
Crossbred milking Farm Crossbred Total Milk Aver. Milk Percent Percent cows Percent milk
cows / farm number cows in milk (lts) (lts)/cow/ day farms in milk production
Below 5 33,905 54,807 286,201 5.22 96.58% 83.46% 90.18%
5 to 10 985 7,149 21,333 2.98 2.81% 10.89% 6.72%
10 to 15 142 1,800 4,992 2.77 0.40% 2.74% 1.57%
16 to 20 34 601 1,424 2.37 0.10% 0.92% 0.45%
Above 20 41 1,308 3,412 2.61 0.12% 1.99% 1.08%
Average 35,107 65,665 317,362 4.83 Aver. cows / farm 1.9
Farm registration 2008, Department of Animal Production & Health

Tables 3 and 4 above indicate that the Dry Zone (DZ) consisting of 63.5% or 4,171,781 hectares has supplied 2/3
of national milk production. Furthermore, the average milk production gradually decreases with the increase in
number of cows per farm. This may be due to the non-availability of sufficient feed. It is important to notice DZ
farm keeps twice the number of milking cows than the Wet and Intermediate zones
Overview:
Sri Lanka is divided into three zones based on agro-climatic conditions. The Dry Zone (DZ) covering whole of
Northern and Eastern areas and some parts of the South and West consisting 63.5% or 4,171,781 hectares, and
the Intermediate Zone (IZ) 13.3% or 871,182 hectares and the Wet Zone (WZ) together have 23.5% or
1,524,512 hectares of the land area (Agriculture census 2008). Total land area in Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullativu,
Vavunia, Mannar, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Trincomalee, and Batticaloa districts are in the DZ whereas,
95%, 60% and 5% of Ampara, Monaragala and Badulla districts respectively are in the DZ. However, some
parts in Ampara (5%), Moneragala (38%) and Badulla (93%) are in the Intermediate Zone. Other districts with
high land area in the DZ are Hambantota (88%), Puttalam (65%), Kurunegala (25%), and Matale (20%), while,
70% and 60% area in Kurunegala and Matale respectively is in the Intermediate Zone. Seventy (approximately
1200 mm) and twenty three (approximately 400 mm) percent of the total rainfall in the DZ occurs during Maha
(119 days) and Yala (56 days) respectively. Soil moisture availability determines the crop production season
starting from September and ending in March of the subsequent year in the DZ (Punyawardena 1998).
Figure 1 and 2: Average Monthly Rainfall Pattern and Potential Evapotranspiration in
the Dry Zone (Shinogi et al 1998)
Low rainfall coupled with high potential evapotranspiration (PET) rates in the DZ result in negative annual
water balances occurring in all DZ districts (see Figure 2). Consequently, farmers experience water deficits for
much of the year limiting the rain-fed growing period to less than 150 days per year and extensive habitation is
only possible where water is stored for irrigation.
Crop production initiates with rains or with the availability of tank water in the DZ and harvested at the end of
the season, but animal products such as egg, milk and meat are produced throughout the year, without seasonal
restrictions. However, past studies highlighted the fact that there is a seasonal variation in national milk
collection and production, where it was captured by the monthly variation in milk procurement. This is shown in
box no 1 (Ibrahim et al 1999) below and the seasonal variation pattern is confirmed in figure 3 with monthly
milk collection from 2003 to 2009. National monthly milk collection from year 2003 to year 2009 confirms the
variation within the year shown by Ibrahim et al (1999). However it is different when provincial collection data
is taken separately. This is shown in figures 3 to 8. Is this variation due to seasonal changes in the Dry and
Rainy seasons in both Wet and Dry zones? Even though the rainfall during the recent past has been different
from the past century still the predictable rainfall can be observed in both zones.
Box 1: Seasonal Variation in Milk

Figure 5: Monthly variation in Milk Collection, 1994 – 1997

Another important influence on milk production and the surpluses potentially available for collection and
marketing is the seasonality of milk supply. Some of this variation is captured by the monthly variation in milk
procurement averaged over the last four years (1994-1997; Figure 5). The seasonal pattern is similar for both
all island and MILCO collection, with more milk supplied to the processing market in May, June and July,
implying that production of milk is higher during this period. (Ibrahim et al (1999)

Figure 3: Seasonal Variation in Milk 2003 - 2009

Challenge faced/critical points: Data indicates that milk collection and production in the rainy season is lower
than in the dry season as shown in figure 4. This is contradictory to the fact that it should be higher owing to the
abundance of fresh grass for ruminants. Therefore, the reason for this contradiction needs to be explored to
provide any viable solution.
Figure 4: Milk Production and Soil moisture (Sunil Gamage 2012)

Very
Very dry
dry no
no
grass
grass but
but
more Plenty
Plenty of
of
more milk
milk
grass
grass
with
with rain
rain
but
but less
less
milk
milk

Hence, studying the DZ farming system indicates that crop cultivation during the rainy period is the first priority
of DZ mixed farmer. This limits the farmer’s resources allocated for their grazing herds. Hence they are
compelled to relocate in areas outside the cropping land during this period and deprive livestock from adequate
feed and water. This has a marked impact on their body physiological status, and also disrupts the collection of
milk, as these remote areas fall beyond the normal milk procurement routes. However, when the a nimals are
brought back to the farming areas after crop harvest, they have access to crop residues and ample supply of
water. This results in a significant increase in milk production than in the cropping season. Furthermore, milk
collection is normalized.
Feeding calendar
This feeding calendar is specifically for livestock in the DZ. At the commencement of the Maha season, initially
the cattle are restricted to paddock areas as farmers barely have time to attend to them with the initiation of land
preparation. However, after the land preparation is over these animals are then herded to marginal areas where
they are able to graze freely. These marginal areas are neglected pasture land with a small amount of vegetation.
However they get more feed than when they were restricted to paddocks.
Chart 1: Feeding Calendar of Livestock in the Dry Zone
Month Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sep

Land Maha season - 100% cultivable land Yala season - 55% cultivable land

Cultivation Rice planting and growing Rice harvest Rice planting and growing Rice harvest

Cattle Restricted Migration to inaccessible / marginal lands Village Restricted grazing in uncultivated dry
 movement grazing in
crop land
Village

Grazing in
Restricted Restricted
Grazing Stubble consumption in overgrazed pasture Grazing in uncultivated uncultivated dry crop
grazing crop grazing crop
area land moist crop land land and water
land land
shortage

Residue Depleted amounts of

Crop Crop residue
usage Grass and fodder residue wasted in Crop residue crop residue Crop residue
residue available for
crop cultivation area wasted available for wasted
wasted consumption
consumption

Std week 40-43 44-47 48-52 1-4 5-8 9-12 13-17 18-19 21 22-25 26-30 31-34 35-39
Sunil Gamage 2012

Image 1: Cattle grazing in Marginal land

Solutions tested: Paddy yields 8.75 million metric tons of Dry Matter (DM) per hectare annually through rice
straw. However, a large portion of residues is burned and wasted. Rice straw utilization as a ruminant feed is
not new to Sri Lanka. Interventions introduced to improve the quality of these crop-residues to the mixed
farming community have not been successful as expected.
Crop-residue utilization is not new to Sri Lanka. It was one of the strategies by the mixed farming community to
maintain large herds of cattle and buffalo. Subsequently interventions introduced to improve the quality of these
crop-residues to the mixed farming community have not been a success even after three or four decades. Two
international level workshops for the extension trainers on feeding crop-residue and crop byproducts were held
in the 1980’s.
Period Sponsor Source
17 – 22 April 1983 Australian Development Assistance Bureau Doyle 1984
24-28 March 1986 The Netherlands Ibrahim and Schiere 1986
Table 4: Demand for DM by milking cows in the Dry Zone
Type Number Total Animal Units
Annual DM need for body maintenance (M.tons)
Cattle 928,070 832,278 1,831,012
Buffalo 218959 260,024 572,052
Goat 224,452 22,024 48,453
1,114,326 2,751,517
Demand Million m.tons 2.752
Sunil Gamage 2012 –This is only for body maintenance or basic minimum required to keep animals
functioning at homeostasis. Production and growth can be calculated.
However, DZ can have more animals with higher production with DM availability from crop residue from areas
not utilized for crop production as shown in table 5. Livestock products are the main outputs of these
scrublands, grasslands and sparsely used croplands and continue to be the fastest growing agricultural subsector
in the DZ. These are marginal lands with very poor soil profiles and dearth of water. Hence to produce food
crops a substantial expenditure will be required.
Table 5: Land use – Dry Zone dry matter availability
No Category Hectares DM (M.tons) % Usage possible DM availability (M.tons)
1 Paddy 652,900 5,712,875 50% 3,839,063
2 Un-irrigated highland 325,000 325,000 40% 130,000
3 Villus 50,000 200,000 30% 60,000
4 Herbage from grazing land 120,000 120,000 80% 96,000
5 Grassland 27,400 27,400 60% 16,440
6 Scrub 886,600 1,329,900 20% 265,980
7 Other – Including forest 2,474,200 5,802,800 0% 0
Total 4,536,100 13,517,975 4,407,483
These areas have not been utilized for any other sector but for grazing livestock during the cropping seasons.
Scrubland has a low growing vegetation with more than 50% scrub coverage, including trees, whereas, the
grasslands are open park country with less than 50% scrub coverage (Damana and Savannah), Villus and other
temporarily flooded plains and Patana – up country grassland.
Estimated yield losses: The following table shows the estimated minimum production loss derived from
monthly variation in milk collection from 2003 to 2009. In a national loss of 12.2% the DZ loss is 67.2%.

Table 8: Estimated Minimum Milk Production Loss due to Seasonal Variation

Province District Total loss Litres / year Loss
Province District
WZ Central 3,240,782 8.9%
DZ Eastern 13,704,604 37.5%
Ampara 2,916,789 8.0%
Batticaloa 7,768,745 21.3%
Trincomalee 2,668,773 7.3%
DZ North Central 6,388,100 17.5%
Anuradhapura 4,444,121 12.2%
Polonnaruwa 846,969 2.3%
DZ North Western 4,453,724 12.2%
Kurunegala 2,405,885 6.6%
Puttalam 1,916,890 5.2%
WZ Sabaragamuwa 482,890 1.3%
WZ Southern 1,354,125 3.7%
DZ Uva 6,896,051 18.9%
36,520,279 Minimum National Loss 12.2%
Sunil Gamage 2012
Identify key management practices for these losses:
 Policy makers continue modes of interventions that have not had much success latterly in contributing to a
rapid increase in milk production.
 Practice of extensive system of management (free grazing) causing loss of production and conflicting
situations.
Table 10: Stakeholders
Mixed smallholder farmer Self employed youth Self employed women
Farmer societies Policy makers Consumers
Technical staff Aid agencies

Key lessons learned and next steps:

 The seasonality of availability of feed (roughages) is observed during the year and this situation can only be
prevented through increase in shelf life of feed resources throughout the year, hence this can prevent seasonal
cattle movement causing loss of production.
Starvation and water deprivation have a marked effect on body physiology of crossbred growing cattle (60%) in
a larger than the adults (40%). The debility caused by malnutrition causes lifetime low production. The average
production per cow per day in the DZ is 1.9 litres, whereas in other areas it is 3.7 litres. This production can be
increased if crop-residue is utilized efficiently by the DZ farmers as well as farmers from other areas.
 Interventions introduced to improve the quality and increase shelf-life of these crop-residues are not
generally practiced by farmers.
The decisions may not be based on economic reasons. No technology is worthwhile if it is not adopted by
intended users. Urea treatment is not generally used by the farmers even in villages where it was intensively
promoted by researchers and extension workers. Farmers find the treatment too technical and cumbersome to
follow. The reason may be that these farmers consider it an inconvenience to implement these practices such as
the urea treatment of straw as livestock is not considered a real priority over paddy and crop cultivation.
 DZ ruminant management system is traditionally for meat and is gradually changing over to milk
production process through the services provided by the Department of Animal Production and Health. This
change is not rapid enough to acheive desired results.
 Loss of around eight million metric tons of edible crop-residue
Rice straw when left in fields after grain harvest conserves soil organic matter and nutrients, decreases water
runoff and increases infiltration, decreases evaporation and controls weeds. These will support subsequent crop
yields as about 25% of nitrogen, 25% phosphorus, 50% of sulphur and 75% of potassium uptake by rice crop is
retained in residues, making them valuable sources of nutrients. However, a large portion of the residue is
burned in field primarily to clear the field from straw and stubble.
The main reason for burning crop residues is to eradicate insect pests and rodents - but some farmers persist in
burning out of sheer habit. In the developed world, burning has recently gone out of fashion, as farmers have
realized that valuable nutrients and organic matter are permanently lost in this way. Indeed, according to Unger
(1990), crop residues represent about half the nutrients exported through the production of grain, fibre or nut
crops. They should not, therefore, be wasted.
Biomass burning is one of the noteworthy global causes of atmospheric aerosols and trace gas emissions, which
has a major influence on climate and human health. The main reasons for burning crop residues in field include
unavailability of labor, high cost in removing the residues and use of combine harvesters without baling facility
in paddy cultivation. The problem is severe in irrigated and mechanized rice cultivation but can be avoided.
Farmers in DZ dispose of a large part of rice straw by burning in situ. Burning of crop residues leads to
1. Release of soot particles and smoke causing human health problems;
2. Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) - CO2, CH4 and N2O causing global warming;
3. Loss of plant nutrients such as N, P, K and S;
4. Adverse impacts on soil properties and
5. Wastage of valuable C and energy rich residues.
However, excessive amounts of crop residue can tie up nutrients for the next crop. Furthermore, large amounts
can hamper tillage and planting operations, contribute chemical carryover problem, and harbor soil insects and
diseases. Provision and use of chemical fertilizers and animal manure can be used and it can allow crop residues
to be removed partially.
 Stray cattle in cropping areas can cause conflicts between farmers
During the depression years of the 1930’s, the British enforced ‘Grow more food’ campaigns in its territories.
Hence, land designated as pasture land was identified based on ‘right to food’, has been used for this purpose for
generations and livestock too for generations were able to free graze in these lands. Such designation was
enforced for the preservation of indigenous genetic stock and development of local feed resource base needed
for food production. However, due to changed land use policies these lands are now utilized for crop cultivation.
Yet free grazing cattle continue to visit these lands as a habit. This situation was aggravated due to abandoned
cattle and buffalo by the war displaced families.
 Difficulties of women headed families to graze cattle in the extensive system
 Rapid transformation from traditional ruminant management system is urgently needed to meet the current
demand for milk.
 Promoting an industry to manufacture dry pellets or blocks, from paddy straw by incorporating other feed
ingredients, not only increases shelf life of crop residue but will also be a rural enterprise.
Impact needs to be generated:
 Today’s need is to increase milk production rapidly through a much larger crossbred population. However
DZ is dominated by indigenous types mainly reared for meat purpose and this goal may not be easy to
achieve as we desire.
Table 6: Crossbred cattle population
Type DZ Wet and Intermediate zones
European crosses 15.3% 51.1%
Indian crosses 17.7% 16.4%
Local types 67.0% 32.5%
Ref: DAPH 2008
 A combined strategy for milk production and staple crop (rice) productivity growth exploits the close
linkage between the two sectors and would have the strongest income multipliers and entrepreneurial
development activities. Removal of paddy straw and its conversion to a marketable product can be
perceived as potentially a good farm practice that will boost the economics of the major crop product in Sri
Lanka. However, commercial utilization of paddy straw can only be promoted as a good feed resource for
ruminants.
 Flow chart
Concentrate mix using OFC (other field crops) Roughages – Crop residue (Rice straw and corn
stover

Chaff cutter

Total Mixed Ration Mixer

Densifying block or briquetting machine

Feed block

There are two types of machines based on their capacities for collection of straw. They are,
a.Machine on an average is 0.4 hectares per hour while operating speed of 2.5 km per hour,
and the straw recovery is about 55-60%.
b. Machine mounted with rectangular container to collect chopped straw with a capacity of
730 kg per hour.

Bulkiness of straw residue dictates densifying into standard bales, high compaction bales,
super high density bales, cubes, and pellets. The suitable form of densification depends upon
the market for which residues are destined, length of haul, commerce regulations, and
available handling facilities both en route and at final destination. Machinery is available in
the following forms:
Table 10: Densified bales
Form of Densification Average Bulk Density
Standard 90 to 125 kg / Cubic meter
High density 160 to 225 kg / Cubic meter
Super high density 510 to 575 kg / Cubic meter
Standard densification is sufficient if paddy straw is utilized for animal feed. Converting
paddy straw into a formulated feed supply requires further processing such as chopping and
mixing of added ingredients like dried fodder by utilizing a Total Mixed Ration machine
(TMR) and subsequently pellets or blocks can be manufactured.
Total Mixed Ration Machine

.
Pelleting Machine

Conclusion:
We must remember that rice production and crop cultivation are the main farming activities
of almost all farmers rearing livestock. Their only insurance for crop failure due to drought,
floods, market price fluctuations and during civil unrest is livestock. Furthermore milk is in
demand and the DZ farmers are definitely able to produce the total national requirement
provided two key areas contributing to underperformance are addressed by the government or
private sector.
 The first major setback is that livestock is deprived of adequate Dry Matter (DM) initially
for body maintenance during the cropping season and then for milk production during the
other period. The bulk of livestock feed resources comes from grazing poor quality
annual and perennial grasses on cropping area during the off-season and overgrazed and
rapidly depleting pasture land during the cropping season. DZ livestock farmers have
customarily utilized measures such as feeding stored crop by-products to livestock during
these difficult periods. A considerable amount is wasted in the DZ though. The problem
usually encountered with crop by-products is the seasonality of supply. Yet, in the wet
season, there is excess feed. These areas can provide adequate feed throughout the year.
 The second is the disruption of the milk collection network due to the remoteness of the
relocated areas during the cropping season. If the milk production is three times more
during the dry period, with proper measures taken to rectify the feed availability
throughout the year and expansion of the milk collecting network, the wet season could
produce double the amount of milk in the drier season.
This introduction will have the similar impact of developing formulated rations for poultry in
the early 1960’s with the establishment of the Oils and Fats Corporation at Seeduwa.
Furthermore this could support the disposal of vegetable and fruit refuse (500 metric tons)
from the Dedicated Economic Center – Dambulla, and utilize this refuse too for a productive
activity. Other activities not addressed in this article are the development of homestead cattle
housing and provision of bio gas units. These interventions will stop the disruption of milk
collection and also promote biogas as a business entity.
References
1. BVR Punyawardena (1998) PhD Thesis. Lincoln University, New Zealand
2. Department of Census and Statistics (2012)
3. Farm Registration 2008, Department of Animal Production and Health
4. Census of Agriculture 2002, Department of Census and Statistics
5. Shinogi.,Y. ; I.W.Makin; and D.D.P.Witharana (1998) Simulation of water balance in a
dry zone cascade. Paper presented at the National Conference of the status and future
direction of water research in Sri Lanka. Nov. 4-6, 1998 at BMICH, Sri Lanka
6. Ibrahim, M.N.M., S.J. Stall, S.L.A .Danial and W.Thrope (1999) Appraisal of the Sri
Lanka Dairy Sector, Vol 2: Main Report, September 1999, Colombo Sri Lanka page 9
7. Milco Monthly Milk Collection data from 2003 to 2009
8. JICA report for “The Preparatory Survey on the Project for Improvement of Agriculture
Production and Productivity in Dry Zone areas” (2012)
9. Juan Domingo Sal (2007) Increasing the Role of Ruminant Animals in the World Food
System. Dept of Applied Economics, St Paul Campus – University of Minnesota, MN
USA
10. Farm Registration 2008, Department of Animal Production and Health
11. Field Study on Livestock Production. The Project for Improvement of Agricultural
Production and Productivity in Dry Zone areas (2012) Japanese International Cooperation
Agency
12. Unger, P.W. (1990) Tillage end residue management in rain-fed agriculture: Present and
future trends. In: Pushparajah, E. and Latham, M. (eds), Organic Matter Management
and Tillage in Humid and Subhumid Africa. IBSRAM Proceedings No. 10, International
Board for Soil Research and Management, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 307-340.
13. Doyle, P.T. (Ed) (1984). The utilization of fibrous agricultural residues as animal feeds.
Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Meeting of the Australian – Asian Fibrous Agriculture
Residue Research Network. University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 17-22 April 1983.
School of Agriculture, University of Melbourne.
14. Ibrahim, M.N.N and Schiere, J.B (Eds) (1986) Rice straw and related feeds in Ruminant
Rations. Proceedings of an International Workshop, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 24-28 March 1986.