Parts of Animal Cell

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Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other membrane bound cellular
organelles. These cellular organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal
functioning of the cell. Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack of the cell
wall, the shape and size of the animal cells are mostly irregular. The constituents of animal cells are
structures like centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.

Parts of the animal cell are as follows:

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.

Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended inside the cell.

Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell.

Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.

Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.

Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.

Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell.

Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.

Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis.

Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.

Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of nucleic acids and
proteins in/out of the cell.
 BiologyAnimal and Plant CellsAnimal Cell
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Animal Cell

All animal cells are multicellular. They are eukaryotic cells. Animal cells are surrounded by plasma
membrane and it contains the nucleus and organelles that are membrane bound.

Animal cells are of various sizes and have irregular shapes. Most of the cells size range between 1 and
100 micrometers and are visible only with help of microscope. Trillions of cells are found in the human
body. There are many different types of cells, approximately 210 distinct cell types in adult human body.
Animal Cell Definition
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Animal cells are eukarytoic. Animal cells are have outer boundary known as the plasma membrane. The
nucleus and the organelles of the cell are bound by a membrane. The genetic material (DNA) in animal
cells is within the nucleus that is bound by a double membrane. The cell organelles have a vast range of
functions to perform like hormone and enzyme production to providing energy for the cells.

The components of animal cells are centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules, mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes, plasma membrane and
ribosomes.

Parts of Animal Cell

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Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other membrane bound cellular
organelles. These cellular organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal
functioning of the cell. Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack of the cell
wall, the shape and size of the animal cells are mostly irregular. The constituents of animal cells are
structures like centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.

Parts of the animal cell are as follows:

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.

Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended inside the cell.

Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell.

Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.
Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.

Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.

Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell.

Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.

Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis.

Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.

Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of nucleic acids and
proteins in/out of the cell.

Animal Cell Structure

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Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, the nucleus and other organelles of the cell are bound by membrane.
Cell membrane

 It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to move across it.

 Electron microscopic studies of cell membrane shows the lipid bi-layer model of
the plasma membrane, it also known as the fluid mosaic model.
 The cell membrane is made up of phospholipids which has polar(hydrophillic) heads and non-
polar (hydrophobic) tails.

Cytoplasm

 The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the cytoplasm.

 The cellular organelles are suspended in this matrix of the cytoplasm.
 This matrix maintains the pressure of the cell, ensures the cell doesn't shrink or burst.

Nucleus

 Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and RNA.
 The nucleus is surrounded by a porous membrane known as the nuclear membrane.
 The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through these pores.
 Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through the nuclear pores.
 The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process.
 The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control center.
 The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for ribosome formation.

Ribosomes

 Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA takes place.
 As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found in large number in all cells.
 Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum

 ER is the transport system of the cell. It transports molecules that need certain changes and also
molecules to their destination.
 ER is of two types, rough and smooth.
 ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic reticulum; while the
smooth ER do not have the ribosomes.

Lysosomes

 It is the digestive system of the cell.

 They have digestive enzymes helps in breakdown the waste moelcules and also help in
detoxification of the cell.
 If the lysosomes were not membrane bound the cell could not have used the destructive
enzymes.

Centrosomes

 It is located near the nucleus of the cell and is known as the 'microtubule organizing center' of the
cell.
 Microtubules are made in the centrosome.
 During mitosis the centrosome aids in dividing of the cell and moving of the chromosome to the
opposite sides of the cell.

Vacuoles

 They are bound by single membrane and small organelles.

 In many organisms vacuoles are storage organelles.

Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which function for transport in/out of the cell.

Golgi bodies

 Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell.

 The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from the rough ER by dividing them into smaller units with
membrane known as vesicles.
 They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs.

Mitochondria

 Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell.

 They are called the power house of the cell because energy(ATP) is created here.
 Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane.
 It is spherical or rod shaped organelle.
 It is an organelle which is independent as it has its own hereditary material.

Peroxisomes

 Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain oxidative enzymes that are
digestive in function.
  They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and help in synthesis of
cholesterol.

Cytoskeleton

 It is the network of microtubules and microfilament fibres.

 They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

 Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.

 They are different based on the function they perform and their length.
 Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer and are fewer in number.
 They are organelles of movement.
 The flagellar motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary movement is power stroke
and recovery stroke.

Function of Animal Cell

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All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are differentiated into plant cells and animal cells.
Structurally there are a few differences in plant and animal cells though their functionality is almost the
same.

All the cells are enclosed in a protective membrane called the cell membrane however plant cells have an
extra addition the cell wall. The cells have certain organelles that are membrane bound within them, these
structures are called cellular organelles. These organelles are specified to perform certain activities that
are important for the survival of the cell. All the cells function together in coordination with each other and
help the organism to survive. The functions of animal cell is carried out by the different cell organelles.
The organelles of the cell function as a unit and regulate the activities of the cell. The different cell
organelles and their functions are as follows:

Cell Nucleus - Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell. The genetic material of the
organism is present in the cell. The replication of DNA, and synthesis of RNA occurs in the nucleus of the
cell. It also regulates the activities of the other cellular organelles.

Mitochondria - The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the cell. Its main function if to
produce energy for cell by the process of cellular respiration. The energy produced is ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network for transportation of certain substances in and out of the
nucleus.

Golgi Apparatus - It is involved with processing and packaging of the molecules that are synthesized by
the cells. The crude proteins that are passed on by the ER to the apparatus are developed by the golgi
apparatus into primary, secondary, and tertiary proteins.

Ribosomes - The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.

Lysosomes - They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell. They have digestive enzymes and are
involved in clearing the in wanted waste materials from the cell. They also engulf damaged materials like
the damaged cells,and invading microorganisms and digest food particles.

Vacuole - They are large storage organelles. They store excess food or water.

Functions of The Animal Cell

The animal cells perform variety of activities by the aid of the cellular organelles. These cells function as a
unit and the cells together form tissues. A group go tissues with similar function form an organ and a
group of organ of specific function to perform becomes and organ system. Thus, the microscopic cells
form the basic unit for the activities and coordination and help survival of the organism.
What is a Plant Cell?
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Plant cells are eukaryotic cells i.e., the DNA in a plant cell is enclosed within the nucleus. The most
important distinctive structure of plant cell is the presence of the cell wall outside the cell membrane.
It forms the outer lining of the cell. The cell wall mostly constitutes of cellulose and its main function is
providing support and rigidity. Plants cells also contain many membrane bound cellular structures. These
organelles carry out specific functions necessary for survival and normal operation of the cells. There are
a wide range of operations like producing hormones, enzymes, and all metabolic activities of the cell.

Diagram of Plant Cell

Distinctive Features of Plant Cell

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The features that are distinctive in plant cells are as follows:

Plant cells contain cell structures like cell wall, plastids, and large vacuoles.

Cell wall provide plant cells rigidity and structural support and cell to cell interaction.

Plastids help in storage of plant products.

Chloroplasts aid in carrying out the process of photosynthesis to produce food for the plants.
Vacuoles are water-filled, membrane bound organelles which stores useful materials.

Plants have specialized cells in order to perform certain functions for the survival of plants. Some cells
manufacture and store organic molecules, others transport nutrients throughout the plant.

Some specialized plant cells include: parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, water
conducting cells and food conducting cells.

Plant Cell Structure and Function

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All parts of the plant play a significant role in the proper functioning of the cell. Unlike animals, plant cells
are surrounded by a rigid cell wall.

Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. It is made up of cellulose. Cell wall is
a characteristic feature to cells of plants. Plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose. Plant cell wall
consists of three layers: the primary cell wall, secondary cell wall and the middle lamella. It is located
outside the cell membrane whose main function is to provide rigidity, strength, protection against
mechanical stress and infection. Cell wall is made up of cellulose, pectins,glycoproteins, hemicellulose
and lignin.
Cell membrane: It is the outer boundary of the cell, it encloses the cytoplasm and the organelles of the
cells. In plants cells it is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane is semi permeable, allowing only specific
substances to pass through and blocking others.

Chloroplasts: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. They have two

membranes and have structures that look like stack of coins. They are flattened structures which contain
chemical chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis occurs in this region of the plant cell. The chlorophyll
is a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight to make food for the plants by converting light
energy into chemical energy.

Cytoskeleton: It is a network of fibers made up of micro-tubule and micro-filament. They maintain the
shape and gives support to the cell.

Microtubules: They are hollow cylinder like structures found in the cytoplasm of the cells. Its function is
transport and structural support.

Microfilaments: Microfialments are solid rod like structures whose primary function is structural support.

Plasmodesmata: They are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells and enables
transport and communication between them.

Vacuole: Vacuoles are known as cells storage center. Plant cells have large membrane bound chamber
called vacuole. Its main function is storage. Vacuoles are found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells. They
are membrane bound organelles, they perform functions of secretion, excretion and storage.
Tonoplast: A vacuole that is surrounded by a membrane is called tonoplast.

Plastids: Plastids are storage organelles. They store products like starch for synthesis of fatty acids and
terpenes.

Leucoplast: They are a type of plastid which are non-pigmented.

Chromoplast: They are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage. They are found in
photosynthetic eukaryotic species. They are found in colored organs of plants like fruits and flowers.

Golgi complex: The Golgi bodies look like the endoplasmic reticulum and are situated near the nucleus.
They are found in almost all eukaryotic cells. Their main function is to process and package
macromolecules synthesized from other parts of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is referred to as the cell's
packaging center.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are smallest and the most abundant cell organelle. It comprises of RNA and
protein. Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis. They are found in all cells because protein are
necessary for the survival of the cell. The ribososomes are known as the protein factories of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane bound compartment, which look like
flattened sacs lined side by side. It is a large network of interconnecting membrane tunnels. It is
composed of both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

They are responsible for protein translation, and protein transport to be used in the cell membrane. They
also aid in sequestration of calcium, and production and storage of glycogen and other macromolecules.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes. They are described as the 'power
plants' of the cell as they convert glucose to energy molecules (ATP). They possess their own hereditary
material which help in self duplication and multiplication.

Lysosome: Lysosome contain digestive enzymes. They digest excess or worn out organelles, food
particles and any foreign bodies.

Microbody: It is a single membrane bound organelle that comprises of degradative enzymes

Cytoplasm: It is a gel-like matrix inside enclosed by the cell membrane. The cytoplasm supports cell
organelles and also prevents the cell from bursting or shrinking.

Nucleus: It is the control center of the cell. It is bound by a double membrane known as the nuclear
envelope. It is a porous membrane, it allows passage of substances and is a distinctive characteristic of
the eukaryotic cell. Most of the genetic material is organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules. The
nucleus directs all the activities of the cell and also help in protein formation.

2.

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus.

Unlike prokaryotic cells, the DNA in a plant cell is housed within a nucleus that is
enveloped by a membrane. In addition to having a nucleus, plant cells also
contain other membrane-bound organelles (tiny cellular structures) that carry
out specific functions necessary for normal cellular operation. Organelles have a
wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones
and enzymes to providing energy for a plant cell.

Plant cells are similar to animal cells in that they are both eukaryotic cells and
have similar organelles. However, there are a number of differences between
plant and animal cells. Plant cells are generally larger than animal cells. While
animal cells come in various sizes and tend to have irregular shapes, plant cells
are more similar in size and are typically rectangular or cube shaped. A plant cell
also contains structures not found in an animal cell. Some of these include a cell
wall, a large vacuole, and plastids. Plastids, such as chloroplasts, assist in storing
and harvesting needed substances for the plant. Animal cells also contain
structures such as centrioles, lysosomes, and cilia and flagella that are not
typically found in plant cells.
Structures and Organelles

The Golgi Apparatus Model. David Gunn / Getty Images

The following are examples of structures and organelles that can be found in
typical plant cells:

 Cell (Plasma) Membrane - a thin, semi-permeable membrane that

surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell, enclosing its contents.
 Cell Wall - outer covering of the cell that protects the plant cell and gives it
shape.
 Chloroplast - the sites of photosynthesis in a plant cell. They contain
chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight.
 Cytoplasm - gel-like substance within the cell membrane containing water,
enzymes, salts, organelles, and various organic molecules.
 Cytoskeleton - a network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm that helps the
cell maintain its shape and gives support to the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - extensive network of membranes composed
of both regions with ribosomes (rough ER) and regions without ribosomes
(smooth ER). The ER synthesizes proteins and lipids.
 Golgi Complex - responsible for manufacturing, storing and shipping
certain cellular products including proteins.
 Microtubules - hollow rods that function primarily to help support and
shape the cell. They are important for chromosome movement
in mitosis and meiosis, as well as cytosol movement within a cell.
 Mitochondria - these organelles generates energy for the cell by converting
glucose (produced by photosynthesis) and oxygen to ATP. This process is
known as respiration.
 Nucleus - membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary
information (DNA).
 Nucleolus - structure within the nucleus that helps in the synthesis
of ribosomes.
 Nucleopore - tiny hole within the nuclear membrane that
allows nucleic acids and proteins to move into and out of the
nucleus.
 Peroxisomes - tiny structures bound by a single membrane that contain
enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. These structures
are involved in plant processes such as photorespiration.
 Plasmodesmata - pores or channels between plant cell walls that allow
molecules and communication signals to pass between individual plant
cells.
 Ribosomes - consisting of RNA and proteins, ribosomes are responsible for
protein assembly. They can be found either attached to the rough ER or
free in the cytoplasm.
 Vacuole - structure in a plant cell that provides support and participates in
a variety of cellular functions including storage, detoxification, protection,
and growth. When a plant cell matures, it typically contains one large
liquid-filled vacuole.
Types of Plant Cells

This is a typical dicotyledon stem (Buttercup). At center is an oval vascular

bundle embedded in parenchyma cells (yellow) of the cortex of the stem. Some
parenchyma cells contain chloroplasts (green). The vascular bundle contains
large xylem vessels (center right) which serve to conduct water; the nutrient
conducting phloem is orange. At the outer edge of the vascular bundle is
sclerenchyma tissue which supports the vascular bundle. POWER AND
SYRED/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Getty Images

As a plant matures, its cells become specialized in order to perform certain

functions necessary for survival. Some plant cells synthesize and store organic
products, while others help to transport nutrients throughout the plant. Some
examples of specialized plant cell types include:
Parenchyma Cells

Parenchyma cells are usually depicted as the typical plant cell because they are
not very specialized. These cells synthesize (by photosynthesis) and store organic
products in the plant. Most of the plant's metabolism takes place in these cells.
Parenchyma cells compose the middle layer of leaves as well as the outer and
inner layers of stems and roots. The soft tissue of fruits is also composed of
parenchyma cells.

Collenchyma Cells

Collenchyma cells have a support function in plants, particularly in young plants.

These cells help to support plants while not restraining growth due to their lack
of secondary cell walls and the absence of a hardening agent in their primary cell
walls.

Sclerenchyma Cells

Sclerenchyma cells also have a support function in plants, but unlike collenchyma
cells, they have a hardening agent and are much more rigid. These cells are thick
and contain various shapes. Sclerenchyma cells form the hard outer shell of nuts
and seeds. They are found in stems, roots, and leaf vascular bundles.

Water Conducting Cells

Water conducting cells of xylem also have a support function in plants but unlike
collenchyma cells, they have a hardening agent and are much more rigid. Two
types of cells compose xylem. They are narrow, hollow cells called tracheids and
vessel members. Gymnosperms and seedless vascular plants contain tracheids,
while angiosperms contain both tracheids and vessel members.

Sieve Tube Members

Sieve tube cells of phloem conduct organic nutrients such as sugar throughout
the plant. Other cell types found in phloem include companion cells, phloem
fibres, and parenchyma cells.

Plant cells are grouped together into various tissues. These tissues can be simple,
consisting of a single cell type, or complex, consisting of more than one cell type.
Above and beyond tissues, plants also have a higher level of structure called plant
tissue systems. There are three types of tissue systems: dermal tissue, vascular
tissue, and ground tissue systems.
What do plants have to do that animals don't?
Many plant cells are green. Why? Plant cells also usually have a distinct shape. The
rigid exterior around the cells is necessary to allow the plants to grow upright. Animal
cells do not have these rigid exteriors. There are other distinct differences between
plant and animal cells. These will be the focus of this concept.

Plant Cells
Special Structures in Plant Cells
Most organelles are common to both animal and plant cells. However, plant cells also
have features that animal cells do not have: a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and
plastids such as chloroplasts.
Plants have very different lifestyles from animals, and these differences are apparent
when you examine the structure of the plant cell. Plants make their own food in a
process called photosynthesis. They take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) and
convert them into sugars. The features unique to plant cells can be seen
in Figure below.
In addition to containing most of the organelles found in animal cells, plant cells also have a cell wall, a large central vacuole,
and plastids. These three features are not found in animal cells.

The Cell Wall

A cell wall is a rigid layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds the
cell. The cell wall contains not only cellulose and protein, but other polysaccharides as
well. The cell wall provides structural support and protection. Pores in the cell wall
allow water and nutrients to move into and out of the cell. The cell wall also prevents
the plant cell from bursting when water enters the cell.
Microtubules guide the formation of the plant cell wall. Cellulose is laid down
by enzymes to form the primary cell wall. Some plants also have a secondary cell wall.
The secondary wall contains a lignin, a secondary cell component in plant cells that
have completed cell growth/expansion.
The Central Vacuole
Most mature plant cells have a central vacuole that occupies more than 30% of the
cell's volume. The central vacuole can occupy as much as 90% of the volume of certain
cells. The central vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast. The
central vacuole has many functions. Aside from storage, the main role of the vacuole is
to maintain turgor pressure against the cell wall. Proteins found in the tonoplast control
the flow of water into and out of the vacuole. The central vacuole also stores the
pigments that color flowers.
The central vacuole contains large amounts of a liquid called cell sap, which differs
in composition to the cell cytosol. Cell sap is a mixture of water, enzymes, ions, salts,
and other substances. Cell sap may also contain toxic byproducts that have been
removed from the cytosol. Toxins in the vacuole may help to protect some plants from
being eaten.

Plastids
Plant plastids are a group of closely related membrane-bound organelles that carry out
many functions. They are responsible for photosynthesis, for storage of products such
as starch, and for the synthesis of many types of molecules that are needed as cellular
building blocks. Plastids have the ability to change their function between these and
other forms. Plastids contain their own DNA and some ribosomes, and scientists think
that plastids are descended from photosynthetic bacteria that allowed the first
eukaryotes to make oxygen. The main types of plastids and their functions are:
 Chloroplasts are the organelle of photosynthesis. They capture light energy from
the sunand use it with water and carbon dioxide to make food (sugar) for the plant. The
arrangement of chloroplasts in a plant’s cells can be seen in Figure below.
 Chromoplasts make and store pigments that give petals and fruit their orange and yellow
colors.
 Leucoplasts do not contain pigments and are located in roots and non-photosynthetic
tissues of plants. They may become specialized for bulk storage of starch, lipid, or protein.
However, in many cells, leucoplasts do not have a major storage function. Instead, they
make molecules such as fatty acids and many amino acids.
Plant cells with visible chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun and use it with water and carbon
dioxide to produce sugars for food. Chloroplasts look like flat discs and are usually 2 to
10 micrometers in diameter and 1 micrometer thick. A model of a chloroplast is shown
in Figure below. The chloroplast is enclosed by an inner and an outer phospholipid
membrane. Between these two layers is the intermembrane space. The fluid within the
chloroplast is called the stroma, and it contains one or more molecules of small,
circular DNA. The stroma also has ribosomes. Within the stroma are stacks
of thylakoids, sub-organelles that are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are
arranged in stacks called grana (singular: granum). A thylakoid has a flattened disk
shape. Inside it is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. Photosynthesis
takes place on the thylakoid membrane.
Within the thylakoid membrane is the complex of proteins and light-absorbing pigments,
such as chlorophyll and carotenoids. This complex allows capture of light energy from
many wavelengths because chlorophyll and carotenoids both absorb different
wavelengths of light. These will be further discussed in the "Photosynthesis" concept.

Plant Cells

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 Figure %: Generalized Plant Cell

Structurally, plant and animal cells are very similar because they are both
eukaryotic cells. They both contain membrane-bound organelles such as the
nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
and peroxisomes. Both also contain similar membranes, cytosol, and
cytoskeletal elements. The functions of these organelles are extremely similar
between the two classes of cells (peroxisomes perform additional complex
functions in plant cells having to do with cellular respiration). However, the few
differences that exist between plant and animals are very significant and
reflect a difference in the functions of each cell.

Plant cells can be larger than animal cells. The normal range for an animal
cell varies from 10 to 30 micrometers while that for a plant cell stretches from
10 to 100 micrometers. Beyond size, the main structural differences between
plant and animal cells lie in a few additional structures found in plant cells.
These structures include: chloroplasts, the cell wall, and vacuoles.

Figure %: Plant Cell v. Animal Cell

Chloroplasts

In animal cells, the mitochondria produces the majority of the cells energy
from food. It does not have the same function in plant cells. Plant cells use
sunlight as their energy source; the sunlight must be converted into energy
inside the cell in a process called photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are the
structures that perform this function. They are rather large, double membrane-
bound structures (about 5 micrometers across) that contain the substance
chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight. Additional membranes within the
chloroplast contain the structures that actually carry out photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts carry out energy conversion through a complex set of reactions

similar to those performed by mitochondria in animals. The double membrane
structure of chloroplasts is also reminiscent of mitochondria. The inner
membrane encloses an area called the stoma, which is analogous to the
matrix in mitochondria and houses DNA, RNA, ribosomes, and different
enzymes. Chloroplasts, however, contain a third membrane and are generally
larger than mitochondria.
The Cell Wall

Another structural difference between in plant cells is the presence of a rigid

cell wall surrounding the cell membrane. This wall can range from 0.1 to 10
micrometers thick and is composed of fats and sugars. The tough wall gives
added stability and protection to the plant cell.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are large, liquid-filled organelles found only in plant cells. Vacuoles
can occupy up to 90% of a cell's volume and have a single membrane. Their
main function is as a space-filler in the cell, but they can also fill digestive
functions similar to lysosomes (which are also present in plant cells).
Vacuoles contain a number of enzymes that perform diverse functions, and
their interiors can be used as storage for nutrients or, as mentioned, provide a
place to degrade unwanted substances.

Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a
membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Unlike the eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal
cells do not have a cell wall. This feature was lost in the distant past by the single-celled organisms
that gave rise to the kingdom Animalia. Most cells, both animal and plant, range in size between 1
and 100 micrometers and are thus visible only with the aid of a microscope.
The lack of a rigid cell wall allowed animals to develop a greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and
organs. Specialized cells that formed nerves and muscles—tissues impossible for plants to evolve—
gave these organisms mobility. The ability to move about by the use of specialized muscle tissues is
a hallmark of the animal world, though a few animals, primarily sponges, do not possess
differentiated tissues. Notably, protozoans locomote, but it is only via nonmuscular means, in effect,
using cilia, flagella, and pseudopodia.

The animal kingdom is unique among eukaryotic organisms because most animal tissues are bound
together in an extracellular matrix by a triple helix of protein known as collagen. Plant and fungal
cells are bound together in tissues or aggregations by other molecules, such as pectin. The fact that
no other organisms utilize collagen in this manner is one of the indications that all animals arose
from a common unicellular ancestor. Bones, shells, spicules, and other hardened structures are
formed when the collagen-containing extracellular matrix between animal cells becomes calcified.

Animals are a large and incredibly diverse group of organisms. Making up about three-quarters of
the species on Earth, they run the gamut from corals and jellyfish to ants, whales, elephants, and, of
course, humans. Being mobile has given animals, which are capable of sensing and responding to
their environment, the flexibility to adopt many different modes of feeding, defense, and
reproduction. Unlike plants, however, animals are unable to manufacture their own food, and
therefore, are always directly or indirectly dependent on plant life.

Most animal cells are diploid, meaning that their chromosomes exist in homologous pairs. Different
chromosomal ploidies are also, however, known to occasionally occur. The proliferation of animal
cells occurs in a variety of ways. In instances of sexual reproduction, the cellular process
of meiosis is first necessary so that haploid daughter cells, or gametes, can be produced. Two
haploid cells then fuse to form a diploid zygote, which develops into a new organism as its cells
divide and multiply.
The earliest fossil evidence of animals dates from the Vendian Period (650 to 544 million years
ago), with coelenterate-type creatures that left traces of their soft bodies in shallow-water sediments.
The first mass extinction ended that period, but during the Cambrian Period which followed, an
explosion of new forms began the evolutionary radiation that produced most of the major groups, or
phyla, known today. Vertebrates (animals with backbones) are not known to have occurred until the
early Ordovician Period (505 to 438 million years ago).

Cells were discovered in 1665 by British scientist Robert Hooke who first observed them in his crude
(by today's standards) seventeenth century optical microscope. In fact, Hooke coined the term "cell",
in a biological context, when he described the microscopic structure of cork like a tiny, bare room or
monk's cell. Illustrated in Figure 2 are a pair of fibroblast deer skin cells that have been labeled with
fluorescent probes and photographed in the microscope to reveal their internal structure. The nuclei
are stained with a red probe, while the Golgi apparatus and microfilament actin network are stained
green and blue, respectively. The microscope has been a fundamental tool in the field of cell biology
and is often used to observe living cells in culture. Use the links below to obtain more detailed
information about the various components that are found in animal cells.

 Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of

microtubules and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell
division, but aren't essential to the process.
 Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the
locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or
materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that
manufactures, processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of
the cell. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a pipeline between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Endosomes and Endocytosis - Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a
complex family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm
of virtually every animal cell. The basic mechanism of endocytosis is the reverse of what
occurs during exocytosis or cellular secretion. It involves the invagination (folding inward) of
a cell's plasma membrane to surround macromolecules or other matter diffusing through the
extracellular fluid.
  Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the
cell's chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and
prepares them for export to the outside of the cell.
 Intermediate Filaments - Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins
that play an important role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton.
Ranging in size from 8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate filaments function as tension-bearing
elements to help maintain cell shape and rigidity.
 Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down
cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are
transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
 Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These
filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the
cytoskeleton.
 Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a variety of functions, ranging
from transport to structural support.
 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm
of every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting
oxygen and nutrients into energy.
 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information
processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it
stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which
include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
 Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the
cytoplasm, roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of
microbodies but peroxisomes are the most common.
 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents.
In prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These
membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
 Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately
60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands
of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.

In addition the optical and electron microscope, scientists are able to use a number of other
techniques to probe the mysteries of the animal cell. Cells can be disassembled by chemical
methods and their individual organelles and macromolecules isolated for study. The process of cell
fractionation enables the scientist to prepare specific components, the mitochondria for example, in
large quantities for investigations of their composition and functions. Using this approach, cell
biologists have been able to assign various functions to specific locations within the cell. However,
the era of fluorescent proteins has brought microscopy to the forefront of biology by enabling
scientists to target living cells with highly localized probes for studies that don't interfere with the
delicate balance of life processes.