Psychology of Men & Masculinity © 2012 American Psychological Association

2013, Vol. 14, No. 3, 329 –333 1524-9220/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0029551

BRIEF REPORT

Race and Gender as Moderators of the Relationship Between the

Endorsement of Traditional Masculinity Ideology and Alexithymia: An
Intersectional Perspective

Ronald F. Levant Y. Joel Wong

The University of Akron Indiana University Bloomington
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Using a large (n ⫽ 1127) racially diverse (Black Americans, 24.3%; Latino/a Americans, 40.7%; and
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

White Americans, 35.0%) dataset from a prior study (Levant, Richmond, et al., 2003), this study
examined the role of race and gender as moderators of the relationship between the endorsement of
traditional masculinity ideology and alexithymia. While neither race nor gender moderated the relation-
ship between these two variables, the moderating effect of race on the relationship between endorsement
of traditional masculinity ideology and alexithymia was strongly affected by gender: the endorsement of
traditional masculinity ideology was more strongly related to alexithymia for White men than for racial
minority men, whereas the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology was more strongly related to
alexithymia for racial minority women than for White women.

Keywords: alexithymia, gender, intersectionality, Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI), masculinity
ideology, race

Masculinity ideology is defined as a set of cultural beliefs
about how boys and men should (or should not) think, feel, and
behave. It is the central construct in the Gender Role Strain
Paradigm (Levant, 2011; Pleck, 1981, 1995). There is a form of
masculinity ideology, referred to as “traditional masculinity
ideology,” which was the dominant view before the emergence
of second wave feminism in the late 1960s and 1970s and
remains to some extent the dominant form today. However,
masculinity ideology, being a set of cultural beliefs, is thought
to vary by culture; hence we speak of masculinity ideologies.
Measures of traditional masculinity ideology have been used to
assess such cultural variations in the endorsement of the tradi-
tional masculine norms. Differences in the overall endorsement
and in the weighting of subscales of these measures of tradi-
tional masculine norms have been found, corresponding to
differences in various dimensions of cultural diversity: gender,
ethnicity, race, nationality, social class, age, generation within
a family, geographic region of residence, sexual orientation,
and disability status (Levant, Cuthbert, et al., 2003; Levant &
Majors, 1997; Levant, Majors, & Kelly, 1998; Levant & Rich-
mond, 2007; Levant, Richmond, et al., 2003; Levant, Wu, &
This article was published Online First August 6, 2012.
Ronald F. Levant, Department of Psychology, Collaborative Program in
Counseling Psychology, Buchtel College of Arts and Sciences, The Uni-
versity of Akron; Y. Joel Wong, Department of Counseling and Educa-
tional Psychology, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ronald F.
Levant, EdD, ABPP, Professor, Collaborative Program in Counseling
Psychology, Buchtel College of Arts and Sciences, The University of
Akron, Akron, OH 44325-4301. E-mail: levant@uakron.edu
Fischer, 1996; Pleck, Sonenstein, & Ku, 1994; Thompson &
Pleck, 1986; Wu, Levant, & Sellers, 2001).
Traditional masculinity ideology influences the socialization of
children and the behavior of adults (Levant, 1996; Pleck, Sonen-
stein, & Ku, 1994). Specifically, through social interactions result-
ing in reinforcement, punishment, and observational learning, tra-
ditional masculinity ideology informs, encourages, and constrains
boys (and men) to conform to the prevailing male role norms by
adopting certain socially sanctioned masculine behaviors and
avoiding certain proscribed behaviors (Levant, 1996, 2011). One
central masculine norm is the restriction of emotional expression.
Levant (1992, 1995, 1998) drew on the Gender Role Strain Para-
digm to theorize that mild-to-moderate forms of alexithymia
would occur more frequently among men whose socialization as
boys was informed to greater degrees by traditional masculinity
ideology. Indeed, empirical research finds a relationship between
the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and alexithy-
mia in men (Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers, 2005;
Fischer & Good, 1997; Levant et al., 2006; Levant, Richmond, et
al., 2003).
The Intersectional perspective draws attention to the “mutually
constitutive relationships among social identities” (Shields, 2008,
p. 301). As such this perspective advises that researchers, when
examining a particular demographic category (e.g., women), first
ask the question of who is included in that category. This is done
to become aware of the full diversity within the category, as an
antidote to the systematic underrepresentation of marginalized and
oppressed groups in psychological research (Cole, 2009). Once
that is done, one often finds that generalizations about a particular
demographic category, such as women, are not possible, because
of the mutually constitutive relations between race and gender. For

329
 330 LEVANT AND WONG
example, viewing a TV show featuring a White cast has been
found to have very different effects on White and Black women’s
body image (Cole, 2009). Further, Stewart and McDermott (2004,
p. 536), citing Gay and Tate (1998), note that, “although black
women strongly identify both as ‘women’ and as ‘Blacks,’ when
they are confronted with political situations such as the Million
Man March, O. J. Simpson trail, and Clarence Thomas nomination,
black women’s political attitudes were mostly determined by their
racial identity.”
Although realization of the full advantages of the intersectional
perspective may require qualitative research or mixed methods,
some information can be obtained by examining the role of social
identities as moderators of the relationship between other vari-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
ables. That is the purpose of the present study: To examine the role
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
of race1 and gender as moderators of the relationship between the
endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and alexithymia.
Although both variables have been investigated in both genders, as
noted above, the link between them has been found in men but has
not yet been investigated in women. However, recent writing
suggests that it is important to investigate masculinity ideologies
and their correlates in both men and women (Levant, 2011; Whor-
ley & Addis, 2006). Further, although men socialized under tra-
ditional masculinity ideology have been posited to have higher
levels of alexithymia, and men have been found to have higher
levels of alexithymia than women (Levant, Hall, Williams, &
Hasan, 2009), alexithymia also exists in women. Levant et al.
(2009) found a small effect size for gender differences in alexithy-
mia (Hedges’ d ⫽ .22), which suggests that there is approximately
an 85% overlap of the distributions of alexithymia in the two
gender groups. Hence the present study included both men and
women. Specifically, we examined two research questions: (a)
whether race and gender would each moderate the relationship
between endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and alex-
ithymia, and (b) whether the moderating effect of race on the
relationship between endorsement of traditional masculinity ide-
ology and alexithymia differed across gender (i.e., a three-way
moderation effect among race, gender, and endorsement of tradi-
tional masculinity ideology). The data for the present study were
collected for a prior study, Levant, Richmond et al. (2003), which
did not examine the role of race and gender as moderators of the
relationship between the endorsement of traditional masculinity
ideology and alexithymia.
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 1127 Black Americans (24.3%), Lati-
no/a Americans (40.7%), and White Americans (35.0%). Among
participants, 61.0% were female (age M ⫽ 22.81, SD ⫽ 7.22).
Four sites were selected for the prior study on the basis of their
predominant race (which ranged from 71.6% to 94% of the pop-
ulation): San Juan, Puerto Rico (Latino/a); Gainesville, Florida
(White); Detroit, Michigan (Black); and New York, New York
(Latino/a).
Instruments
Family income. Family income (annual) was measured with
a six-point scale, where 1 ⫽ less than $20,000, 2 ⫽ $20,001 to
$40,000, 3 ⫽ $40,001 to $60,000, 4 ⫽ $40,001 to $60,000, 5 ⫽
$60,001 to $80,000, and 6 ⫽ more than $100,000.
Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI). The 57-item MRNI
assesses masculinity ideology (Levant et al., 1992). The items
are rated on seven-point Likert-type scales, ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores
indicating more traditional masculinity ideology. A sample item
is “A man should do whatever it takes to be admired and
respected.” There are eight subscales: Avoidance of Femininity,
Fear and Hatred of Homosexuals, Self-Reliance, Aggression,
Achievement and Status, Attitudes toward Sex, Restrictive
Emotionality, and Nontraditional Masculinity Ideology. There
is a Total Traditional Scale, which is an average of the scores on
the seven traditional subscales. Evidence supporting reliability and
validity were reported in Levant and Richmond (2007). Cron-
bach’s alpha for the Total Traditional Scale for the present study
was .92.
Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). The 20-item TAS-20
assesses alexithymia (Bagby, Parker & Taylor, 1994; Bagby, Tay-
lor & Parker, 1994; Taylor, 1994). A sample item is “I don’t know
what’s going on inside me.” Participants indicate the extent of their
agreement/disagreement on five-point Likert-type scales, ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher scores
indicating greater alexithymia. There are three subscales: Diffi-
culty Identifying feelings, Difficulty Describing Feelings and
Externally-Oriented Thinking, and an overall scale. Cronbach’s
alpha for the present study was .85.
Procedure
The surveys were distributed to participants in classroom or
community settings. For the Puerto Rican participants, the instru-
ments were translated into Spanish by two individuals fluent in
English and Spanish, using the method of back translation (Brislin,
1970).
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients of the main
measures are shown in Table 1. A preliminary analysis showed
that participants’ family income was negatively and significantly
associated with TAS-20 (rs ⫽ .10, p ⫽ .001). Therefore, family
income was included as a covariate in the main analyses.
A hierarchical linear regression was used to address our research
questions (see Table 2). Following Frazier, Tix, and Barron (2004),
the predictor variables were standardized using z scores to reduce
multicollinearity. None of the Variance Inflation Factor scores for the
predictors were greater than 10, indicating no evidence of multicol-
linearity (Myers, 1990). The outcome measure was TAS-20. At step
1, family income was entered as a covariate. The main predictors were
entered at step 2. MRNI and being Latino were significantly and
positively associated with TAS-20, whereas gender and being Black
were not. At step 3, two-way moderation terms involving race and
1
We are using the term “race” to refer to Black, Latino, and White
Americans because we view race as a social construct that classifies people
according to perceived similarities, whereas we view “ethnicity” as refer-
ring to cultural heritage. We are aware that the U.S. census does not treat
Latinos as a racial group.
 MODERATION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MRNI AND TAS 331

Table 1 gender differences in alexithymia, and relationships between the

Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations for the Main Study two variables for men. While we did not find any evidence that
Measures either race or gender moderated the relationship between these two
variables, we did find that the moderating effect of race on the
Measures Gender Black Latino TAS-20 MRNI relationship between endorsement of traditional masculinity ide-
Gender — .02 .04 .07ⴱ .35ⴱⴱ ology and alexithymia was profoundly affected by gender: the
Black — ⫺.47ⴱⴱ .04 .25ⴱⴱ endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology was more strongly
Latino — .08ⴱⴱ ⫺.06ⴱ related to alexithymia for White men than for racial minority men,
TAS-20 — .33ⴱⴱ whereas the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology was
M (SD) — — — 2.23 (.59) 3.40 (.81)
more strongly related to alexithymia for racial minority women
Note. Gender: 0 ⫽ female, 1 ⫽ male; Latino: 0 ⫽ non-Latino, 1 ⫽ than for White women.
Latino; Black: 0 ⫽ non-Black; 1 ⫽ Black; TAS-20 ⫽ Toronto Alexithymia These findings illustrate the utility of the Intersectional perspec-
Scale; MRNI ⫽ Male Role Norms Inventory. tive in drawing attention to the way that a person’s social identities
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01.
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strongly influence, and even constitute each other (Shields, 2008).

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In this case, the moderating effect of being (or not being) a

gender were entered to address our first research question. None of the member of a racial minority intersects with gender in such a way
two-way moderation effects (gender ⫻ MRNI, Latino ⫻ MRNI, that the moderating effect is reversed by gender. The results for the
Black ⫻ MRNI, gender ⫻ Latino, and gender ⫻ Black) were signif- men are more readily interpretable than those for the women
icant. Hence, there was no evidence that race and gender moderated because more research has been done on these variables in men.
the association between endorsement of traditional masculinity ide- Traditional masculinity ideology, which defines the social norms
ology and alexithymia. for the male gender role, is postulated to uphold existing gender-
To address our second question, we examined two three-way based power structures in the Western World that privilege men,
moderation effects involving race ⫻ gender ⫻ MRNI at step 4. The most particularly White, upper class, heterosexual, able-bodied,
Latino ⫻ MRNI ⫻ gender and the Black ⫻ MRNI ⫻ gender Christian men. Connell and Messerschmidt (2005), in their update
moderation effects were significant. To further examine these two of the hegemonic masculinity concept, noted that hegemonic mas-
significant three-way moderation effects, we decomposed the race ⫻ culinity not only undergirds men’s collective dominance over
MRNI moderation effects for women and men separately using an women but also marginalizes men of color. Racial minority men
SPSS macro developed by Hayes and Mattes (2009). MRNI was less have been found to endorse traditional masculinity ideology to a
strongly related to TAS-20 among Latino men (B ⫽ .14, SE ⫽ .04, p greater extent that do White men (Levant & Majors, 1997; Levant
⫽ .0003) than among non-Latino American men (B ⫽ .28, SE ⫽ .05, et al., 1998; Levant, Richmond et al., 2003; Pleck et al., 1994),
p ⬍ .0001). Similarly, MRNI was less strongly related to TAS-20 which is thought to be an adaptation to such marginalization.
among Black men (B ⫽ .14, SE ⫽ .05, p ⫽ .0091) than among However, it may be that racial minority men who endorse tradi-
non-Black men (B ⫽ .28, SE ⫽ .05, p ⬍ .0001). We found the tional masculinity ideology are less personally invested in con-
opposite results for women. MRNI was more strongly related to forming to the norms associated with traditional masculinity ide-
TAS-20 among Latina women (B ⫽ .27, SE ⫽ .04, p ⬍ .0001) than ology, thereby weakening the link between ideology endorsement
among non-Latina women (B ⫽ .13, SE ⫽ .04, p ⫽ .0025). Similarly,
MRNI was more strongly related to TAS-20 among Black women
(B ⫽ .29, SE ⫽ .05, p ⬍ .0001) than among non-Black women (B ⫽ Table 2
.13, SE ⫽ .04, p ⫽ .0025). Hierarchical Linear Regression Model Predicting TAS-20
We also conducted a post hoc analysis by combining Latinos
and Blacks into one racial category. We reran our hierarchical Measure R2 ⌬R2 B SE ␤
linear regression using this combined racial category (racial mi- Step 1 .01ⴱⴱ
nority vs. White). Similar to our earlier findings, we found a Family income ⫺.06 .02 ⫺.10ⴱⴱ
significant three-way race ⫻ gender ⫻ MRNI moderation effect, Step 2 .12ⴱⴱ .11ⴱⴱ
B ⫽ ⫺.27, ␤ ⫽ ⫺.17, SE ⫽ .08, p ⬍ .001, which indicated that the Gender ⫺.07 .04 ⫺.05
racial differences detected in the moderation effects reflected MRNI .21 .02 .35ⴱⴱ
Latino .09 .04 .08ⴱ
White versus racial minority differences. Collectively, these find- Black ⫺.02 .05 ⫺.02
ings indicate that the moderating effect of race on the link between Step 3 .13ⴱⴱ .002
the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and alexithy- Gender ⫻ MRNI ⫺.04 .04 ⫺.05
mia differed between women and men. Specifically, endorsement Latino ⫻ MRNI .003 .04 .004
Black ⫻ MRNI .03 .05 .02
was more strongly related to alexithymia for White men than for Gender ⫻ Latino ⫺.03 .09 ⫺.02
racial minority men. In contrast, endorsement was more strongly Gender ⫻ Black ⫺.03 .10 ⫺.01
related to alexithymia for racial minority women than for White Step 4 .14ⴱⴱ .01ⴱⴱ
women. Latino ⫻ Gender ⫻ MRNI ⫺.28 .09 ⫺.21ⴱⴱ
Black ⫻ Gender ⫻ MRNI ⫺.30 .10 ⫺.19ⴱⴱ

Discussion Note. Gender: 0 ⫽ female, 1 ⫽ male; Latino: 0 ⫽ non-Latino, 1 ⫽

Latino; Black: 0 ⫽ non-Black; 1 ⫽ Black; TAS-20 ⫽ Toronto Alexithymia
Prior research, as noted above, has found racial and gender Scale; MRNI ⫽ Male Role Norms Inventory.
ⴱ
differences in the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01.
 332 LEVANT AND WONG
and alexithymia. In contrast, the relationship between endorsement
of traditional masculinity ideology and alexithymia might be stron-
ger for White men because the norms associated with traditional
masculinity are more personally beneficial to their lives. This is an
empirical question which future research can address by investi-
gating the relationships between the endorsement of traditional
masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine norms, and alex-
ithymia in racial minority and White men.
The results for women—that the endorsement of traditional mas-
culinity ideology was more strongly related to alexithymia for racial
minority women than for White women—are more challenging to
interpret because so little research has been done on the role of
masculinity ideology in women’s lives. The next step might be a
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
qualitative study to uncover the meaning of these two variables in the
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
lives of racial minority and White women.
One limitation of this study stems from the self-report nature of the
surveys, which introduces the possibility of socially desirable re-
sponding. Future research should use a multimethod collection of the
data, including behavioral observations to assess masculinity ideology
and semantic priming to assess alexithymia (Levant, Allen, Shook,
Rogers, & Lien, 2010). Furthermore, although the sample was large
and racially diverse, another limitation is that the majority of partic-
ipants were university students. Future research should seek out
community participants who are more diverse in age than the present
sample.
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Received December 21, 2011
Revision received April 26, 2012
Accepted June 12, 2012 䡲

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Please note the following important points:

• To be selected as a reviewer, you must have published articles in peer-reviewed journals. The
experience of publishing provides a reviewer with the basis for preparing a thorough, objective
review.

• To be selected, it is critical to be a regular reader of the five to six empirical journals that are most
central to the area or journal for which you would like to review. Current knowledge of recently
published research provides a reviewer with the knowledge base to evaluate a new submission
within the context of existing research.

• To select the appropriate reviewers for each manuscript, the editor needs detailed information.
Please include with your letter your vita. In the letter, please identify which APA journal(s) you
are interested in, and describe your area of expertise. Be as specific as possible. For example,
“social psychology” is not sufficient—you would need to specify “social cognition” or “attitude
change” as well.

• Reviewing a manuscript takes time (1– 4 hours per manuscript reviewed). If you are selected to
review a manuscript, be prepared to invest the necessary time to evaluate the manuscript
thoroughly.

APA now has an online video course that provides guidance in reviewing manuscripts. To learn
more about the course and to access the video, visit http://www.apa.org/pubs/authors/review-
manuscript-ce-video.aspx.