Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
Review
Recent advances in
the formulation of
gluten-free
cereal-based
products
E. Gallaghera*, T.R. Gormleya
and E.K. Arendtb
a
Teagasc, The National Food Centre, Ashtown,
Dublin 15, Ireland (fax: +353-1-805-9550;
e-mail: egallagher@nfc.teagasc.ie)
b
Department of Food and Nutritional Science,
National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland
The replacement of gluten presents a major technological
challenge, as it is an essential structure-building protein,
which is necessary for formulating high quality cereal-based
goods. Rising demands for gluten free products parallels the
apparent or real increase in coeliac disease, or other allergic
reactions/intolerances to gluten. This paper reviews the
current prevalence of coeliac disease, and recent advances
in the preparation of gluten-free products, using starches,
hydrocolloids, gums and novel ingredients and processes.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Coeliac disease is a life-long intolerance to the gliadin
fraction of wheat and the prolamins of rye (secalins),
barley (hordeins) and possibly oats (avidins) (Murray,
1999). The reaction to gluten ingestion by sufferers of
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012
coeliac disease is inflammation of the small intestine
leading to the malabsorption of several important
nutrients including iron, folic acid, calcium and fat-
soluble vitamins (Feighery, 1999; Kelly, Feighery, Gal-
lagher, & Weir, 1999). Murray (1999) concluded that
coeliac disease is the end result of three processes
(genetic predisposition, environmental factors and
immunogically-based inflammation) that culminates in
intestinal mucosal damage. The only effective treatment
for coeliac disease is a strict adherence to a gluten-free
diet throughout the patient’s lifetime, which, in time
results in clinical and mucosal recovery. Foods not
allowed in a gluten-free diet include: (i) any bread, cer-
eal or other food made with wheat, rye, barley, triticale,
dinkel, kamut and oat flour or ingredients, and by-pro-
ducts made from those grains; (ii) processed foods that
contain wheat and gluten-derivatives as thickeners and
fillers, for example hot dogs, salad dressings, canned
soups/dried soup mixes, processed cheese, cream sauces;
and (iii) medications that use gluten as pill or tablet
binders.
Gluten is the main structure-forming protein in flour,
and is responsible for the elastic characteristics of
dough, and contributes to the appearance and crumb
structure of many baked products. Gluten removal
results in major problems for bakers, and currently,
many gluten-free products available on the market are
of low quality, exhibiting poor mouthfeel and flavour
(Arendt, O’Brien, Schober, Gormley, & Gallagher,
2002). This presents a major challenge to the cereal
technologist and baker alike, and has led to the search
for alternatives to gluten in the manufacture of gluten-
free bakery products. This review discusses the concept
of coeliac disease and its increasing prevalence, and
focuses on advances in the formulation of gluten-free
cereal-based products.
Coeliac disease and the iceberg model
Recent epidemiological studies have shown that the
prevalence of coeliac disease has been significantly
underestimated (Ascher & Kristiansson, 1997; Fasano
& Catassi, 2001; Hovdenak, Hovlid et al., 1999; John-
son, Watson, McMillan, Sloan, & Love, 1997). From
the first report of coeliac disease in the 2nd century, to
the discovery of antigliadin serological testing methods,
much has been learned (Thomas, 1945). One of the
oldest epidemiological studies on coeliac disease was
144 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
conducted in 1950 (Davidsson & Fountain, 1950),
where incidence of the disease in England and Wales
was found to be 1/8000, and 1/4000 in Scotland. How-
ever, diagnosis was based entirely on the detection of
typical symptoms and confirmed by complicated and
sometimes non-specific tests. By the 1960s, more specific
tests and the peroral biopsy technique became available,
thus increasing the numbers of diagnosed cases in sub-
sequent studies (Logan, Rigking, Busuttil, Gilmous, &
Ferguson, 1986; Mylotte, Egan-Mitchell, McCarthy, &
McNicholl, 1973). Although biopsy still remains the
definitive diagnostic investigative procedure (Kennedy
& Feighery, 2000), a heightened suspicion or awareness
of coeliac disease, coupled with improved diagnostic
procedures (antigliadin antibody serological tests) have
resulted in a substantially increased rate of diagnosis. It
is now possible to accurately evaluate the true pre-
valence of coeliac disease and Table 1 shows the differ-
ence between traditional clinical diagnosis (according to
classical gastrointestinal symptoms, measured by
biopsy) and modern serological tests (Fasano & Catassi,
2001). Some of the highest incidences of coeliac disease
(1:200–1:300) have been found in Sweden (Grodinsky,
1992), Italy (Catassi et al., 1994) and Ireland (Stevens,
1987).
The iceberg model is commonly used to explain the
prevalence of coeliac disease (Visakorpi, 1997) (Fig. 1)
and the prevalence can be conceived as the overall size
of the iceberg. Cases which have been properly diag-
nosed make up the visible section (A) of the iceberg in
quantitative terms (Fasano & Catassi, 2001). Patients
who have been recently diagnosed, and are now follow-
ing a gluten-free diet and show a normal mucosa form
the lower part of this section. Below the waterline there
is a group of ‘silent’ cases (B), which have not yet been
identified and have flat small intestinal mucosa. They
may remain undiagnosed because the condition has no
symptoms, or the symptoms have not been linked to
coeliac disease. At the bottom of the iceberg (C), there is
a small group of patients with latent coeliac disease.
Table 1. Prevalence of coeliac disease based on clinical
diagnosis or screening data (Fasano and Catassi, 2001)
Geographic area Prevalence on Prevalence on
clinical diagnosis screening data
Denmark 1:10,000 1:500
Finland 1:1000 1:130
Germany 1:2300 1:500
Italy 1:1000 1:184
Netherlands 1:4500 1:198
Norway 1:675 1:250
Sweden 1:330 1:190
United Kingdom 1:300 1:112
United States 1:10,000 1:111
Worldwide average 1:3345 1:266
These show a normal mucosa while taking gluten, yet
still have the potential to develop the disease (Feighery,
1999).
The gluten-free label
The Codex Standard for gluten-free foods was adop-
ted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the
World Health Organization (WHO) and by the Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 1976. In 1981
and in 2000 draft revised standards stated that so-called
gluten-free foods are described as: (a) consisting of, or
made only from ingredients which do not contain any
prolamins from wheat or all Triticum species such as
spelt, kamut or durum wheat, rye, barley, oats or their
crossbred varieties with a gluten level not exceeding 20
ppm; or (b) consisting of ingredients from wheat, rye,
barley, oats, spelt or their crossbred varieties, which
have been rendered gluten-free; with a gluten level not
exceeding 200 ppm; or (c) any mixture of two ingre-
dients as in (a) and (b) mentioned with a level not
exceeding 200 ppm.
In this context, the WHO/FAO standard gluten was
defined as a protein fraction from wheat, rye, barley,
oats or their crossbred varieties (e.g. Triticale) and
derivatives thereof, to which some persons are intoler-
ant and that is insoluble in water and 0.5M NaCl. Pro-
lamins are defined as the fraction from gluten that can
be extracted by 40–70% aqueous ethanol. The prolamin
from wheat is gliadin, from rye is secalin, from barley
hordein and from oats avenin. The prolamin content of
gluten is generally taken as 50%.
However, there is still discrepancy around the world
in labelling foods gluten-free because the exact amount
of toxic prolamins that individuals with coeliac disease
may consume without damaging the mucosa of the
small intestine has still not been scientifically deter-
mined (Thompson, 2000). It was previously believed
that the protein component of wheat could be com-
pletely removed from the starch component, but it is
now known that some amount of protein still remains in
the starch. In the United States and Canada, the glu-
ten-free diet is devoid of any gluten, and is based on
naturally gluten-free ingredients such as rice. However,
in the United Kingdom, products labelled as being
gluten-free may still contain an amount of wheat
starch.
The role of gluten in bakery products
Gluten is a proteinaceous material that can be sepa-
rated from flour when the starch and other minor com-
ponents of the flour are removed by washing out with
running water. The resulting gluten contains approxi-
mately 65% water. On a dry matter basis, gluten con-
tains 75–86% protein, the remainder being
carbohydrate and lipid, which are held strongly within
the gluten–protein matrix (Bloksma & Bushuk, 1998).
 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
Fig. 1. Iceberg model depicting prevalence of coeliac disease (Feighery, 1999).
Gluten contains the protein fractions glutenin and glia-
din. The former is a rough, rubbery mass when fully
hydrated, while gliadin produces a viscous, fluid mass
on hydration. Gluten, therefore, exhibits cohesive, elas-
tic and viscous properties that combine the extremes of
the two components (Anon., 1982). The gluten matrix is
a major determinant of the important properties of
dough (extensibility, resistance to stretch, mixing toler-
ance, gas holding ability), which encloses the starch
granules and fibre fragments.
Gluten is often termed the ‘structural’ protein for
breadmaking. The properties of gluten become apparent
when flour is hydrated, giving an extensible dough, with
good gas holding properties, and a good crumb struc-
ture in baked bread. The absence of gluten often results
in a liquid batter rather than a dough pre-baking, and
can result in baked bread with a crumbling texture,
poor colour and other quality defects post-baking.
Rotsch (1954) concluded from his studies that bread
doughs without gluten can only retain gas if another gel
replaces the gluten. Preparation of gluten-free pasta is
difficult, as the gluten contributes to a strong protein
network that prevents dissolution of the pasta during
cooking. The diversification of gluten-free raw materi-
als which may be used may also necessitate modifica-
tions to the traditional production process (Marconi &
Careca, 2001). Such problems are rarely encountered
during the manufacture of gluten-free biscuits, as the
development of a gluten network in biscuit and cookie
dough is minimal and undesirable (apart from some
semi-sweet biscuits, which may have a developed gluten
system); the texture of baked biscuits is primarily
attributable to starch gelatinization and supercooled
sugar rather than a protein/starch structure (Gallagher,
2002).
145
The formulation of gluten-free cereal-based
products
The formulation of gluten-free bakery products pre-
sents a formidable challenge to both the cereal technol-
ogist and the baker. A literature search has indicated a
limited number of papers on gluten-free bakery pro-
ducts. This reflects both the difficulty of the technologi-
cal challenge and the lack of awareness of the number of
people requiring gluten-free products, both as coeliacs
and as non-coeliac persons intolerant or allergic to glu-
ten. In recent years there has been significantly more
R&D on gluten-free products, involving a diverse
approach which has included the use of starches, dairy
products, gums and hydrocolloids, other non-gluten
proteins, prebiotics and combinations thereof, as alter-
natives to gluten, to improve the structure, mouthfeel,
acceptability and shelf-life of gluten-free bakery pro-
ducts. Such R&D has also lead to an increase in the
range of gluten-free products being sold in health shops
and supermarkets. Recent scientific developments/
approaches are reviewed below. Extensive R&D is
ongoing at the authors’ laboratories at The National
Food Centre and at University College, Cork in a joint
project which is using a bioengineering approach. This
term is used to describe the building of texture in gluten-
free cereal based products (in the absence of gluten)
using a range of novel/functional ingredients.
Starches and gums/hydrocolloids
Starches and hydrocolloids are widely used in the
bakery industry to impart texture and appearance
properties to cereal-based foods (Anon., 2002; Cunin,
1999; Laureys, 1996; Salama, 2001; Ward & Andon,
2002). A number of teams have used a range of starches
with gums/hydrocolloids for making gluten-free bakery
146 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
products. Studies have been conducted using wheat
starch and non-wheat starches, the latter being more
desirable as some coeliacs cannot tolerate wheat starch.
(Reports have highlighted that the long-term effects of
regular ingestion of small amounts of gliadin (e.g. wheat
starch) were harmful to patients with coeliac disease
(Chartrand, Russo, Dulhaime, & Seidman, 1997;
Hovarth & Mehta, 2000; Lohiniemi, Maki, Kaukinen,
Laippala, & Collin, 2000; Skerritt & Hill, 1992).
To ensure that gluten-free bread is acceptable, pro-
ducts with baked and sensory characteristics similar
to those of wheat flour yeast bread are needed. Rot-
sch’s (1954) study on the role of starch in bread-
making showed that breads could be prepared from
starch and gel-forming substances. Rice starches are
widely available and offer potential in the formulation
of gluten-free baked products. Absence of gluten, low
levels of sodium and high amounts of easily digested
carbohydrate are all properties of rice, which are
desirable for special diets (Eliasson & Larsson, 1993).
However, the absence of gluten causes problems in
breadmaking. Kang, Choi, and Choi (1997) showed that
many gum types including hydroxypropyl-
methylcellulose (HPMC), locust bean gum, guar gum,
carageenan, xanthan gum and agar gave successful for-
mation of rice bread where HPMC gave optimum
volume expansion. Gan, Rafael, Cato, and Small (2001)
found that HPMC (1.7%) and carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC) (0.4%), as gluten substitutes, gave better bread
characteristics than guar gum (0.7%) in a 50:50 wheat
flour: rice flour formulation. They also concluded that
replacing 30% of the wheat flour by rice flour was the
maximum possible level for acceptable bread quality
without addition of a gluten substitute, and brown rice
flour was unsuitable for baking rice bread. Cato, Rafael,
Gan, and Small (2002) found that fine white and ground
rice flours gave gluten-free breads of good quality when
used in combination with CMC (0.8%) and HPMC
(3.3%).
Ács, Kovacs, and Matuz (1996a, 1996b) investigated
the use of different binding agents (xanthan, guar gum,
locust bean gum and tragant) as a substitute for gluten
in gluten-free bread formulations based on corn starch.
They found that the binding agents resulted in a highly
significant increase in loaf volume and loosening of the
crumb structure. The highest quality gluten-free bread
contained xanthan gum at levels of 1–3%.
Ranhorta, Loewe, and Puyat (1975) discussed the
application of soy protein in the manufacture of gluten-
free breads. They formulated wheat starch-based gluten-
free breads with 20, 30 and 40% soy protein isolate
(containing 88% protein). The breads had more protein
and fat than wheat bread and showed satisfactory bak-
ing characteristics. Fermented cassava starches were
used by Demiate, Dupuy, Huvenne, Cereda, and
Wosiacki (2000) in the production of gluten-free breads
and biscuits in South America. By increasing the proof-
ing time of gluten-free bread dough (based on potato/
corn/rice starches, pectin, emulsifiers and lactose-free
margarine), Bauer (1980) obtained high quality gluten-
free yeast breads and gingerbreads.
Gums and thickeners are used in gluten-free formula-
tions for a variety of purposes including gelling and
thickening, water retention and texture improvement.
They are derived from various sources—seeds, fruits,
plant extracts, seaweeds and micro-organisms—many
are polysaccharides while others are proteins (Norton &
Foster, 2002). Schwarzlaff, Johnson, Barbeau, and
Duncan (1996) used combinations of guar gum and
locust bean gum to partially replace flour in bread. They
found that the introduction of guar gum resulted in
crumb structure with a more even cell size distribution,
while locust bean gum inclusion increased the height of
the bread loaves; both gums retarded bread staling.
Optimum levels for locust bean gum and guar gum were
2–4%.
Gallagher, Polenghi, and Gormley (2002a) investi-
gated the application of novel rice starches (manu-
factured with low to high degrees of starch hydrolysis)
on a replacement basis for wheat starch in gluten-free
bread formulations. The inclusion of the rice starches at
3–9% levels resulted in gluten-free loaves with less yel-
low crumb appearance (Minolta b* value), and darker
crust colour (Minolta L*). Crust hardness was unaf-
fected, but crumb hardness (Texture Profile Analysis)
was reduced, as was the rate of staling. The optimum
level for rice starch inclusion was 6%; this also doubled
dietary fibre content of the loaves. Extensive tests are
also being carried out at University College, Cork, Ire-
land (Arendt et al., 2002) on the formulation of gluten-
free loaves based on corn, potato, buckwheat, with
blends of gums and dairy ingredients.
Dietary fibre
The role of dietary fibre in providing roughage and
bulk, and in contributing to a healthy intestine has long
been recognized. Diets that contain moderate quantities
of cereal grains, fruits and vegetables are likely to pro-
vide sufficient fibre. Due to the fact that gluten-free
products generally are not enriched/fortified, and are
frequently made from refined flour or starch, they may
not contain the same levels of nutrients as the gluten-
containing counterparts they are intended to replace.
Therefore, uncertainty still exists as to whether coeliac
patients living on a gluten-free diet are ensured a nutri-
tionally balanced diet. Grehn, Fridell, Lilliecreutz, and
Hallert (2001) screened the intake of nutrients and foods
of 49 adults diagnosed with coeliac disease and follow-
ing a gluten-free diet. They were found to have a lower
intake of fibre when compared to a control group of
people on a normal diet. Similarly, Lohiniemi et al.,
(2000) found that the average fibre consumption
 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
amongst coeliacs in Sweden was lower than recom-
mended. In their studies with coeliac adolescents, Mar-
iani et al. (1998) concluded that adherence to a strict
gluten free diet worsens the already nutritionally unbal-
anced diet of adolescents. (Dietary levels of nutrients
and fibre were found to be low.) Similar findings were
revealed by Thompson (2000).
The enrichment of gluten-free baked products with
dietary fibres has, therefore, been a topic of research for
various teams of technologists (Codex Alimentarius
Commission, 2000). Inulin is a non-digestible poly-
saccharide that is classed as a dietary fibre. It also acts
as a prebiotic by stimulating the growth of ‘healthy’
bacteria in the colon (Gibson & Roberfroid, 1995).
When added to wheat bread it improves loaf volume
and sliceability, increases dough stability and produces
a uniform and finely grained crumb texture (Anon.,
1999). Gallagher, Polenghi, and Gormley (2002b)
incorporated inulin (8% inclusion level) into a wheat
starch-based gluten-free formulation. The dietary fibre
content of the bread increased from 1.4 (control) to
7.5% (control+inulin) and crust colour was also
enhanced. The latter was due to the enzymes in the yeast
hydrolyzing part of the inulin, resulting in the formation
of fructose, which caused crust browning.
Gambus, Gambus, and Sabat (2002) replaced corn-
starch with amaranthus flour to enhance the protein
and fibre contents of gluten-free breads. At a 10%
replacement level, protein and fibre levels increased by
32 and 152% respectively, while sensory quality was
unaffected. Taylor and Parker (2002) discussed the
application of quinoa as a novel application in the pro-
duction of enriched gluten-free bakery goods. Tosi,
Ciappini, and Masciarelli (1996) described the use of
amaranth in gluten-free products. They formulated a
gluten-free mix using wholemeal amaranthus flour.
Both quinoa and amaranth are pseudocereals, which
have a high nutritional value and only recently are being
utilized as novel/functional ingredients. Schoenlechner
and Berghofer (2002) completed trials with both quinoa
and amaranth (as a 40% replacement for wheat flour in a
yeast bread formulation). They found that the bread
quality (loaf volume and crumb softness) and nutritional
aspects, including dietary fibre content were improved
when the dough moisture was increased to 65%.
Dairy ingredients
The incorporation of dairy ingredients has long been
established in the baking industry (Stahel, 1983; Zadow
& Hardham, 1981). Dairy proteins are highly functional
ingredients and due to their versatility can be readily
incorporated into many food products. They may be
used in bakery products for both nutritional and
functional benefits including flavour and texture
enhancement, and storage improvement (Cocup & San-
derson, 1987; Kenny, Wehrle, Auty, & Arendt, 2001;
147
Mannie & Asp, 1999). Dairy products may be used in
gluten-free bread formulas to increase water absorption
and, therefore, enhance the handling properties of the
batter. However, supplementation of gluten-free breads
with the high lactose-content powders is not suitable for
coeliacs who have significant damage to their intestinal
villi as they may be intolerant of lactose due to the
absence of the lactase enzyme which is generated by the
villi (Ortolani & Pastorello, 1997). Seven dairy powders
were applied to a gluten-free bread formulation by
Gallagher, Gormley, and Arendt (2003). In general, the
powders with a high protein/low lactose content
(sodium caseinate, milk protein isolate) gave breads
with an improved overall shape and volume, and a fir-
mer crumb texture (Fig. 2). These breads had an
appealing dark crust and white crumb appearance, and
received good acceptability scores in sensory tests.
When optimal water was added to the gluten-free for-
mulation these breads exhibited increased volume and a
much softer crust and crumb texture than the controls.
Supplementing the gluten free formulation with high
protein-content dairy powders doubled the protein
content of the breads.
Other approaches
Response surface methodology (RSM) is a statistical
tool, which is particularly appropriate for product
development work. Successful application of RSM in
the production of different types of wheat bread has
been reported (Lee & Hoseney, 1982; Malcolmson,
Matsuo, & Balshaw, 1993). Ylimaki, Hawrysh, Hardin,
and Thomson (1991) used RSM to produce and objec-
tively measure gluten-free breads based on three types
of rice flour (varying in grain size and grinding method).
Amongst their results, they found that optimal loaves
were formulated with medium grain, finely ground rice
flour, low levels of HPMC and low levels of CMC.
These beads were the most similar to wheat flour
breads, based on crust and crumb colour, Instron
firmness and loaf moisture.
They also used the same three rice flours in a second
trial. Gluten-free yeast breads were produced based on
the rice flours (80%) and potato starch (20%). Using
sensory measurements from a trained panel, RSM was
applied to find CMC, HPMC and water combinations
for the different rice flours. It was found that gluten-free
loaves made with medium grain rice flours were of a
higher standard with respect to moistness, cohesiveness,
flavour, colour and cell structure than those made from
long grain rice flour (Ylimaki et al., 1991).
The proportions of cornstarch, cassava starch and
rice flour in the production of gluten-free breads were
optimized by Sanchez, Osella, and de la Torre (2002).
Addition of soy flour was also tested to improve the
bread crumb characteristics. The optimal formulation
was calculated as cornstarch (74.2%), rice flour (17.2%)
148 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
and cassava starch (8.6%). The inclusion of 0.5% soy
flour was found to significantly enhance crumb grain
score and overall bread score. Also, an abnormality of
large gas cells, and a resultant high specific volume was
rectified by the addition of soy flour.
RSM is currently being employed at the authors’
laboratory at The National Food Centre to develop and
optimize a gluten-free bread formulation based on rice
flour, potato starch, skim milk powder and hydroxy-
propylmethylcellulose (HPMC). A central composite
design with two variables (water; 70–95% flour weight
and HPMC; 0.5–2.5% flour weight) was prepared, and
a formulation was optimised based on loaf weight,
specific volume, texture profile analysis and image
analysis measurements. Specific volume was most
influenced by the level of water added (P < 0.005).
HPMC had a significant effect on colour, i.e. CIE L*
values increased as the level of HPMC increased.
Crumb hardness values were reduced as water levels
increased (P < 0.005), except when HPMC was at its
maximum level of addition (Fig. 3). The number of
Fig. 2. Influence of dairy powders, and their level of inclusion, on the volume of gluten free bread loaves.
large gas cells increased (P < 0.05) with increasing levels
of both water and HPMC (Fig. 4). Optimization was
based on the generation of the best results for specific
volume, crumb hardness and image analysis data.
Toufeili et al. (1994) applied RSM to analyze the
effects of methylcellulose, gum arabic and egg albumen
on the sensory properties of gluten-free flat breads baked
from formulae based on pregelatinized rice flour and
pregelatinized cornstarch with cornflour. Methylcellu-
lose and egg albumen were identified as the major deter-
minants of product sensory quality. Lower levels of gum
arabic resulted in loaves of inferior quality. When 3%
gum arabic, and 2–4% methylcellulose and egg albumen
were used, gluten-free breads comparable to wheat
breads were produced. However, the breads staled more
rapidly over a 2-day period than regular wheat bread.
A novel approach at The National Food Centre has
focussed on the supplementation of a control gluten-
free bread formulation based on rice flour and potato
starch with fish surimi (as a structure enhancer and
protein replacer) at a 10% inclusion level (of starch
 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152 149

weight) (Gormley, Elbel, Gallagher, & Arendt, 2003).
Surimi is a concentrate of myofibrillar proteins obtained
after mincing and water washing of fish flesh (Han-
Ching & Leinot, 1993). It contains approximately 78%
water, 20% protein, lipids, sugars and polyphosphates.
Surimi is a highly functional ingredient with excellent
gel-forming properties (Whitehead, 1992). Frozen sur-
imi of four species was evaluated, i.e. mackerel, blue
whiting, red gurnard and pollock. Texture profile ana-
lysis post-baking indicated that three of the surimi
breads had a softer (P < 0.001) crust and crumb than the
controls. These breads also revealed higher (P< 0.001)
loaf volumes than the controls. Paired comparison taste
panel tests for acceptability indicated no difference
between the control and the surimi breads, with the
exception of bread with blue whiting surimi. This was
preferred (P < 0.05) to the control.
Non-bread gluten-free products
Response surface methodology was performed by
Huang, Knight, and Goad (2001) to produce non-gluten
pasta. They based their optimization procedure on sen-
sory properties and pasta stickiness, and found that
gluten-free pasta with characteristics most similar to a
wheat-based pasta was obtained when higher levels of
modified starch, xanthan gum and locust bean gum
were used. This gave samples with a good ‘hardness of
first bite’ and cohesiveness.
Pea flour is higher in protein and lysine than both wheat
flour and semolina. It is also gluten-free. The cooking
quality of pasta products made by twin screw extrusion of
100% pea flour was evaluated by Wang, Bhirud, Sosulski,
and Tyler (1999). They found that the pea flour ingredient,
coupled with the novel process exhibited improved texture
and flavour after cooking, and less change after over-
cooking compared with the same product prepared using
a conventional pasta extruder.
The effects of rice, corn, soya, millet, buckwheat and
potato starches, in combination with different fat sour-
ces (palm oil, cream powder, microencapsulated high fat
powder and low fat dairy powders) on the formulation
of gluten-free biscuits was studied by Arendt et al.
(2002). Rice, corn, potato and soya with high fat pow-
ders produced biscuit doughs, which were sheetable, and
biscuits of comparable quality to wheat biscuits. The
same authors found that cornstarch, guar gum and high
fat powder produced acceptable gluten-free pizza bases.
Tosi, Ciappini, and Masciarelli (1996) used whole-
meal amaranthus flour to develop gluten-free biscuits.
They found that addition of 0.1% butylated hydroxy-
toluene (BHT) to the fat extended the shelf-life without
enhancing the flavour. The protein content of these

Fig. 3. 3-D surface plots of crumb hardness values of gluten-free breads containing low, medium and high levels of water and hydroxy-
propylmethylcellulose (HPMC).
150 E. Gallagher et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 143–152
Fig. 4. 3-D surface plots of image analysis (total number of cells/cm2) values of gluten-free breads containing low, medium and high levels of
water and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC).
biscuits at 5.7%, was higher than the average for
gluten-free biscuits.
Conclusion
A greater awareness, and improved reliability of
diagnostic procedures has recently highlighted the pre-
valence of coeliac disease. Lifelong adherence to a glu-
ten-free diet remains the cornerstone treatment for the
disease. However, gluten is a major component of wheat
and rye flours, and its replacement in bakery products
remains a significant technological challenge. The use of
starches, gums and hydrocolloids represent the most
widespread approach used to mimic gluten in the man-
ufacture of gluten-free bakery products, due to their
structure-building and water binding properties. Novel
approaches including the application of dietary fibres
and alternative protein sources combined with response
surface methodology are also emerging. However, in
view of the current increasing incidence of coeliac/glu-
ten intolerant sufferers (due to improved diagnostic
procedures), there is a major need for more research and
development in the area of gluten-free cereal-based
products.
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