Class XII/Physics

NUCLEUS

Nucleus - General Information

 A nucleus consists of electrically neutral neutrons and positively charged protons. The nucleus of hydrogen has only one
proton and no neutrons.
19
 The charge of proton = the charge of electron = 1.6  10 C
 Mass of proton, mp = 1.6725  10 27 kg
 Mass of neutron, mn = 1.6748  10 27 kg
 Protons and neutrons are commonly known as nucleons.
 The nucleus of any element is symbolically represented by ZXA or ZA X
where, X is the chemical symbol of the element,
Z is the atomic number of the element which represents the number of protons in its nucleus and shows the
position of the element in the periodic table. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is also Z.
A is called the mass number of the element which represents the number of nucleons (protons + neutrons)
inside the nucleus.
N = A - Z represents the number of neutrons.
e.g., the nucleus of carbon is represented by 6C12 and that of uranium by 92U238.
Thus, nucleus of carbon has 6 protons in 12 nucleons and 12 - 6 = 6 neutrons and the
nucleus of uranium has 92 protons in 238 nucleons and 238 - 92 = 146 neutrons.

Particle Symbol Location Charge Mass number

Outside the
Electron e 1 e
0
nucleus
-1 0
Inside the
Proton p 1H
1
nucleus
+1 1
Inside the
Neutron n0 0n
1
nucleus
0 1


Same Different Examples
Carbon- 6 C 12 , 6 C 13 , 6 C 14
Isotopes Z A and N
Uranium- 92 U 233, 92 U 235, 92 U 238

1 H 3 and 2He3 , 32 Ge76and 34Se 76 ,

Isobars A Z and N
3 Li 7 and 4Be 7

Isotones N =A-Z A and Z 36 Kr 86and 37Rb 87

Different
A, Z, N
Isomers
(all)
radioactive Pairs of isomers of 35 Br 80
properties

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 Class XII/Physics

Discovery of neutrons
The discovery of the neutron was based on the results of efforts by some research groups for several years.
(1) Experiment of Bothe and Becker
W. Bothe (Germany, 1891-1975) and his student H. Becker bombarded beryllium with strong alpha-rays from a
polonium source and found a high-energy radiation of strong penetrability (1928). They observed similar radiations
not only from beryllium, but also from lithium and boron. At first, these radiations of strong penetrability were
considered to be high-energy gamma rays.

(2) Experiment of I. Curie and Joliot

Around 1931, I. Curie (France, 1897-1956) and F. Joliot (France, 1900-58) reported that the above high-energy
radiation found by Bothe and Becker was able to eject protons from a paraffin layer. I. and F. Joliot-Curie thought
that this phenomenon is caused by the Compton effect due to high-energy gamma-rays emitted from the polonium-
beryllium source. Namely, they thought that a gamma particle (photon) of Bothe-Becker's high-energy radiation hits
a proton in the paraffin layer to be scattered and the observed proton is nothing but the recoil proton from this
Compton effect.

3) The Discovery of the Neutron by Chadwick

Chadwick was much interested in the report of Joliot-Curie. He repeated the experiments, using the polonium-
beryllium (Po-Be) source.
The schematic drawing of his experimental apparatus is
shown in the figure. The high-energy radiation emitted
from the (Po-Be) source on the left-hand side is led to the
cloud chamber, in front of which a paraffin layer is placed.
The radiation is scattered by a proton in the paraffin and a
photograph of the recoil proton is taken in the cloud
chamber on the right-hand side.
Chadwick collided the radiation emerging from the (Po-Be)
source not only with proton (paraffin), but also with
helium and nitrogen. Comparing the results of these
experiments with each other, Chadwick concluded that this
mysterious radiation from the (Po-Be) source cannot be
interpreted by assuming it to be a gamma ray. He finally
concluded that the mysterious radiation is electrically neutral
particles with almost the same mass as a proton. This is the
confirmation of the existence of the "neutral proton" predicted by Rutherford. Chadwick named this particle
"neutron" (1932).

Nuclear Forces
Despite Coulombian force of repulsion between the protons in the nucleus, nucleus does not break up. This is because of
strong nuclear force of attraction between (i) protons and protons, (ii) neutrons and neutrons and (iii) protons and neutron
which is more than the Coulombian force of repulsion. As far as this force is concerned, there is no difference
between protons and neutrons. Hence they are commonly known as nucleons. This strong force is a short range force which
exists between the neighbouring nucleons but is negligible between the nucleons far away from each other as in the large
nuclei.
The nucleons inside the nucleus experience three forces-Coulomb’s force(electrostatic force), gravitational force and the
nuclear force. The relative strength of gravitational, Coulomb’s and nuclear force is
Fg : Fe : Fn :: 1 : 10 36 : 10 38
The nuclear force possesses the following properties:
i) Nuclear forces are short range forces.
ii) Nuclear forces are charge independent.
iii) Nuclear forces are spin-dependent.
iv) They are exchange forces- The nuclear force between two nucleons is the result of the exchange of  mesons.
v) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
vi) Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
vii) They are saturated forces.

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