International Sports Sciences Association

SPECIALIST IN
SPORTS
NUTRITION
THE COMPLETE GUIDE

Daniel Gastelu, M.S., MFS

Frederick C. Hatfield, Ph.D
International Sports Sciences Association

Copyright © 2013 Daniel Gastelu and Fred Hatfield; All rights reserved. No part of this work
may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ-
ing photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, except as
expressly permitted by 1976 Copyright Act or in writing by the Publisher.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Edition Published 1995 by The International Sports Sciences Association, Inc.
Second Edition Published 2000 by The International Sports Sciences Association, Inc.
All correspondence and inquiries should be directed to:

INTERNATIONAL SPORTS SCIENCES ASSOCIATION

1015 Mark Avenue • Carpinteria, CA 93013 • (800) 892-4772

Acknowledgements
D ESIGNERS: Alex Jacobs and Carrie Steckler
EDITORS: Charles Staley, Judy Hobbisiefken, and Connie Bernardo
R EVIEWER: Charles Staley

ATTENTION. This book is informational regarding any specific products or brand

only. The data and information contained
herein are based upon information from
various published as well as unpublished
sources and merely represents training,
health, and nutrition literature and practice
as summarized by the authors and editors.
The publisher of this book makes no war-
ranties, expressed or implied, regarding the
currency, completeness or scientific accura-
cy of this information, nor does it warrant
the fitness of the information for any
particular purpose. The information is not
intended for use in connection with the sale
of any product. Any claims or presentations
names are strictly the responsibility of the
product owners or manufacturers. This
summary of information from unpublished
sources, books, research journals and arti-
cles is not intended to replace the advice or
attention of health care professionals. It is
not meant to be a source of clinical advice in
any sense of the word. It is not intended to
direct behavior or replace independent
professional judgment. If you have a problem
with your health, or before you embark on
any health, fitness, sports training or nutri-
tional programs, seek clearance from a
qualified health care professional.

800-892-4772
YOUR FREE ISSA HELP LINE

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 Weight Control, Fitness, and Performance Nutrition

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE............................................................................................................4

PART ONE: Nutrients And Athletic Performance From A To Z ........................6

1. Nutrition: The Vital Link To Super Performance..................................................7
2. Nutrients: An Overview......................................................................................16
3. Carbohydrates and the Athlete: The Ultimate Performance Fuel ........................28
4. Proteins and Amino Acids ..................................................................................41
5. Lipids and the Athlete: Energy and Growth Factors ..........................................66
6. Water and Oxygen..............................................................................................76
7. Vitamins ............................................................................................................98
8. Minerals............................................................................................................119
9. Metabolite and Botanical Ergogenic Supplements ............................................136
10. Guide to Food and Sports Supplements: Getting the Nutrients You Need ....152

PART TWO: Anatomy and Metabolism Determine Nutrient Needs ............166

11. Anatomy of an Athlete: Cells, Tissues, and Systems........................................167
12. Digestion and Absorption ..............................................................................183
13. Body Composition and Metabolism ..............................................................190

PART THREE: Fine Tuning Your Performance..............................................217

14. Fitness and Performance Nutrition Approaches ..............................................218
15. Athlete’s Guide to Effective Fat Loss and Muscle Gain ..................................249
16. Enhancing Performance with Carbohydrate Loading......................................272
17. Special Concerns of Athletic Females..............................................................276
18. Drawing Your Clients Or Athletes Into A Performance Lifestyle ....................278
19. Putting It All Together: The Athletic Performance Improvement Formula......283

APPENDIX ....................................................................................................292
The Nature of Strength ........................................................................................293
The Eight Technologies of Training ......................................................................295
Matching Training Technology to Training Objectives..........................................298
References ............................................................................................................301
Glossary ................................................................................................................312

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International Sports Sciences Association

P R E FAC E
The creation and writing of this text book has been a project of several years and is now refined with
information from current research on how nutrition affects performance. In this edition certain sections
of the book have also been expanded. This book is intended to provide a text that Specialists in Sports
Nutrition can use to customize nutritional programs for themselves and their clients, while working
closely with the client’s physician, when deemed appropriate, to insure health and safety.

The need for a practical educational tool of this kind is evident because many people are still con-
fused about nutrition and dietary supplements. This point of confusion is further underscored by
numerous dietary surveys conducted not only among US citizens in general, but also among athletes,
coaches, and trainers. These surveys have continued to reveal that most people – athletes included –
are not following optimum performance diets. A more alarming discovery was the lack of knowledge
possessed by personal trainers, coaches, and professional nutritionists about the special nutritional
requirements for optimal sports performance or optimal fitness.

Therefore, after several years of research and development, the result is this encyclopedic resource on
fitness and sports nutrition which professional trainers, athletes, and fitness enthusiasts can immedi-
ately benefit from. Information is presented on basic sports nutrition factors, the use of nutritional
supplements, energy metabolism, and training tips for several dozen sports as well as almost all the
various fitness activities you can imagine.

We relied on nutrition principles that are established in the scientific literature and those evolving
from our experience, the experience of elite athletes we work with, and the research of the ISSA. So
you may be surprised not to find some of the hyped-up diets or magic-pill nutrition products dis-
cussed in this book. We drew a firm line in the sand of knowledge and only information with sound
independent research is covered in this book. The sports nutrition information presented herein
therefore bridges the gap between theoretical research and practice. This book was not meant to be
a critical scientific overview, and we have therefore limited ourselves to presenting useful facts, not
theoretical debate. For the technical and professional reader, our extensive lists of references contain
hundreds of scientific articles if you are interested in exploring them.

Most often, athletes are led astray by following hyped-up nutrition and supplement programs based
on their marketing slogans and other similar forms of misinformation and are not able to benefit from
the new scientific advances being made in sports nutrition. This book will give every nutrition spe-
cialist the chance to help others reach peak fitness or sports performance by applying proven scien-
tific sports nutrition techniques.

This book begins with an introductory chapter that contains important background information on
nutrition and sets the pace for subsequent chapters. You will also learn important nutrition guide-
lines which can benefit you during the very first hour of your reading. A new chapter starts off Part
Three which presents the "dynamic nutrition" theory of nutrition, which is based on structuring a
nutrition plan that best meets the bio-energetics of your sport or fitness activity. For example, a
marathon runner with highly developed slow twitch muscle fibers, requires different amounts of pro-

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 Weight Control, Fitness, and Performance Nutrition

tein, carbohydrates, and fats when compared to a powerlifter, with highly developed massive fast
twitch fibers.

Parts One and Two contain important background information on the nutrients and your special
metabolic functioning and demands. Part Three includes special nutrition topics, like eating for
weight loss and weight gain, which will enable you to quickly and effectively achieve these body com-
position goals.

PART ONE covers the A to Z’s of nutrition as it applies to increasing athletic performance and main-
taining fitness and good health. You will learn about the macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates,
lipids, and water) and the micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, trace minerals, metabolites, and botan-
icals). Information on foods and supplements is also presented along with a special chapter on
ergogenic aids and sports supplements.

PART TWO covers topics that discuss the functioning of both average people’s and athletes’ bodies
and how metabolism relates to what nutrients are required. A very interesting chapter on body com-
position begins this section and will show you how to determine how much muscle, fat, etc., your
body is made of and what it should consist of for peak performance. Additionally, the chapters cover
topics on energy substrate utilization, sport specific requirements, digestion, and metabolic perform-
ance parameters.

PART THREE starts out with a new chapter on the "dynamic nutrition approach" to performance
nutrition and also has a special nutrition section that contains specific information on fat loss, mus-
cle gain, carbohydrate loading, and putting it all together. This section will enable you to fine tune
your performance and gives fat loss/muscle building approaches that apply to everyone. This section
also answers the question "why so many diets?"

APPENDIX contains useful forms and information, plus a glossary and scientific reference section.

Good luck in your certification process, and continued success in your professional journey.

Daniel Gastelu, MS, MFS, CFT, SSN Frederick C. Hatfield, PhD

ISSA Director of Nutritional Sciences ISSA Co-founder and President

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International Sports Sciences Association

PART ONE:
Nutrients and Athletic Performance
From A to Z

1. Nutrition: The Vital Link To Super Athletic Performance ....................................7

2. Nutrients: An Overview......................................................................................16
3. Carbohydrates: The Ultimate Performance Fuel ................................................28
4. Proteins and Amino Acids ..................................................................................41
5. Lipids and the Athlete: Energy and Growth Factors ..........................................66
6. Water and Oxygen..............................................................................................76
7. Vitamins ............................................................................................................98
8. Minerals............................................................................................................119
9. Metabolite and Botanical Ergogenic Supplements ............................................136
10. Guide to Food and Sports Supplements: Getting the Nutrients You Need ....152

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 Nutrition: The Vital Link to Super Athletic Performance

CHAPTER 1
NUTRITION: THE VITAL LINK TO SUPER ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

ORIGINS OF PERFORMANCE NUTRITION

When one looks back through human history, the search for performance enhancing foods is clearly
evident and dates back several thousand years before even the earliest civilizations had risen. In these
primitive times, it is thought that the early humans searched for foods that increased strength and per-
formance to be better hunters and win wars, not races. History is filled with tales of warriors that ate
and drank various foods to boost their combat prowess. There are even gruesome accounts of victors
eating the hearts of their opponents to capture the spirit of their strength.

What these early competitors realized in their own crude way was that nutrition is an important fac-
tor of physical performance. Just as most cultures have a variety of potions to boost sexual perform-
ance, they also have their traditional foods and rituals for increasing athletic performance.
Nevertheless, aside from these many anecdotal accounts of ancient nutrition practices, it is in the home
of the Olympics that we find the first legitimate documented attempt to improve sports performance
through nutrition. Historians estimate the time and place around 450 B.C. in Greece. It was here that
Dromeus of Stymphalus is credited with adopting special nutrition practices for the improvement of
athletic performance. Most noteworthy of these practices was the consumption of large amounts of
meat to improve muscular strength. Many athletes still eat high protein diets for increased perform-
ance in various sports.

MODERN SCIENCE DISCOVERS HOW NUTRITION IMPROVES PERFORMANCE

We know much more now about how nutrition affects performance, and we reserve high protein diets
for special times and only for certain groups of athletes. Furthermore, the athlete must be using all
aspects of nutrition correctly. There is no single food solution that will increase athletic performance.
The misconception of the "magic food solution" is the reason why there are so many nutrition myths
and such tremendous controversy within the field of sports nutrition. Nutrition for athletes is an
involved science, and many factors must be considered to achieve maximum results.

When you think of the high-tech society we live in today, it is hard to believe that it was only a few
decades ago that the practice of carbohydrate loading and intake of carbohydrates during athletic
events began. Many of you may still remember the days when marathon runners experienced the
phenomena of "hitting the wall" at the end of the race when they depleted their body’s store of car-
bohydrates and were running on primarily stored body fat. By simply ingesting a carbohydrate drink
during the race, marathoners could increase their speed and avoid hitting the wall. It seems pretty
incredible that this was just discovered 30 or so years ago. It also exemplifies the need for taking a sci-
entific approach to nutrition.

We know much more today about improving athletic performance with nutrition than our predeces-
sors could have ever imagined, even 20 years ago. The past two decades have yielded thousands of
studies on how nutrients and nutrition practices can improve performance. Still, most athletes suc-
cumb to misguided information spread around the locker room and in magazines. Surprisingly,

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recent scientific surveys reveal that the majority of athletes, coaches, trainers, and other professionals
tending to the sportsman do not have a working knowledge of what constitutes a good sports nutri-
tion program. This is why many athletes continually resort to ridiculous nutrition practices and find
themselves turning to snake oils or even drugs in an attempt to compensate for poor nutrition habits.
This ignorance is not only dangerous, but counterproductive.

The performance nutrition information discussed herein will enable you to reach your athletic peak
more quickly, and to achieve optimum health in the process. You will find new ways to keep your
energy levels up on a consistent basis. You will also find new information on special athletic nutri-
tion topics such as weight loss, weight gain, and nutrient modulation to achieve maximum output.

Every athlete has experienced directly or indirectly the need to lose weight for sports like wrestling, foot-
ball, or gymnastics. In fact, losing weight is a multi-billion dollar a year industry. However, do you think
that the common methods for losing weight like starving, taking laxatives, and spitting or sweating off
the weight are healthy or effective methods of losing fat? Of course not! And what about the individu-
als who want to gain weight? They will try almost anything to put an extra inch on their biceps or lift a
few more pounds. The same holds for every sport. Athletes want to be leaner and more muscular.

THE NEW AGE OF PERFORMANCE NUTRITION

Now is the time to exit out of the dark ages of performance nutrition and enter into the scientifically
based renaissance of high-tech performance nutrition. This is your chance to do things right and get
the competitive edge you need to win in sports and in life. This text is written for every athlete and
exerciser. You will find it both informative and easy to implement.

The rest of this chapter will provide some general background information on nutrition and discuss
some of the athlete’s special needs.

NUTRITION DEFINED
Defining nutrition seems to be an appropriate starting point, so here we go. Nutrition is the process
of eating and converting food into structural and functional body compounds like skin, muscle, and
hair. It is required for growth, maintenance of bodily functions, repair of tissues, performance, and
health. Different parts of the body need special nutrients to function properly. For example, your
nervous system has different nutritional needs than your muscles. These differences must be consid-
ered to make the whole body perform at its best.

On the surface, getting the nutrition you need seems easy enough. After all, everyone eats something
every day. But recent government reports have concluded that the vast majority of Americans eat too
much of the wrong things (such as fats, sodium and sugar) and not enough of the good stuff (like
complex carbohydrates, lean meats, and vegetables). It’s unbelievable how many athletes, especially
those in their teens, eat frequently at fast food restaurants, consume large amounts of snack foods,
and believe that they are on high protein, low fat diets. In truth, they are on high fat, high sodium
diets that are low in essential nutrients.

The problems of poor nutrition are highly complex but originate from the simple fact that most of
us and the people preparing our meals learned about nutrition way back in grade school, years ago.

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 Nutrition: The Vital Link to Super Athletic Performance

Non-Essential Doesn’t Mean Unimportant

Traditionally, the term "essential nutrient" refers to a nutrient that the body cannot make at all or can-
not make in sufficient amounts to maintain good health. Scientists have discovered over 40 nutrients
that fit into this category. They include the glucose (from carbohydrate), certain amino acids (from pro-
tein), certain fatty acids (linolenic acid), thirteen vitamins, and seventeen minerals.
The term "non-essential" nutrient is terribly misleading and includes all the other nutrients that are not
considered essential. When you are eating for maximum performance and health, the non-essential
nutrients can be just as important as the essentials. For example, by eating a full profile protein that
contains both non-essential and essential amino acids, your body will get the amino acids it needs more
quickly, as it will not have to spend time making the non-essentials from the essentials. For maximum
performance and health, eating the right proportions and amounts of both essential and non-essential
nutrients is important. Plus, there are other performance factors like herbs, metabolites (creatine, ino-
sine, L-carnitine), and phytochemicals that are not essential for survival, but are essential for improved
performance.

What was taught then and even today has nothing to do with nutrition for athletes, and barely pro-
vides a good nutrition program for the non-athlete to follow.

The basic guidelines that you remember probably use the food group approach to good nutrition.
This includes eating a balanced diet consisting of foods from the following groups:
1) Fruits and Vegetables 2) Meat, Poultry, Fish 3) Dairy 4) Breads and Cereals

In theory, this food group approach should work. In practice, we are a nation suffering from fatal dis-
eases due to poor nutrition. A qualitative approach to nutrition does not deal in exact amounts of
nutrients for each individual; nor does it compensate for the special needs of athletes. It only rec-
ommends eating several servings of different foods each day. Additionally, you cannot be certain that
the food you eat will provide reliable nutrition. Scientists have determined that the nutrition content
of most foods will vary greatly depending upon where it is grown. This means that the potato you
buy from Maine may have different amounts of vitamins and minerals then the one grown in Idaho.
There are many studies which report that athletes are deficient in important minerals and vitamins.
They are just not eating right.

Nutrition, especially sports nutrition, is a quantitative science. While the non-athlete may survive
day to day by following general guidelines, the athlete needs a more sophisticated and precise
approach to nutrition to achieve performance excellence. This means that a 150 pound female swim-
mer eats differently than a 250 pound shot putter.

Billions of people eat and live every day. The food supply is quite varied all over the world, and so is
health. Most of us associate a well fed person with a healthy person. However, millions of people die
each year from poor diets loaded with fat and sugar. The athlete must do more than just eat and live.
He/she must operate at a heightened competitive level. For this reason, the athlete must always main-
tain a special high performance nutrition program. The average athlete’s diet consists of two to three
or more times the amount of daily caloric intake than that of a non-athlete. Typically, she/he con-
sumes over 4,000 calories per day. At these high levels of food intake, an athlete had better make
sure she/he is eating the right foods.

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It is therefore of primary importance to understand exactly what constitutes a healthy diet. Once this
is reviewed, you can move on to the scientific intricacies of performance nutrition.

THE 3 E’s OF NUTRITION

By now, it has probably crossed your mind that no one really knows what nutrition plan is right for
each of us. In one sense, you are correct. Scientific advances and new research constantly change the
way we eat for good health. Nonetheless, the following will present a picture of the different levels
of nutrition commonly practiced and shed new light on the reasons why your nutrition program may
be incomplete.

There are three main categories of nutrition philosophies practiced today:

Essential Nutrition for Survival
Essential Nutrition for Optimum Health
Essential Nutrition for Maximum Performance

ESSENTIAL NUTRITION FOR SURVIVAL

Most of the diets eaten by the general population fit into the "Essential Nutrition for Survival"
Category. This category is based on the United States government standard you heard so much about;
the RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowances). The RDAs were first established in 1943 to serve as
a goal for good nutrition. It was recognized that nutrition goals must be established and met to prop-
agate good health on a national basis. On a regular basis, the National Research Council publishes a
new updated edition of the RDAs to reflect the best scientific judgment on nutrient allowances for
good health. The RDAs also serve as the basis for evaluating the adequacy of diets for certain groups
of people. This data baseline is a particularly useful reference point for health practitioners.

However, many progressive health practitioners claim that the RDAs are not adequate for good health.
New and evolving research is demonstrating how eating more of certain nutrients can help improve
and protect health. For example, research shows that taking Vitamin E in amounts more then the
RDA recommends can reduce the risk of certain diseases.

This recent shift away from the strict RDA approach to nutrition is founded on a health driven phi-
losophy of achieving optimum nutrition. The RDAs and other similar government nutrition standards
found worldwide are primarily concerned with preventing diseases that result from essential nutrient
deficiencies like scurvy from the lack of vitamin C.

These government-based guidelines are not aimed at achieving optimum health. In fact, most of the
RDA values are based on the average nutrient intakes of our entire population. For this approach to
be valid, it must be assumed that everyone is eating a healthy diet and everyone’s nutrition require-
ments are the same. But, as mentioned earlier, the National Research Council has determined that
the majority of people are eating poor diets. In fact, the typical American diet is responsible for caus-
ing diseases and the deaths of millions of people each year. So you see right from the start that, the
RDA system is not meant to promote optimum health, as a short run through the RDA story will
demonstrate. To begin, the following nine nutrients were the only ones with RDAs first established
by 1963.

Protein -- Vitamin A -- Vitamin D -- Vitamin C -- Thiamin -- Riboflavin -- Niacin -- Calcium -- Iron

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 Nutrition: The Vital Link to Super Athletic Performance

Table 1-1 "The Essential Nutrients"

Nutrients That The Body Cannot Make At All,
Or In Insufficient Amounts To Maintain Good Health

CARBOHYDRATE: FAT
As a source of Glucose As a source of Linoleic Acid and Linolenic Acid.

PROTEIN:
As sources of "essential amino acids"

Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine

Methionine plus Cystine Phenylalanine Tyrosine Threonine
Tryptophan Valine

MINERALS:
Calcium Phosphorus Sodium Potassium
Chloride Magnesium Sulfur Iron
Iodide Zinc Copper Manganese
Cobalt Fluoride Selenium Chromium
Molybdenum

VITAMINS:
Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K
Thiamin (B1) Riboflavin (B2) Niacin (B3) Pyridoxine (B6)
Cobalamin (B12) Ascorbic Acid (C) Folic Acid Biotin
Pantothenic Acid (B6) Choline Inositol

Other Essential Nutrients to Be Discovered?

Now turn your attention to the following 26 nutrients:

Those with RDA values: Protein, Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K, Vitamin C,
Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium,
Iron, Zinc, Iodine and Selenium. Those with ESADDI values: Biotin, Pantothenic Acid, Copper,
Manganese, Fluoride, Chromium and Molybdenum.

These are the most recent nutrients with RDA or ESADDI (Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily
Dietary Intakes) values (1989 RDA values and Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes,
ESADDI) [nutrients known to be essential but do not yet have an established RDA value]. As you
can see, there are now 19 vitamins and minerals with RDAs, including protein, and seven vitamins
and minerals with ESADDIs a total of 26. Refer to subsequent chapters for details.

It is enlightening to realize that just 40 years ago, people based their essential nutritional needs on
only nine essential nutrients. By 1989 there were 26 essential nutrients. Many experts recognize that
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About the US RDAs

The public at large rarely encounters the RDAs. Instead, you will commonly find on food labels a
group of nutrients listed as the US RDA. The seventh edition of the RDAs (published in 1968)
became the basis for establishing guidelines for the nutritional labeling of foods (known as the US
Recommended Daily Allowances, or US RDAs). This convention was used for simplicity and prac-
ticality. If you refer back to the Table listing the essential nutrients, it is easy to realize that all that
information cannot fit on most nutrition labels. And, as you now know, the US RDA system is out-
dated by over twenty years.

Since the writing of this original text, another set of standards was introduced called the RDIs
(Recommended Daily Intakes). This system is useful for identifying the amounts of nutrients found
in the foods you are purchasing. However, this system provides no reliable assurance that you are
getting the nutrition you need for optimum health, or that the foods contain optimum amounts of
nutrients that you need to make the best use of the nutrients in the foods you eat. This is why
nutrient supplements are important to include with each meal. Still in 1998, you will find both the
old US RDAs and the new RDIs on foods and supplements. All labels should have applied the new
format by 1999. Here is a brief description of the terms you will now begin to see:

• DVs (Daily Values): a new dietary reference term that will appear on the food label. It is made
up of two sets of references, DRVs and RDIs.
• DRVs (Daily Reference Values): a set of dietary references that applies to fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol, carbohydrate, protein, fiber, sodium, and potassium.
• RDIs (Reference Daily Intakes): a set of dietary references based on the Recommended
Dietary Allowances for essential vitamins and minerals and, in selected groups, protein. The
name "RDI" replaces the term "U.S. RDA."
• RDAs (Recommended Dietary Allowances): a set of estimated nutrient allowances established
by the National Academy of Sciences. It was updated periodically to reflect current scientific
knowledge. It is now an obsolete term.

there are even more essential nutrients and look to the RDAs only as a guideline for maintaining sur-
vival without developing symptoms of nutrient deficiencies. Additionally, the RDAs are based on
population averages and aimed at determining the national health average, not individual health. To
underscore this point, the following statement is found on page one of the RDA 10th edition:

"Individuals with special nutrition needs are not covered by the RDAs."

Athletes certainly fit into the special nutrition needs category. This information should be helpful to
know when trying to break away from institutional dogma so you can forge ahead to discover with a
clear mind what performance nutrition is all about.

It is important to understand the limitations of the RDA system so you can improve your nutrition
quality without feeling hesitant or doubtful of what the traditional system dictates. The RDA system
is useful as a data base and reference for nutrient intake.

The Table 1-2 lists the nutrients that most nutrition experts identify as essential nutrients for life.
There are 32 listed. and each day, researchers discover more uses for established nutrients.

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 Nutrition: The Vital Link to Super Athletic Performance

ESSENTIAL NUTRITION FOR OPTIMUM HEALTH (The ODAs).

As discussed previously, the focus of the government and many nutrition professionals who follow the
government’s RDA standards is to outline the minimum amount of the essential nutrients needed to
prevent nutrient deficiencies. The focus is not optimum nutrition. Furthermore, there is no empha-
sis on "non-essential" nutrients. Thanks to the developing health industry, the past few decades have
fostered a nutrition revolution that promotes a diet rich in all nutrients, and in greater amounts than
previously recommended. Finally, we are closer to a total nutrition approach.

Progressive nutritionists like Shari Lieberman, Ph.D., author of The Real Vitamin & Mineral Book,
tell us that the body needs more nutrients in higher amounts for optimum health than the RDAs rec-
ommend. Dr. Lieberman is the nutritional pioneer that coined the term ODA (Optimum Daily
Allowance) to quantify higher amounts of needed vitamins and minerals than those identified in the
RDAs, as well as non-essential nutrients and herbal factors.

There are many reasons for this greater need. Our bodies must ward off a host of environmental
stresses, such as air pollution, contaminated drinking water, pesticides, additives, and other non-
nutritive toxins. Furthermore, our food supply does not provide us with the proper amount of nutri-
ents for optimum health. Research is finding new uses for nutrients besides their role in basic sur-
vival. For example, a group of vitamin and mineral nutrients called antioxidants have been found to
protect the body from the wear and tear caused by free radicals. Free radicals are formed naturally in
the body, and higher amounts are caused by increased activity, sunlight, and chemicals. Athletes need
to reduce free radical damage to their body by consuming nutrients with antioxidant capabilities. The
suppression of free radicals facilitates decreased recovery time and rapid movement.

Optimum nutrient considerations form the framework of each athletic nutrition program presented
in the chapters to follow. Optimum nutrition requires a diet that contains the essential and many
non-essential nutrients in amounts two- or more times greater than those listed in the RDAs.

ESSENTIAL NUTRITION FOR MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE

Essential nutrition for maximum performance is the most recent advancement in the field of nutri-
tion. Sports scientists make new discoveries daily, uncovering the intimate connection between nutri-
tion and performance. Eating for maximum performance includes eating foods for maintenance of
optimum health, plus extra nutrients to achieve maximum performance. Maximum performance
includes being your best 24 hours a day. This means having the energy to sustain workouts and com-
petitions, as well as proper nutrition for recovery and rest.

The practice of nutrient modulation is also a part of the athlete’s performance nutrition program.
Nutrient modulation is the special practice of eating certain amounts of protein, fat, and carbohy-
drate to enhance athletic performance. Meal timing and frequency is also important. While the non-
athlete may achieve optimum health by eating three or four moderately-sized, balanced meals, the
athlete’s diet is much more involved. It includes varying the amounts of carbohydrate, protein, and
fat content, and consuming a precise amount of metabolic cofactors (vitamins, minerals, etc.) at each

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meal and in conjunction with the specific training schedule. Some athletes require a special nutrition
plan starting several days before competition, such as carbohydrate loading. Other athletes are con-
cerned with making a certain body weight for competition.

PERFORMANCE DAILY INTAKES (PDIs™)

PDIs give athletes a set of guidelines based on the science of nutrition and sports nutrition. These
guidelines provide safe nutrition information based on research and reference publications.

PDIs for each nutrient should be obtained from a total nutrition plan, consisting of food and sup-
plement sources together. In most cases, the lower limit of the PDI is equal to or higher than RDA
values in most cases dietary sources will not provide, or just barely provide, the lower limit range.
Supplement intake is therefore required.

PDI ranges for each nutrient reflect different needs of individuals based on size and activity level.
Smaller or less active individuals therefore target their nutrient intake at the lower end of the range, while
larger and more active individuals follow intake levels on the upper end of the range. (Consult specific
sections on each nutrient for comprehensive guidelines.)

Table 1-2 serves as a guide for purchasing supplements and structuring performance nutrition plans
targeted at specific nutrition zones. Too often individuals take too much of a few supplements, and
ignore essential vitamins and minerals. Remember, all are important. There is no magic pill.

PDI guidelines:
• are intended for athletes and healthy, physically active adults.
• are dynamic, consider a wide range of needs, activity levels, and size of athletes.
• are for both men and women.
• compensate for the higher nutrition requirements that athletes have over non-athletes.
• provide examples of ingredients to look for in supplement products.

We now know that for peak performance you must consume certain foods before and after exercise.
Breakfast will be different than dinner. Meals will vary from day to day, depending on activity level.
The powerlifter will eat differently than the basketball player. The proportions of carbohydrate, pro-
tein, fat, and cofactors must match day-long metabolic needs. This requires knowledge of unique meta-
bolic demands. Body type and body composition, specific sport training, and activity level all deter-
mine nutritional needs. Meal scheduling is also important.

14 Chapter 1
 Nutrition: The Vital Link to Super Athletic Performance

Table 1-2 Table Of Performance Daily Intakes (PDIs)

These PDI values are intended as a guideline for physically active, healthy adults. PDIs should be obtained from
a total nutrition plan, consisting of food and dietary supplements. PDI ranges for each nutrient reflect the dif-
ferent needs of individuals based on size and activity level. Always consult a health professional with questions
on special nutrition requirements.

Nutrient Forms Found In Supplements PDI

Vitamin A Vitamin A Acetate, Beta Carotene, Vitamin A Palmitate 5,000 IU to 25,000 IU

Beta Carotene Beta Carotene 15,000 IU to 80,000 IU
Vitamin D (D2) Ergocalciferol, (D3) Cholecalciferol 400 IU to 1,000 IU
Vitamin E Mixed Tocopherols, D-alpha Tocopheryl Succinate, 200 IU to 1,000 IU
DL-Tocopherols
Vitamin K (K1) Phylloquinone, (K2) Menadione 80 mcg to 180 mcg
Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid, Rose Hips 800 mg to 3,000 mg
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Hydrochloride (HCl) 30 mg to 300 mg
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin 30 mg to 300 mg
Vitamin B3 Niacinamide, Niacin 20 mg to 100 mg
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Hydrochloride (HCl) 20 mg to 100 mg
Folate Folic Acid 400 mcg to 1,200 mcg
Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin 12 mcg to 200 mcg
Biotin Biotin 125 mcg to 300 mcg
Pantothenic Acid d-calcium pantothenate 25 mg to 200 mg
Calcium Calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium malate, 1,200 mg to 2,600 mg
calcium glycinate
Phosphorus Phosphorus 800 mg to 1,600 mg
Magnesium Magnesium oxide, magnesium glycinate 400 mg to 800 mg
Iron Ferrous (iron) fumarate, Iron glycinate 25 mg to 60 mg
Zinc Zinc citrate, zinc arginate 15 mg to 60 mg
Iodine Iodine from kelp 200 mcg to 400 mcg
Selenium Selenomethionine 100 mcg to 300 mcg
Copper Copper lysinate, copper gluconate 3 mg to 6 mg
Manganese Manganese arginate, manganese glycinate, 15 mg to 45 mg
manganese gluconate
Chromium Chromium dinicotinate glycinate, chromium picolinate, 200 mcg to 600 mcg
chromium polynicotinate
Molybdenum Molybdenum chelate 100 mcg to 300 mcg
Sodium Sodium chloride* 1,500 mg to 4,500 mg
Chloride Sodium chloride* 1,500 mg to 4,500 mg
Potassium Potassium chloride 2,500 to 4,000 mg
Boron Boron tri chelate, boron glycinate, boron citrate 6 mg to 12 mg
Choline Choline bitartrate, choline dihydrogen citrate, 600 mg to 1,200 mg
phosphatidyl choline
Inositol Myo-inositol 800 mg to 1,200 mg
Bioflavonoids Citrus, rutin, hesperidin bioflavonoids 200 mg to 2,000 mg

IU = International Units, mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms Version 6/2/99

*Sodium and Chloride are derived predominantly from food sources, not dietary supplements.
Note: Refer to subsequent chapters for details and special considerations. Guidelines for other nutrients like
amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, fiber, herbs, and metabolites (such as, creatine, inosine, Coenzyme Q-
10, and L-carnitine) are covered in their respective chapters as their comprehensive use cannot be summa-
rized in this table.

15 Chapter 1