NOUNS

1. Noun/verb distinguished by stress. Illustrate.

Some words can be either nouns or verbs We can often tell the difference from the way they are stressed and
pronounced.
eg discount entrance export import object
When the stress is on the first syllable, the word is a noun, when the stress is on the second syllable, it is a verb.
The meanings are generally related.
noun We have finished Book 1. We have made good 'progress
verb We are now ready to pro'gress to Book 2 but can be different
noun My son s 'conduct at school hasn t been very good
verb Mahler used to con'duct the Vienna Philharmonic

2. Nouns distinguished by pronunciation: /s/,/z/,/f/,/v/,/th/,/the/. Illustrate.

When the ending is pronounced with no voice, it is a noun, when it is pronounced 'hard', it is a verb Sometimes
this difference is reflected in the spelling
/s/ and /z/ abuse/abuse, advice/advise, house/house, use/use
/f/ and /v/ belief/believe, proof/prove, shelf/shelve
/th/,/the/ cloth/clothe, teeth/teethe
Exceptions /s/ only in practice (noun)/practise (verb) and licence (noun)/license (verb)
And note words like associate graduate and estimate where the pronunciation of the noun is different from that of
the verb I m not a university graduate / ˈgrædʒuɪt / yet. I hope to graduate /ˈgrædʒuˌeɪt / next summer.
3. Nouns and verbs with the same spelling and pronunciation. Illustrate.
e g answer change dream end hope offer trouble

4. When is a noun Countable? Illustrate.

If a noun is countable
- we can use a/an in front of it a book an envelope
- it has a plural and
- can be used in the question
How many? How many stamps'envelopes? - Four stamps/envelopes
- we can use numbers one stamp two stamps

5. When is a noun Uncountable? Illustrate.

If a noun is uncountable
- we do not normally use a/an in front of it: Sugar is expensive
- it does not normally have a plural and
- it can be used in the question
How much? How much meat/oil? - A lot of meat. A little oil
- we cannot normally use a number (one, two) in front of it
 6. What are Concrete nouns? Illustrate.
Many countable nouns are concrete (having an individual physical existence):
Persons, animals, plants a girl a horse a geranium
Objects a bottle a desk a typewriter
Groups an army a crowd a herd
Units of measurement a kilo a litre a metre
Parts of a mass a bit a packet a piece a slice

7. What are Concrete uncountable nouns. Illustrate.

Concrete uncountable nouns (sometimes having physical but not 'individual' existence):
Materials, liquids, gases cotton milk air
'Grains' and 'powder' barley rice dust flour
Activities camping drinking eating sailing
Languages Arabic Italian Japanese Turkish 

A few countable nouns are abstract: e.g. a hope, an idea a nuisance a remark a situation.
A number of abstract nouns can be used only as countables: e.g. a denial a proposal a scheme a statement
Many uncountable nouns are abstract: e.g. anger, equality, honesty

8. Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable. Illustrate.

Some nouns may be countable or uncountable depending on their use:

a) Nouns we can think of as 'single items' or 'substances'

e.g. a chicken/chicken an egg/egg. a ribbon/ribbon
When we use these as countables, we refer to them as single items;
when we use them as uncountables, we refer to them as substances.
countable (a single item) uncountable (substance/material)
He ate a whole chicken! Would you like some chicken?
I had a boiled egg for breakfast There's egg on your face
I tied it up with a ribbon I bought a metre of ribbon

b) Nouns which refer to objects or material

e.g. a glass/glass an ice/ice, an iron/iron, a paper/paper
When we use such nouns as countables, we refer to
e.g. a thing which is made of the material or which we think of as being made of the material;
when we use them as uncountables, we refer only to the material.
countable ('thing') uncountable ('material')
I broke a glass this morning Glass is made from sand.
Would you like an ice? Ice floats
I've got a new iron Steel is an alloy of iron
What do the papers say? Paper is made from wood

c) Nouns which can refer to something specific or general

e.g. an education/education, a light/light, a noise/noise
As countables, these nouns refer to something specific
- He has had a good education I need a light by my bed.
As uncountables, the reference is general
- Standards of education are falling Light travels faster than sound.
countable ('specific') uncountable ('general')
A good education is expensive. Education should be free.
Try not to make a noise. Noise is a kind of pollution
Some countable nouns like this can be plural (a light/lights, a noise/noises).
Other nouns (education, knowledge) cannot be plural;
as countables they often have some kind of qualification
(a classical education, a good knowledge of English).

d) Nouns ending in '-ing'

-ing forms are generally uncountable, but a few can refer to a specific thing or event
e.g. a drawing/drawing, a painting/painting, a reading/reading
countable ('specific') uncountable ('general')
Are these drawings by Goya? I'm no good at drawing
He has a painting by Hockney Painting is my hobby
She gave a reading of her poems. Reading is taught early
A few -ing forms (a thrashing, a wedding) are only countable.

e) Selected uncountable nouns and their countable equivalents

Some uncountables cannot be used as countables to refer to a single item or example.
A quite different word must be used:
uncountable equivalent countable
bread a loaf
clothing a garment
laughter a laugh
luggage a case, a bag
poetry a poem
money a coin, a note
Nouns for animals are countable; nouns for meat are uncountable:
a cow/beef a deer/venison a pig/pork, a sheep/mutton
 9. Nouns not normally countable in English. Illustrate.
A number of nouns which are countable in other languages (and are therefore used in the singular and plural in
those languages) are usually uncountable in English (and therefore not normally used with a/an or in the plural).
A few common examples are: baggage, furniture, information, macaroni, machinery, spaghetti:
We bought (some) new furniture for our living room recently I'd like some information please.

10. Partitives: nouns which refer to part of a whole. Illustrate.

We can refer to a single item (a loaf of bread),
a part of a whole (a slice of bread) or
a collection of items (a packet of biscuits) by means of partitives.

Partitives are useful when we want to refer to specific pieces of an uncountable substance, or
to a limited number of countable items.
They can be singular (a piece of paper; a box of matches) or
plural (two pieces of paper; two boxes of matches) and are followed by of when used before a noun.
The most useful are:

a) General partitives
Words such as piece and (less formal) bit can be used with a large number of uncountables (concrete or abstract):
singular: a piece of/bit of chalk/cloth/information/meat/plastic
plural: pieces of/bits of chalk/cloth/information/meat/plastic.

b) Specific partitives
Single items or amounts:
a ball of string, a bar of chocolate, a cube of ice, a lump of sugar; a sheet of paper, a slice of bread
A few of these can be re-expressed as compounds: e.g. a sugar lump, ice cubes

11. Nouns with regular spelling/irregular pronunciation. Illustrate.

The ending of the following nouns is pronounced /z/ in the plural
baths /bz/ mouths oaths paths truths wreaths youths
The plural of house (houses) is pronounced /hauziz/

12. Thirteen nouns with irregular pronunciation and spelling. Illustrate.

The following thirteen nouns with spellings ending in
-f or -fe (pronounced /f/) in the singular, are all spelt with -ves in the plural (pronounced /vz/)
calf/calves, elf/elves, half/halves, knife/knives, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves,
self/selves, sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives, wolf/wolves
 13. The following nouns have regular and irregular plural pronunciation and spellings. Illustrate.
dwarf/dwarfs or dwarves
hoof/hoofs or hooves
scarf/scarfs or scarves
wharf/wharfs or wharves

14. Nouns with foreign plurals. Illustrate.

There is a natural tendency to make all nouns conform to the regular rules for the pronunciation and spelling of
English plurals. The more commonly a noun is used, the more likely this is to happen. Some native English
speakers avoid foreign plurals in everyday speech and use them only in scientific and technical contexts.
Nouns of foreign origin with anglicized plurals, e.g.
Album/albums, apparatus/apparatuses, genius/geniuses
Nouns with both foreign and anglicized plurals, e.g.
-us: cactus/cacti/cactuses, -a: antenna/antennae/antennas -ex/ix: index/indices/indexes
appendix/appendices/appendixes -um: medium/media/mediums, -on: automaton/automata/automa' -eu/-eau:
adieu/adieux/adieus, plateau/plateaus/plateaux (Izl). Alternative plurals can have different meanings: e.g. antennae
is a biological term; antennas can describe e.g. radio aerials.
Nouns with foreign plurals only, e.g.
-us: alumnus/alumni; -a: alumna/alumnae, -um: stratum/strata, -is: analysis/analyses, -on: criterion/criteria
Media + singular or plural verb is used to refer to the press, TV, etc , data is used with a singular or plural verb;
agenda is a foreign plural used in the singular in English with a regular plural, agendas.
15. Pronouns and their antecedents and agreement
A pronoun is a substitute for a noun. It refers to a person, place, thing, feeling, or quality but does not
refer to it by its name. The pronoun in the following sample sentence is bolded.
The critique of Plato's Republic was written from a contemporary point of view. It was an in-depth
analysis of Plato's opinions about possible governmental forms.
An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers, understood by the context. The
antecedent in the following sample sentence is bolded.
The critique of Plato's Republic was written from a contemporary point of view. It was an in-depth analysis
of Plato's opinions about possible governmental forms.
While the pronouns I and you can be replaced by nouns, the context of a sentence does not always require
the nouns to make clear to which persons I and you refer. However, the third person pronouns (he, she, it,
they) almost always derive their meaning from their antecedents or the words for which they stand.
Agreement
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in three ways:
Person refers to the quality of being.
Number is the quality that distinguishes between singular (one entity) and plural (numerous entities).
Gender is the quality that distinguishes the entities as masculine or feminine.
 16. Classification of pronouns. Illustrate each.
1. Personal pronouns
a) Subject Pronouns that are the subject of the sentence: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they.
b) Object Pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause: me, you,
him, her, it, us, them.
2. Possessive pronouns are used to indicate who (or what) owns something. Like all pronouns, possessive
pronouns take the place of nouns in sentences: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.
3. Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause: myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, ourseles, yourselves, themselves.
4. Demonstrative pronouns are used to replace specific people or things that have been previously
mentioned (or are understood from context), whether they are replacing something singular or plural and
whether they are close by or farther away: this, that, these, those.
5. Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. (The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that the
question is about.): who, whom, whose, which, and what. (Whoever, whomever, whichever, and
whatever can also be interrogative pronouns.)
6. Relative pronouns are pronouns that introduce relative clauses. They are called "relative" pronouns
because they "relate" to the words that their relative clauses modify: who, whom, whose, which, that.
Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for
things. That can be used for things and people only in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential
to the sentence and do not simply add extra information).
7. Indefinite pronouns are used to refer to a non-specific person or thing: all, any, anyone, anything, each,
everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody, and
someone.
8. Reciprocal pronouns are used to indicate that two people can carry out an action and get the
consequences of that action at the same time. There are two reciprocal pronouns: one another, each other.

17. Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns compared

Possessive adjectives and pronouns show possession, i.e. that someone or something belongs to somebody. They
answer the question Whose? The possessive adjectives my, your, etc. are determiners and must always be used in
front of a noun.
Their form is regulated by the possessor, not by the thing possessed.
His refers to possession by a male: John's daughter (= his daughter).
Her refers to possession by a female: Jane's son (= her son).
Its refers to possession by an animal or thing: the cat's milk (= its milky the jacket of this book (= its jacket).
My, your and their refer to possession by males or females:
My house is there,' Sally said /John said
The boys' coats are here and their caps are there
The possessive pronouns mine, yours, etc. are never used in front of nouns and are stressed in speech. They refer
equally to persons and things, singular or plural. Its is never used as a pronoun.
These are my children. These children are mine. These are my things. These things are mine. I can't find my pen.
Can you lend me yours?
Possessive pronouns can come at the beginning of a sentence: This is my cup Yours is the one that's chipped My
father/My mother is a lawyer - Mine is a doctor For 's/s' possession without a noun.
Noun + of it can sometimes be used in place of its + noun:
How much is that book? I've forgotten the price of it/its price.

18. Demonstrative adjectives/pronouns compared

Demonstratives can be adjectives: that is, they can be determiners and go before a noun or one/ones; or they can
be pronouns used in place of a noun or noun phrase:
adjective + noun: I don't like this coat.
adjective + one: I don't like this one.
pronoun: I don't like this
Demonstratives used as pronouns normally refer to things, not people:
I found this wallet. I found this (pronoun) / know this girl (this cannot stand on its own here)
Demonstrative pronouns after What? refer to things:
What's this/that? What are these/those?
This and that as pronouns after Who? refer to people: Who's this? Who's that?
These and those referring to people are followed by a (plural) noun.

19. Interrogative pronoun/adjective/adverb compared. Illustrate.

The main difference between Interrogative Pronoun and Interrogative Adjective lies in their grammatical
functions. As implied by their names, interrogative pronoun is a pronoun and, therefore, replaces a noun while
interrogative adjective is an adjective that modifies the noun. The interrogative adverbs are used to ask questions
about time, place, manner, reason: why, where, when, and how.
Which is the best car? – Interrogative pronoun
Which car will you drive? – Interrogative adjective
What is the color of her hair? – Interrogative pronoun
What color is her hair? – Interrogative pronoun
Why are there empty beer bottles in the garden? – Interrogative adverb
Where is your sister? – Interrogative adverb

20. Indefinite pronoun/adjective compared. Illustrate.

An indefinite pronoun replaces a noun. An indefinite adjective precedes a noun or pronoun and modifies it. It is
important for you to understand the difference between indefinite adjectives and pronouns to assure you are saying
what you mean. Some common indefinite adjectives include all, any, anything, each, every, few, many, one,
several, some, somebody, and someone.
Indefinite adjective: We are having some cake for dessert.
Indefinite pronoun: I like cake. I’ll have some, please.
Indefinite adjective: You can find a state name on each quarter.
Indefinite pronoun: I have four Illinois quarters, and each is brand new.

21. Relative pronoun/adverb compared. Illustrate.

Relative pronoun is a pronoun which introduces a relative clause. Examples are: who, whom, which and whose,
that. That is also sometimes used to introduce a relative clause. The use of a relative pronoun is usually optional
in English. In informal English, it is usually omitted. In the following examples the optional relative pronoun
appears in parentheses.
The necklace (which) my mother bought for me was very expensive.
The man (who) you were talking to is my father.
In the following examples, the relative pronouns who and whose are obligatory and cannot be omitted.
The woman who was sitting next to me is my aunt. (NOT The woman was sitting next to me is my aunt.)
The boy whose sister works with me is a good singer. (NOT The boy sister works with me is a good singer.)
A relative adverb is an adverb which introduces a relative clause. The English relative adverbs are: where, when,
whenever and wherever.
The house where I live in is very small.
I will never forget the day when I met Jane.
Susie takes her cell phone wherever she goes.
I read books whenever I get time.

22. What is an adjective and what does it do?

An adjective describes the person, thing, etc which a noun refers to. We use adjectives to say what a person, etc is
like or seems like For example, adjectives can give us information about
Quality a beautiful dress a nice day
Size a big car a small coin a tall man
Age a new handbag a young man Temperature a cool evening a hot day
Shape a round table a square box
Colour blue eyes grey hair a white horse
Origin a Japanese camera a Swiss watch
An adjective can also describe the idea(s) contained in a whole group of words, as in
Professor Roberts lecture on magnetism was fascinating.
Many adjectives can answer the question What like? and, depending on context, can give general or precise
information What's Tom like (to look at)? - He's dark/short/tall What's Pam like (as a person)? - She's
clever/kind/witty What's the car like? - It's new/old/red/rusty
What's the car like to drive? -It's difficult/fast/slow
23. Classification of adjectives. Define. Illustrate each.
Adjectives are classified into 8 groups:
1. Proper adjectives
2. Possessive adjectives
3. Quantitative adjectives
4. Demonstrtive adjectives
5. Interrogative adjectives
6. Qualitative/Descriptive adjectives
7. Distributive adjectives
8. Compound adjectives

1. Proper ajdectives are adjectives that are formed from proper nouns. Most of them identify people, places,
languages, or groups: American cars, English grammar, Parisian scarf. These adjectives are still performing the
job of an adjective: They are all describing nouns. They all begin with a capital letter.
2. Possessive adjective are: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their and they are used to to show:
a) something belongs to somebody:
That’s our house.
My car is very old.
b) for relations and friends:
My mother is a doctor.
How old is your sister?
c) for parts of the body:
He’s broken his arm.
She’s washing her hair.

3. Quantitative adjectives are those adjectives which describe the measurement i.e. count or amount of any
living beings or non-living things. Quantitative Adjectives answer the questions, how much or how many? To
some extent we can count or weigh Quantitative Adjectives. Quantitative Adjectives can be:
1. Definite:
 The clear numbers like one, three, seven, eighty, five etc. are known as cardinals.
 The words like first, seventh, third etc. are known as ordinals.
2. Indefinite: some, few, little, most, all, no, enough, any, whole, sufficient, none.
I ate some roasted chicken.
He has many cherries in his large pocket.
Linda ate whole burger.
These ignorant people have no common sense.
I can see enough juice in the jug for the breakfast.
4. Qualitative/Descriptive adjectives are those adjectives which describe nouns or the noun phrases. For
example: 'A beautiful day'. In this case, 'beautiful' is the adjective which qualifies or describes the noun 'day'.
Descriptive adjectives have several forms as discussed below.
Colors as adjectives: Black, Blue, White, Green, etc.
Touch as adjective: Slippery, Sticky, etc.
Feelings as adjectives: Happy, Sad, Angry, etc.
Sizes as adjectives: Big, Small, Thin, Thick, etc.
Origin as adjectives: European, Latin, Greek, etc.
Shapes as adjectives: Triangular, Rectangular, Square, Circular, etc.
Qualities as adjectives: Good, Bad, Average, etc.
Time as adjective: Yearly, Monthly, etc.
Age as adjectives: Young, Ancient, Old, etc.
Material as adjectives: Wood, Cotton, Gold, etc.
Opinions as adjectives: Pretty, hot, expensive, etc.

5. Distributive adjectives are used to refer to each and every person/thing separately: each, every, either,
neither. Each candidate was interviewed by the HR manager. (NOT Each candidates were interviewed by
the ...)
Each hand has five fingers.
Every man must do his duty.
There are long fields of rice on either side of the river.
Neither boy is trustworthy.

6. Compound adjectives are adjectives that comprise more than one word. Usually, a hyphen (or hyphens) is
used to link the words together to show that it is one adjective. For example:
Please request a four-foot table.
(Four-foot is an adjective describing table. A hyphen is used to link four and foot to show they are part of the same
adjective.)
It is a 6-page document.
Claire worked as a part-time keeper at the safari park.
That is an all-too-common mistake.

24. Gradable and non-gradable adjectives

Adjectives can be divided into two classes: a large class of words which can be graded (gradable adjectives) and a
small class that cannot be graded (non-gradable adjectives). An adjective is gradable when:
- we can imagine degrees in the quality referred to and so can use it with words like very, too, and enough-
very good too good, less good not good enough, etc.
- we can form a comparative and superlative from it (big) bigger, biggest, (good) better, best, etc.
An adjective is non-gradable when:
- we cannot modify it (i.e. we cannot use it with very, too, etc.)
- we cannot make a comparative or superlative from it: e.g. daily, dead, medical, unique, etc.

25. Attributive and predicative adjectives

The terms attributive and predicative refer to the position of an adjective in a phrase or sentence. We say that an
adjective is attributive or is used attributively when it comes before a noun (and is therefore part of the noun
phrase:
An old ticket, a young shop-assistant
He is an old man
We say that an adjective is predicative or that it is used predicatively when it comes directly after be, seem, etc. It
can be used on its own as the complement:
This ticket is old. Your mother seems angry
For predicative adjectives after verbs other than be, seem
Most adjectives can be used either attributively or predicatively. A few can be used in one way and not in the
other.
A few adjectives such as old, late and heavy can take on a different meaning when used attributively.
Compare: Agatha Withers is very old now (i.e. in years - predicative)
He is an old friend (i.e. I've known him a long time - attributive)
Your suitcase is very heavy (i.e. in weight - predicative)
Paterson is a heavy smoker (i.e. he smokes a lot - attributive)
You're late again (i.e. not on time - predicative)
My late uncle was a miner (i.e. he's dead now - attributive)
Adjectives used attributively in this way tend to combine with a limited selection of nouns: e.g. a heavy
drinker'sleeper, but not e.g. worker.
There are other restrictions as well: e.g. old (an old friend), heavy (a heavy smoker) and late (my late uncle)
cannot be used predicatively in these senses. However, old (in years) and heavy (weight) can be used attributively
or predicatively. Late (not on time) is used attributively in limited contexts:
Late arrivals will not be allowed to enter the auditorium For problems connected with adjectives which can be
confused with adverbs, e.g. fast, hard/hardly late/lately.

26. Adjectives used predicatively

a) Predicative adjectives describing health
The following are used predicatively in connexion with health: faint, ill, poorly, unwell and well:
What's the matter with him? - He's ill/unwell He feels faint How are you? - I'm very well thank you. I'm fine
thanks.
Fine relating to health is predicative; used attributively it means 'excellent' (e.g. She's a fine woman).
The adjectives sick and healthy can be used in the attributive position where ill and well normally cannot:
What's the matter with Mr Court? - He's a sick man Biggies was very ill but he s now a healthy man (But note that
'He's an ill man' is increasingly heard.)
Well, to mean 'in good health', is an adjective and should not be confused with well, the adverbial counterpart of
good Faint can be used attributively when not referring to health in e.g. a faint chance, a faint hope a faint sound,
as can /// in fixed phrases such as: an ill omen an ill wind

b) Predicative adjectives beginning with a-'

Adjectives like the following are used only predicatively: afloat, afraid. alight alike, alive, alone, ashamed,
asleep, awake.
The children were asleep at but now they're awake.
We can express similar ideas with attributive adjectives:
The vessel is afloat. The floating vessel.
The children are afraid. The frightened children.
The buildings are alight. The burning buildings.
Everything that is alive. All living things
That lobster is alive. It s a live lobster
The children are asleep. The sleeping children.

c) Predicative adjectives describing feelings, reactions, etc.

Some adjectives describing feelings, etc., (content, glad, pleased sorry upset) and a few others, e.g. far and near
(except in e.g. the Far East/the Near East) are normally used only predicatively: I am very glad to meet you.] Your
hotel is guite near here. It isn't far from here. We can express the same ideas with attributive adjectives: She is a
happy (or contented) woman (= She is glad/content.)

d) Predicative adjectives followed by prepositions

Many adjectives used predicatively may be followed by prepositions: A capable person is one who manages well
(attributive) He is capable of managing well (adjective + preposition: predicative)

27. Adjectives before or after nouns with a change in meaning

A few adjectives change in meaning depending on whether they are
used before or after a noun. Some of these are: concerned elect
involved present, proper responsible
The concerned (= worried) doctor rang for an ambulance
The doctor concerned (= responsible) is on holiday
This elect (= specially chosen) body meets once a year
The president elect (= who has been elected) takes over in May
It was a very involved (= complicated) explanation
The boy involved (= connected with this) has left
Present employees (= those currently employed) number 3 000
Employees present (= those here now) should vote on the issue
It was a proper (= correct) question
The question proper (= itself) has not been answered
Janet is a responsible girl (= She has a sense of duty.)
The girl responsible (= who can be blamed) was expelled

28. What do adverbs modify and tell

Adverbs are words that modify:
a) A verb (He drove slowly.)
b) An adjective (He drove a very fast car.)
c) Another adverb (She went quite slowly down the corridor.)
Adverbs often tell when, where, why and under what condition something happens or happened.
Many adverbs can be thought of as answering questions, such as How? [manner]; Where? [place]; When? [time];
How often? [frequency]; To what extent? [degree], Others 'strengthen' adjectives, other adverbs or verbs
[intensifiers,]; focus attention [focus]; reveal our attitudes, or help us to present information in a coherent fashion
[viewpoint adverbs and connectives]
29. Classification of adverbs. Illustrate each.
1. Adverbs o time
2. Adverbs of place
3. Adverbs of manner/quality
4. Adverbs of degree
5. Adverbs of frequency
6. Advers of reason
7. Interrogative aderbs
8. Relative adverbs
9. Adverbs of exclamation
10. Adverbs of affirmation/certainity & negation

1. Adverb of time tells us when something is done or happens. We use it at the beginning or at the end of a
sentence. We use it as a form of emphasis when we place it at the beginning. Adverbs of time include afterwards,
last month, now, soon, then, and yesterday.
He collapsed and died yesterday.
His factory was burned down a few months ago.
Last week, we were stuck in the lift for an hour.

2. Adverb of place tells us where something is done or happens. We use it after the verb, object or at the end
of a sentence. Adverbs of place include words such as above, below, here, outside, over there, there, under,
upstairs.
We can stop here for lunch.
The schoolboy was knocked over by a school bus.
They rushed for their lives when fire broke out in the floor below.

3. Adverb of manner tells us how something is done or happens. Most adverbs of manner end in –ly such as
badly, happily, sadly, slowly, quickly, and others that include well, hard, fast, etc.
The brothers were badly injured in the fight.
They had to act fast to save the others floating in the water.
At the advanced age of 88, she still sang very well.

4. Adverb of degree tells us the level or extent that something is done or happens. Words of adverb of degree
are almost, much, nearly, quite, really, so, too, very, etc.
It was too dark for us to find our way out of the cave. (Before adjective)
The referee had to stop the match when it began to rain very heavily. (Before adverb)
Her daughter is quite fat for her age.

5. Adverb of frequency tells us how often something is done or happens. Words used as adverbs of
frequency include always, ever, frequently, generally, hardly ever, nearly, nearly always, never, occasionally,
often, rarely, seldom, sometimes.
He hardly ever say something nice to his wife.
She is not nearly always right although she thinks she is always right.
There are some rules where these adverbs can stand:
e) In front of a main verb, eg.: I always read books
f) Between an auxiliary verb and a main verb, eg.: He doesn’t always come on time.
g) After the verb TO BE, when it is a main verb, eg.: He is always cold.
h) When we want to emphasize, these adverbs are at the very beginning of the sentence, eg.: Sometimes he
reads books.
6. Adverbs of reason gives a reason for the main idea. An adverb of reason usually starts with a
subordinating conjunctions like as, because, given, or since. For example:
Given today's strong tide, you should expect a tough swim.
(Given today's strong tide - adverb of reason)
I don't have a bank account because I don't know my mother's maiden name. (Paula Poundstone).
(because I don't know my mother's maiden name - adverb of reason)
7. Interrogative adverbs are used for asking questions. There are several different kinds of interrogative
adverbs.

a) Interrogative Adverbs of Time: when, how long, how early, how soon etc.

When will you finish this job?

How long will you stay here?
How often do you visit them?
How soon can you begin work?

b) Interrogative adverbs of Place

Where do you live?

Where has she come from?
Where can I find him?

c) Interrogative adverbs of number: how many, how often, how much

How many students are there in the class?

How often does the committee meet?

d) Interrogative adverb of manner: how

How did you arrive at the conclusion?

How are you doing?
How was the experience?
How did you do it?

e) Interrogative adverbs of degree or quantity: how much, how far, how high etc.

How much did you pay?

How far can you go?
How much more do you want?

f) Interrogative adverbs of reason: why

Why are you crying?

Why did you quit?
Why do you hate her?
Why do you want to go there?

8. Relative adverbs introduces a group of words, or a clause, that tells more about a noun. Relative adverbs
can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus a preposition. There are three main relative adverbs: where, when,
and why.

This is the store in which I bought my backpack. (relative pronoun plus preposition)
This is the store where I bought my backpack. (relative adverb)
Noon is the time when we eat lunch.
I don’t know the reason why Larry isn’t in class today.
9. Adverbs of exclamation or Exclamatory adverbs express the feelings associated with the action.
How tall the tower is!
What a tall tree it is!

10. Adverbs of affirmation/certainity & negation

a) Adverbs of affirmation/certainty express how certain we feel about an action or event.
Adverbs of certainty go before the main verb unless the main verb is 'to be', in which case the adverb of certainty
goes after: certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely.
He definitely left the house this morning.
He surely won't forget.
He is probably in the park.
He is certainly a smart man.
If there is an auxiliary verb, the adverb of certainty goes between the auxiliary and the main verb.
He has certainly forgotten the meeting.
He will probably remember tomorrow.
He is definitely running late.
Sometimes these adverbs of certainty can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.
Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician.
Certainly, I will be there.
Probably, he has forgotten the meeting.
When the adverb of certainty surely is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it means the speaker thinks
something is true, but is looking for confirmation.
Surely you've got a bicycle.
Surely you're not going to wear that to the party.
b) Adverbs of negation are used to make negative statements: no, not.
No, it is not true.

30. How to identify an adverb

i) One-word adverbs ending in '-ly'

A great many adverbs, particularly those of manner, are formed from adjectives by the addition of-/y: e.g.patient
patiently. Some adverbs of frequency are also formed in this way: e.g. usual usually, as are a 
few adverbs of degree: e.g. near, nearly. Many viewpoint adverbs end in -ly: e.g. fortunately.
j) One-word adverbs not ending in '-ly'
Many adverbs cannot be identified by their endings. These include adverbs of manner which have the same form
as adjectives, e.g fast; adverbs of place {there); of time {then); of frequency {often); viewpoint adverbs {perhaps)
and connectives (however).
 31. Adverb particles
Certain words, such as in, off, up, function either as prepositions or as adverb particles. When such words are
followed by an object, they function as prepositions; when there is no object, they are adverb particles:
preposition: The children are in the house.
adverb: The children have just gone in.

32. Adjectives/adverbs: same form, same meaning

Some words can be used as adjectives or as adverbs of manner without adding -ly fast hard, etc
A fast (adjective) tram is one that goes fast (adverb) / work hard (adverb) because I enjoy hard (adjective) work

33. Adverbs with two forms

Some adverbs have two forms which may have
- the same meaning e g cheap I bought this car cheap/cheaply
- different meanings e g hard I work hard and play hard
I did hardly any work today

34. What are grammatical categories of verbs?

1. Tense is the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time:
Present (-s form) and Past (-ed form)
There is no Future Tense because there is no verb form corresponding to future time
2. Aspect is the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or regarded with respect to time
a) Progressive aspect: verbal action experienced as I progress (I am writing.)
b) Perfective aspect: verbal action experienced as completed (I have written.)
3. Mood is a grammatical category that relates the verb action to such conditions such as certainty,
necessity, possibility
a) Indicative (She is nice to me.)
b) Imperative (Be nice to me.)
c) Subjunctive (I wish she were nice to me.)
4. Voice is a grammatical category that makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two
ways, without change in the facts reported
a) Active (He ate all the apples.)
b) Passive (All the apples were eaten.)

35. What are the finite/non-finite verbs?

A finite verb makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can stand by itself or the as the main
word of a sentence.
Example:
The truck demolished (finite) the restaurant.
The leaves are yellow and sickly.
Non-finite verbs cannot by themselves be the main verbs (The broken window). Another more useful word
for a non-finite verb is verbal.
In this section, there are gerunds, participles and infinitives.

36. What types of verbs are there according to functions of items? Illustrate
According to functions of items, verbs can be:
 Lexical verbs: regular (work), irregular (teach)
Auxiliary verbs: primary (be, have, do), modal (can-could, may-might, shall-should, will-would, must,
ought to), marginal (used to, dare, need).

37. What types of verbs are there according to complementation? Illustrate

According to complementation, verb are classified into:
Intensive: copular (linking verbs) be, appear, become
Extensive: intransitive (cry), transitive (read).

38. What are intensive/extensive verbs? Illustrate each and describe

 Intensive verbs describe the subject. Intensive verbs are also called copular verbs, are
usually followed by a noun or a noun phrase, an adjective or a prepositional phrase.
Intensive means to focus on one thing; in this case, the subject. The words or phrases following an
intensive verb work as the subject complement. This means they apply to the subject, not the verb.
Examples:
“Rose is a student” – The focus of this sentence is Rose and what she is.
“Tomas looks very young for his age” - The focus of this sentence is Tomas and what he looks like.
Intensive can be:
a) Current copular: be, appear, feel, look, remain, seem
b) Resulting copular: become, get, go, grow, turn, make
 Extensive Verbs
We use extensive verbs to say what the subject is doing. Extensive verbs are most other verbs, they do not
have a subject complement.
Extensive means to cover a wider area, it takes information away from the subject. Words or phrases
following an extensive verb work as the verb’s object. They apply to the verb, not the subject.
Examples:
“John runs very fast” – The focus of this sentence is run, and how he does that.
“Mary paints quite badly” – The focus of this sentence is paints, and how she does that.
Extensive can be:
a) Intransitive verbs require no Object: He is singing.
b) Transitive verbs:
1. Mono-transitive verbs require one Direct Object: I kissed her
2. Di-transitive verbs require both Direct and Indirect Object: I gave her a book.
3. Complex transitive require Direct Object and Object Compliment: They elected him President.

39. What types of verbs are there according to possibility of admitting progressive aspect? Illustrate
According to possibility of admitting progressive aspect, there are:
a) Stative (state) verbs show the condition or status and do not accept the progressive aspect: I am a boy
1. Verbs of inert perception and recognition: adore, astonish, believe, hate, hear, impress, know, like,
etc: I like her.
2. Relational verbs: apply to, deserve, lack, matter, need, resemble, possess, sound, etc:
She resembles her mother.
b) Dynamic (action) verbs show the action or the change of status: She learns English.
1. Verbs of body sensation: ache, hurt, itch, fell, etc.
2. Activities verbs: ask, eat, help, learn, say, throw, write, etc.
3. Transitional event verbs: arriveland, leave, lose, die, etc.
4. Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick, nod, tap, etc.
5. Process verbs: change, deteriorate, grow, mature, etc.

40. What types of verbs are there according to structure?

a) One-word verbs are verbs of one word: change, kiss, make, etc.
b) Multi-word verbs:
1. Phrasal verbs: make out, call up, take off, give up, etc.
2. Prepositional verbs: look up, clear up, get at, etc.
3. Phrasal-prepositional verbs: come up with, make up for, stand in for, put up with, etc.
 41. What is difference between phrasal and prepositional verbs? Illustrate each
a) Prepositional Verbs are defined as intransitive verbs that consist of a verb followed by a prepositional
phrase. The prepositional phrase functions as a verb phrase complement. A verb phrase complement is
defined as a word or phrase that directly follows and completes the meaning of the verb. The following
English verbs are prepositional verbs: approve of, ask for, cope with, insist on, laugh about, listen to
For example:
The doctor insisted on several tests.
The neighbors listen to terrible music.
The meaning of a prepositional verb is literal. For example, the meaning of look at "to direct sight in the
direct of" is a literal combination of look "to direct sight" and at "in the direct of."

b) Phrasal Verbs are defined as periphrastic intransitive or transitive verbs that consist of a verb followed
by one or more prepositions. The preposition functions as a particle. A particle is defined as a function
word that performs a grammatical function but has little lexical meaning. The following English verbs
are phrasal verbs: act up (misbehave), butt in (interrupt), drop in on (visit), get in (arrive), mix up
(confuse), take after (resemble),
For example:
What time does the train get in?
I always mix their names up!
She takes after her father.
Phrasal verbs may be either intransitive or transitive depending on the specific verb. Intransitive phrasal
verbs cannot or do not take direct objects. Transitive phrasal verbs must take direct objects. For example:
The baby just woke up. (intransitive)
My little brother ran away from home. (intransitive)
Two toddlers threw up today. (intransitive)
The construction crew blew up the old building. (transitive)
The courts have done away with corporeal punishment. (transitive)
He will pay off his debt. (transitive)
The preposition functioning as the particle may or may not directly follow the verb. Nonseparable phrasal
verbs require the preposition to directly follow the verb. Optionally separable phrasal verbs allow the
preposition to follow either the verb or the direct object. Obligatorily separable phrasal verbs require the
preposition to directly follow the direct object. Only transitive phrasal verbs can be optionally or
obligatorily separable. For example:
The entertainment finally showed up. (nonseparable)
The boss just laid in on our lazy coworker. (nonseparable)
The ushers pass out the programs. (optionally separable)
The ushers pass the programs out. (optionally separable)
The child looked up the information. (optionally separable)
The child looked the information up. (optionally separable)
The meaning of a phrasal verb is figurative. For example, the meaning of the phrasal verb throw up
"vomit" cannot be determined by combining the meanings of throw "toss" and up "at a higher point."
Phrasal verbs often have single-word synonyms as in throw up and vomit.

42. What are prepositions? Illustrate.

A preposition is a word (usually a short word) that shows the relationship between two other two nearby words.
For example (prepositions in bold):
a boy from the ghetto
(Here, the preposition from tells us the relationship between ghetto and boy.)
a bone for the dog
(Here, the preposition for tells us the relationship between dog and bone.)
The following are all examples of prepositions: in, on, at, around, above, near, underneath, alongside, of, and for.

Note: The word preposition means positioned before. A preposition will sit before a word (a noun or a pronoun) to
show that word's relationship to another nearby word.

43. Classification of prepositions. Illustrate.

 Preposition of Time:
Prepositions of time are used to indicate time of an action or time relationship between nouns in the sentence.
Such as at, to, in, etc.
I go to school daily at nine o’clock.
My result gets declared in March.
 Preposition of Place
Prepositions of place are used to show the place where something is located such a: at, in, on, while, during,
near, over, under, between, behind, etc.
Dog is on the floor.
My home is near to the office.
My home is behind the metro station.
Mom is in the room.
 Preposition of Direction
Prepositions of direction are used to indicate direction of someone or something in the sentence such as over,
under, to, on, into, in, onto, right, left, etc.
It's time to go to
The train is going into the tunnel.
We are going over the bridge.
 Preposition of Agent
Preposition for agent is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the sentence. Such prepositions are by,
with etc.
This book is written by Shakespeare.
The work was completed by him.
 Preposition for device, instrument or machine
Different preposition are used by different devices, instruments or machines. e.g. by, with, on etc. Following
examples will help in better understanding.
Examples.
She comes by bus daily.
He opened the lock with key.
 44. What are Conjunctions? Classification. Illustrate.
Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions:
coordinating, subordinating and correlative conjunctions.
 Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. They may connect two
words, two phrases, two independent clauses or two dependent clauses.

For example, in each of the following sentences the coordinating conjunction “and" connects equal words or
groups of words:
Connects two words: John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
Connects two phrases: The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low branch.

Connects two clauses: Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear them snickering at us
lowly workers.
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language, and they are often remembered by using
the acronym “FANBOYS": for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.

 Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating clause. The
subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions “when" or “why" about the main clause, or
imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into adverbial subordinating clauses in
different ways:
I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)
Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk. (why)

I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)

Although he never figured out why, Hanna winked on her way out the door. (opposition)
Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two clauses it connects. Often, it comes at
the beginning of the first clause.

 Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating conjunctions because they join
sentence elements that are similar in importance.
The following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both, and: Both Rodney and Xing made the varsity team this year.
Neither, nor: Neither Rodney nor Xing made the varsity team this year.
Not only, but also: Not only did Rodney make the varsity team, but he also become one of the strongest players.
Remember these three types of conjunctions - coordinate, subordinate and correlative conjunctions - and you've
got one part of speech down pat.