Lab Manual For UTM

CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY (I) SKAA 2012
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UTM SKUDAI
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Compiled By:
Dr. Nor Zurairahetty Mohd Yunus & Dr. Zaiton Haron
Preface
The laboratory work, which consists of workshops and experiments are designed to
expose students essential problem solving and experimental techniques. Most of the
generic attributes that the students must develop at the University are acquired through
the laboratory experiments and researches. Laboratory sessions are able to strengthen
the students to relate the fundamental theories with laboratory experiments in the field of
concrete, transportation, hydraulics, and structural engineering. Each student will
experiences data collections and performs data analysis and result interpretations.
Application of the experimental results to the real civil engineering problem will be
highlighted.
Upon completion of the course, students are expected to be able to perform laboratory
experimental work and investigation in concrete, geotechnical, hydraulics and structural
engineering, to develop the techniques of conducting measurements, data analysis and
interpret results in written report, and to develop generic attributes and enhance their
ability to participate effectively in a laboratory environment and be able to work as a part
of a team.
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
Taxonomies
Programme
and Assessment
CO Course Learning Outcomes
CP CA KP Methods
Outcome(s)
Soft-Skills
Perform laboratory experiments in

the field of concrete, geotechnic, fluid
CO1
mechanics, and structural
engineering.
PO2 CP5 KP1 C2 RS
Analyze, interpret and relate

CO2
experimental data with the
fundamental theories.
PO2 CP3 KP5 C4, A3 RS
CO3
Produce laboratory report.
PO2 KP3 C3 RS
Work in team during laboratory

CO4
works.
PO7 CP3 CA5 TS1, TS2, TS3 OLW
Note : (OLW – observation during laboratory work sessions; RS – report submission); ; PR – peer review)
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Contents
CONCRETE LABORATORY
2C1:Sieve Analysis 4
2C2:Consistency Cement Paste 7
2C3:Fresh and Hardened Concrete Test 10
2C4:Non Destructive Testing 19
STRUCTURE LABORATORY
2S1:Shear Force and Bending Moment 25
2S2:Tensile Strength of Mild Steel 30
2S3:Struct Buckling 36
GEOTECHNICS LABORATORY
2G1:Soil Compaction Test 47
2G2:Soil Classification Test 50
2G3:Unconfined Compression Test 62
2G4:Rock Mechanics 66
HYDRAULIC LABORATORY
2H1:Calibration of a Pressure Gauge 80
2H2:Center of Hydrostatic Pressure 83
2H3:Flow Through V-Notch 88
2H4:Flow Through a Venturi Meter 92
2H5:Impact of Jet 98
2H6:Pipe Friction 103
2H7:Hydraulic Jump 107
2H8:Computation of Manning’s n 111
2H9:Gradually Varied Flow 114
2H10:Centrifugal Pump Characteristics 118
APPENDIX (Data sheet)

Concrete 124
Structure 137
Geotechnics 146
Hydraulic 160
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2C1 SIEVE ANALYSIS (AGGREGATE GRADING) FOR FINE AND

COARSE AGGREGATE
INTRODUCTION
Aggregate is one of the basic constituents of concrete. Its quality is of considerable
importance because about three-quarter of the volume of concrete is occupied by
aggregates. One of the physical properties of aggregate that influence the property of
concrete is the grading of aggregate. The grading of aggregate defines the proportions of
particles of different size in the aggregate. The grading of fine (size < 5 mm) and coarse
(size > 5 mm) aggregates are generally required to be within the limits specified in BS 882:
1992.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to obtain the grading curve for both fine and coarse
aggregate.
APPARATUS
1. Balance - balance or scale used in testing fine and coarse aggregates shall have
readability and accuracy as follows:
For fine aggregate, readable to 0.1 g and accurate to 0.1 g or 0.1 % of the test load.
For coarse aggregate, or mixtures of fine and coarse aggregate, readable and
accurate to 0.5 g or 0.1 % of the test load.
2. Sieves – the sizes and apertures appropriate to the specification of the material being
tested, complying with BS 410:
For coarse aggregate, standard sieve size of 50.0 mm, 37.5 mm, 20.0 mm, 14.0 mm,
10.0 mm, 5.0 mm and 2.36 mm (Fig. 2C1-1).
For fine aggregate, standard sieve size of 10 mm, 5.00 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm,
600m, 300 m and 150 m (Fig. 2C1-2).
3. Mechanical Sieve Shaker -a mechanical sieving device, used to create vibration of
the sieve to cause the particles to bounce.
4. Oven - an oven of appropriate size capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of
105°±5°C.
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Figure 2C1-1 Figure 2C1-2 Figure 2C1-3
Coarse Aggregate Sieve Fine Aggregate Sieve Riffle Box (Sample Splitter)
PROCEDURES
Fine Aggregate
1. Choose a representative sample by quartering (according to BS 812: Part 102: 1984) or

by use of a sample splitter (Fig. 2C1-3). The sample to be tested should be the
approximate weight desired when dry. For this experiment, weigh about 500 grams of
fine aggregate.
2. Dry the samples to constant weight in the furnace at a temperature of 105° ±5° C.
3. Cool down the samples. Nest the desired sieves in order of decreasing aperture size
from top to bottom.
4. Place the sample on the top sieve and agitate the sieves by mechanical sieve shaker for
a sufficient period so that after completion, not more than one percent by weight of the
residue on any individual sieve will pass that sieve.
5. Determine the weight of each size increment by weighing the residue contained on each
sieve. This may be done in a cumulative fashion by starting with the smallest, particles in
the bottom pan. After this weight has been determined, add the next larger particles into
the same pan and determine the cumulative weight.
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Coarse Aggregate
1. Choose a representative sample by quartering (according to BS 812: Part 102: 1984) or

by use of a sample splitter (Fig. 2C1-3). The sample to be tested should be the
approximate weight desired when dry. For this experiment, weigh about 3 kilograms of
coarse aggregate.
2. Repeat procedure no. 2 to 5 as stated for fine aggregate using appropriate sieve size.
REPORT
The results of a sieve analysis can be represented much more easily using a graphic format,
and for this reason-grading charts are used extensively. By using a log-chart it is possible to
see at a glance whether the grading of a given sample conforms to the specification, or is
too coarse or too fine, or deficient in a particular size. The common grading chart commonly
uses ordinates that represent the cumulative percentage passing and the abscissa the sieve
opening plotted to a logarithmic scale.
Compute the cumulative percent retained on, and the percent passing each sieve. Plot the
gradation curves for the fine and coarse aggregates from the experiment on the gradation
chart as attached in the lab sheet.
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2C2 NORMAL CONSISTENCY CEMENT PASTE
INTRODUCTION
The manufacture of cement requires stringent control and a number of test are performed to
ensure the cement is of the desired quality. One of the tests of the properties is the setting
time. This test is done on a neat cement paste of a standard consistency. A standard
consistency is the water content of the paste that will produce the desired consistency of any
given cement. The water content of the standard paste is expressed as a percentage by
mass of the dry cement, the usual range of values being between 26 and 33 percent. A
cement paste is said to have a standard consistency when a plunger of the Vicat’s apparatus
penetrates the paste to a point 6  1mm from the base of the mould.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the water content to produce standard consistency of cement paste
APPARATUS
1) Balance
2) 200ml glass graduated measuring cylinder
3) Vicat Apparatus (see Figure 2C2-1)
PROCEDURE
1) Take about 500g of dry cement
2) Add 100g of water to the cement (say 20% by weight of cement)
3) Thoroughly mix the cement and water to produce a ball-like shape by tossing from
one hand to another
4) Place the spherical mass in the cylindrical mould and shake it forward and backward
until the paste has filled up the mould. Slice off the excess paste at the top of the
mould by single oblique stroke of a sharp edged trowel and smooth the top, if
necessary with a few light touches of the pointed end trowel. During this operation of
cutting and smoothing, take care not to compress the paste.
5) Place the mould on the base of the Vicat’s Apparatus, in such a way the plunger is
above the center of the mould.
6) The above sequence should be completed within 2 minutes from the moment the
water was added. Bring the plunger in contact with the surface of the cement paste
and release it.
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7) Record the reading of the scale of the Vicat’s Apparatus 30 second after the plunger
being released.
8) Repeat the entire procedure four to five times, each using new dry cement and
increasing amount of water.
9) Plot the graph the percentage of water against the distance from the base.
Vicat’s Apparatus
Penetration depth
indicator
Plunger
Cement Paste Mould
Figure 2C2-1: Vicat Apparatus
RESULT
Table 2C2-1: Result of standard consistency test
Number of test Water amount Percentage of water Distance from base
(ml) (%) (mm)
1 105 21 15
2 125 25 11
3 135 27 8
4 155 31 4
5 170 34 2
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Distance from base vs percentage of water
40
Percentage of water (%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
2 4 8 11 15
Distance from base (mm)
Figure 2C2-2: Graph of Distance from base vs. percentage of water
Figure 2C2-2 shows the plotted result from table 2C2-1. From the graph the standard
consistency of cement tested is 29% (to the nearest 0.5%)
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2C3 FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE TEST
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is tested during its fresh and hardened state mainly to ensure that concrete
mix satisfies the specification of works.
In its fresh state, concrete is tested for its consistency so as to achieve the desired
workability. Workability is an important property in concrete since a workable mix will
produce concrete, which can be well compacted, transported and placed without
segregation. A well-compacted concrete will produce a good strength concrete.
Tests to be conducted on fresh concrete to measure its workability consists of:

1. Slump Test
2. Compacting Factor Test
3. Vebe Test
Hardened concrete tests to destruction consists of:

1. Compression Test
2. Indirect Tension Test Methods
3. Flexural strength of concrete
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of the tests are to determine the properties of concrete as follows:
1. Workability of fresh concrete

2. Strength of hardened concrete
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1. FRESH CONCRETE TEST (WORKABILITY)
APPARATUS
Slump Test:
1. Mould consisting of the frustum of a cone
2. Standard 16mm diameter steel rod, 600 mm long
3. Measuring scale
4. Rigid metal sheet
Compacting factor test:

1. Two conical hoppers and a cylinder.
2. Weighing machine
Vebe Time test:

1. An open-ended cylinder
2. A vibrating table
3. Glass plate rider
4. Metal cone
5. Stop watch
6. Standard iron rod
PROCEDURES
Preparation of concrete mix:
1. Calculate the volume of concrete needed for the tests

= Volume of (3 cubes (150 x 150 x 150mm) +
2 cylinders (150mm dia. X 300mm) +
1 beam (100 x 100 x 500mm) +
tests for workability)
= 0.0257 + 25% contingencies
= 0.032 m3
2. Select standard mix-ST5 from Table C3-1 ( adopted from Table 3 BS
5328).
3. Determine the mix proportion as given in Table 2C3-2 to produce
concrete of 0.032 m3.
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Example:
Standard mix ST5
Slump:75mm
Nominal Maximum size of aggregate:20mm
Constituent Table 2C3-2 [adopted from Tests requirements

Table 5: BS 5328 (1m3 (0.032 m3)
concrete)]
Cement 340 kg. 340kg  0.032 =10.88kg
Fine aggregate 0.351830 kg = 640 kg 640kg  0.032 = 20.48kg
Course aggregate (1830 – 640) kg =1190 kg 1190kg0.032 = 38.08kg
Water (w/c=0.5) 0.5340 kg = 170 kg 170 kg 0.032 = 5.44 kg
4. Mix cement, fine and course aggregate in a mixer for 1 minute.

5. Add in water and mix approximately for another 1minute.
6. When the mix is ready, proceed with the workability tests.
Slump test
1. Place the cone on a smooth, flat and clean surface.

2. Fill the mould with 3 layers of concrete approximately of the same
thickness each.
3. Compact each layer of concrete by tamping it 25 times with the
standard steel rod.
4. Level the top surface of the concrete with a trowel.
5. Lift the cone slowly vertically to allow concrete to subside.
6. Measure the difference in level between the height of the mould and
that of the highest point of the subsided concrete. This difference in
height in mm is taken as slump of concrete.
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Compacting Factor Test
1. Assemble the apparatus vertically, placing the bigger hopper

uppermost, the smaller hopper in the middle and the cylinder at the
bottom.
2. Clean thoroughly all inside surfaces of hoppers to reduce friction.
3. Each hopper has hinged door (trap-door) at the bottom. Make sure
that this door is closed before commencing the test.
4. Fill up the upper hopper with concrete to the brim.
5. Release the door to let the concrete falls into the lower hopper.
6. Release the door of the second hopper to let the concrete falls into the
cylinder.
7. Cut off excess concrete from the top of the cylinder by sliding it across
with two floats.
8. Determine the net weight of the concrete. This weight is known as
“weight of partially compacted concrete”.
9. Empty the cylinder and refill it with the concrete from the same sample
in three layers. Tamp each layer 25 times with standard steel rod.
10. Level off the top surface of the cylinder and weigh it to the nearest
10gm. This weight is known as “weight of fully compacted concrete”.
11. Calculate the compacting factor of concrete.
weight of partially compacted concrete

The Compacting factor =
weight of fully compacted concrete
Vebe Test
1. Place the slump cone inside the cylindrical pot of the Vebe apparatus
2. Fill the cone with concrete as in the slump test.
3. Remove the cone and place the glass plate rider gently on top of the
concrete.
4. Switch on the vibrating table and start a stopwatch simultaneously.
5. Continue the vibration until conical shape of the concrete assumes a
cylindrical shape This can be judge by observing the glass disc from
the top for disappearance of transparency. Switch off the stopwatch.
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6. The time required from the shape of concrete to change from slump
cone shape to cylindrical shape is known as vebe degree (time).
2. HARDENED CONCRETE TEST
APPARATUS
Compression Test:
1. Standard steel cube mould, 150 x 150 x 150mm
2. Standard steel rod, 25mm square
Indirect Tension Test Methods (Cylinder Splitting Tension Test):

1. Standard steel mould, 150mm diameter, 300mm long
2. Standard steel rod, 16mm diameter
Flexural Strength of Concrete:

1. Standard beam measuring 100100500 mm long
2. Standard steel rod, 25mm square
PROCEDURES
Compression Test
1. Prepare three moulds of size 150mm150mm150mm.
2. Thinly coat the interior surfaces of the assembled mould with mould oil
to prevent adhesion of concrete.
3. Fill each mould with three layers of concrete, tamp each layer 35
times with a 25mm square steel rod.
4. Finish the top surface with a trowel and record the date of
manufacturing on the surface of the concrete.
5. Store the cube undisturbed for 24 hrs at a temperature of 18 to 22C
and a relative humidity of not less than 90%. To ensure this condition
cover the concrete with wet gunny sacks.
6. After 24 hours strip the mould and cure the cubes further by
immersing them in water at temperature 19 to 21C until the testing
date.
7. Test the cubes at the age of 7 days.
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8. Position the cube in the compressive machine with the cast faces in
contact with the platens.
9. Apply the load at the rate of 15 MN/m2/min
10. Record the maximum load to the nearest 0.5 N/mm2.
Indirect Tension Test
1. Prepare two moulds of cylinder measuring 150mm diameter by

300mm long.
2. Coat the inside surfaces of the mould with mould oil.
3. Fill each mould with three layers of concrete, tamp each layer 35
times with a 16mm  steel rod.
4. Record the date on the surface of the concrete.
5. Cure the cylinder. Method of curing is similar as for the cubes.
6. Test the cylinder at the age of 7days.
7. Place the cylinder with its axis horizontal between the platens of the
testing machine.
8. Place narrow strips of plywood at the top and bottom between the
platens and the cylinder.
9. Apply the load at the rate of 1.6 MN/m2/min
Flexural Strength of Concrete
1. Prepare a mould of beam measuring 100100500mm long.

2. Coat the inside surface of the mould with mould oil.
3. Fill the mould with 3 layers of concrete, tamp each layer 35 times with
a 25mm square steel rod.
4. Cure the beam. The method of curing is similar as for the cubes.
5. Test the beam at the age of 7 days.
6. The beam is positioned for testing with a span of 400mm i.e. 50mm
from each end.
7. Impose the beam with a two point loading system.
8. Apply the load at the rate of 1.6 MN/m2/min.
9. Measure the position of the crack from the support.
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10. Calculate the modulus of rupture using the formulae below:
PL
Modulus of rupture = if a  L
bd 2 3
Or
3Pa
= if a  L
bd 2 3
P P
a
400 mm
Where,
P= maximum load
L= span of beam (400mm)
b= width of beam
d= depth of beam
a= position of fracture from near
support
CALCULATIONS
Do all the calculations in the laboratory sheets provided.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
1. Classify the mode of slumps obtained from the slump test whether it is
true, shear or collapse
2. Compare the slump measured, to the slump obtained from Table-5
BS5328. Explained, why it is different.
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3. Compare the results of the cube strength with the value specified for
the standard mix. Explained if the strengths obtained are below the
specified value.
4. Discuss the relationship between compressive and tensile strengths of
concrete.
Table 2C3-1. Standard mixes and related strengths ( Adopted from Table 3: BS 5328)
Standard mix Characteristic compressive strength at 28

days assumed for structural design
N/mm2 ( = MPa)
ST1 7.5
ST2 10.0
ST3 15.0
ST4 20.0
ST5 25.0
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Table 2C3-2. Mix proportion for standard mixes ( Adopted from Table 5: BS 5328)
Nominal maximum size of

Standard mix Constituent aggregate
40 mm 20 mm
slump slump slump slump
75 mm 125 mm 75 mm 125 mm
Cement (kg) 180 200 210 230
ST1 Total aggregate (kg) 2010 1950 1940 1880
Cement (kg) 210 230 240 260
Cement (kg) 240 260 270 300
Cement (kg) 280 300 300 330
Cement (kg) 320 340 340 370
ST1 Fine aggregate
ST2 (percentage by mass of 30 to 45 30 to 45 35 to 50 35 to 50
ST3 total aggregate)
Fine aggregate
ST4 (percentage by mass of
ST5 total aggregate)
Grading limits C 30 to 40 35 to 45
Grading limits M 25 to 30 30 to 40
Grading limits F 25 to 30 25 to 35
1) When ST1 is required with a very low slump the proportions shall be taken from the 75 mm slump
column.
NOTE 1. The cement contents together with the total masses of saturated surface dry aggregates and added
water
will produce approximately one cubic metre of concrete. The values given are based on typical values of the
relative
densities of cement aggregates. For some aggregates having higher or lower relative densities, adjustments may
be
required to the quantity of aggregates produce this volume of concrete having the required workability and
cement content.
NOTE 2. The value given for aggregate content may be adjusted to allow also for the characteristics of
the
aggregates as described in 4.3.2 of BS5320: Part
3;1990.
NOTE 3. The aggregates for mixes ST1, ST2 and ST3 may be batched by volume.
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2C4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
INTRODUCTION
Concrete are tested for two main purposes, for control of quality and to check its compliance
with specifications. The non-destructive testing (NDT) of hardened concrete is carried out to
test the in-situ strength of concrete structures. A few non-destructive tests have been
devised to measure concrete properties without destroying the structures.
In general these non-destructive testing are carried out during and after construction. When
construction is in progress, tests are carried out if there are doubts on the quality of works. It
is also useful in determining the strength before false work could be removed safely or in
avoiding premature loading. Non- destructive testing may be used during service for
instance in rehabilitation and repair works where obvious signs of structural failures like
cracks, deflection, rusting of steel bars were detected.
Three types of non-destructive tests will be carried out in the laboratory consisting of:
1. Electromagnet Cover meter
2. Rebound Hammer test (Schmidt’s hammer)
3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (Pundit Test)
OBJECTIVE
Electromagnet Cover meter
i) To determine the depth of concrete cover, size of reinforcement and

orientation of reinforcement bars in a beam.
Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer)
i) To estimate the strength of concrete.

ii) To measure the uniformity and strength of concrete.
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Ultrasonic Pulse Test
i) To estimate the strength and the elastic modulus of concrete mix.

ii) To determine the quality and homogeneity of concrete.
iii) To determine the existence of flaws, voids, and cracks in concrete.
PROCEDURES:
Electromagnet Cover meter
Figure 2C4-1: Electromagnet Cover Meter
Figure 2C4-1 shows the sample of electromagnet cover meter that usually used in concrete
work. It is essential that the electromagnet cover meter be calibrated before use.
For this experiment, you will be given a sample of reinforced concrete beam as shown in
Figure 2C4-2.
For determining the position of shear reinforcement:

1. Lightly press the detector unit on the top surface of the beam.
2. Aligned the arrow mark on the detector unit with the shear reinforcement of
the beam (Fig 2C4-3)
3. Move the unit in the direction as shown in Figure 2C4-3 until the meter shows
the lowest reading accompanied by high pitch sound. The highest pitch
shows the exact location of reinforcement. This indicates that the shear bar is
directly below the unit (Fig. 2C4-4).
4. Mark the position on the top surface of the beam.
5. Move the unit in the same direction to trace the other shear reinforcement bars.
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Direction of instrument movement
Top surface
of beam
Figure 2C4-2
Top surface
Front surface
Align arrow mark on
detector unit with main
reinforcement
End Surface
2000
Figure 2C4-3
Direction of instrument movement

Shear bar
Top surface of beam

Alligned arrow mark on the
detector unit with the shear
reinforcement
Figure 2C4-4
Meter gives lowest reading

accompanied by a high pitch
sound when detector is directly
above shear reinforcement
Detector unit Meter
Front surface
of beam
Cross section of shear

bars
Figure 2C4-5
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To determine the position of main reinforcement bar:

1. Lightly press the detector unit on the top surface of the beam.
2. Aligned the arrow mark on the detector unit with the main reinforcement of the
beam (Fig 2C4-5)
3. Move the unit in the direction as shown in Fig. 2C4-4 until the meter shows the
lowest reading accompanied by high pitch sound. The highest pitch indicates the
exact location of reinforcement.
4. Mark the position of the bar on the surface of the beam.
To determine the concrete cover of the beam:

1. Determination of the concrete cover for the main reinforcement can be
accomplished by moving the detector from top to bottom on the front surface of
the beam.
2. Mark the position where meter shows the lowest reading indicating the position of
the reinforcement, from which the cover can be determined.
Rebound Hammer test
Figure 2C4-6: Several types of Rebound Hammer
The Rebound hammer test measures the elastic rebound of concrete and is primarily used
for estimation of concrete strength and for comparative investigations. Figure 2C4-6 shows
the sample of Schmidt Hammer that usually used in rebound hammer test. The procedures
of rebound hammer testing are listed below:
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With a chalk draw small boxes along Line 1 and 2 and mark them as A, B, C, and D at the
front surface of the beam to show the positions of testing (Fig. 2C4-7)
Line 1 A B C D
Line 2 A B C D
Fig. 2C4-7: Positions of Schmidt Hammer tests
1. Press the plunger against the surface of the concrete. Upon release, the hammer
rebounds.
2. Record the rebound number in the table provided in the lab sheet. Take four
more readings around position A.
3. Carry on the test at the other positions B, C, and D.
4. Take at least five readings for each position.
5. Please avoid from testing on top of reinforcement or large aggregate.
Ultrasonic Pulse Test (Pundit test)

Ultrasonic pulse velocity method consists of measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic
pulse, passing through the concrete to be tested. Figure 2C4-8 shows the component of
‘Pundit’ equipment that usually used in concrete work. The procedures of ultrasonic pulse
velocity testing are listed below:
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1. Carry out the test at positions marked A, B, C, and D for both Line 1 and 2 as
in Schmidt Hammer Test
2. Spread grease on the surface of the concrete to be tested, to enhance
surface contact with the transducers.
3. Place the transmitter on the marked position and the receiver on the opposite
side of the beam.
4. Record the time taken for the ultrasonic pulse to travel from the transmitter
through the thickness of the beam to the receiver.
Fig. 2C4-8: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Equipment
Results and Discussion
1. Use the results from the cover meter readings to detail the reinforcement in
the beam showing its front elevation and a cross section.
2. Determine the strength of concrete (using graphs provided) from the rebound
numbers and the pulse velocity.
3. Compare and discuss the results obtained.
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2S1 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
INTRODUCTION
The Shear Force at any point along the beam is the total forces acting perpendicular to
beam longitudinal axis up to the point.
The bending moment at any point along the beam is equal to the area under the shear force
diagram up to that point. (Note: For a simply-supported beam, the bending moment at the
ends will always be equal to zero.)
OBJECTIVE
To determine the shear force and bending moment at the particular section (x-x section) and
compare with the theoretical calculation.
THEORY
Consider a beam with three points load as shown in Figure 2S1-1(a). By taking moment at
B, hence
Total clockwise Moment = Total anti-clockwise Moment

90RA = 10(75) + 20(40) + 35(20)
RA = 25 N
Consider the equilibrium of vertical forces
Total upward Force = Total Downward Forces

RA + RB = 10 + 20 + 35
RB = 40 N
As the reaction at A and B are determined, draw the Shear Force Diagram (SFD) as shown
in Figure 2S1-1(b). The Bending Moment Diagram can be drawn base on the Shear Force
Diagram shown in Figure 2S1-1(c). Finally the shear force and bending moment at any
section of the beam can be determined from both diagrams.
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x
10N 400
20N 5N
150 200
(a)
x
RA RB
300 mm 600 mm
25 N
15 N
vx
(b) SFD
-5 N
-40 N
(c) BMD
Mx
3.75 Nm
8 Nm
9 Nm
Figure 2S1-1
PROCEDURE
The equation for shear force and bending moment at the section ‘x-x’ for Figure 2S1-2 are
as follow:
Shear Force, Sx = W.a

L
Bending Moment, Mx = W.a (L - a)

L
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a
RA x RB
L
Figure 2S1-2
Experiment 1: Shear Forces
1. Check the Digital Force Display meter reads zero with no load.
2. Place a hanger with a 100g mass to the left of the section ‘x-x’.
3. Record the Digital Force Display reading in a table as in Table 2S1-1. This is the value of
shear at the section ‘x-x’.
4. Repeat using masses of 200g, 300g, 400g, and 500g as in Table 2S1-1.
5. Convert the mass into load as shown in Table 2S1-2.
7. Carefully apply load on the beam with the hangers in the positions shown in Figure 2S1-
3, using the loads listed in Table 2S1-3.
8. Calculate the support reactions (RA and RB) and calculate the theoretical shear force at
the section ‘x-x’.
9. Repeat the procedure with the beam loaded as in Figure 2S1-4 and 2S1-5.
x
140m
m x
R1 R2
W
` = 3.92 N (400g)
W
Figure 2S1-3
27 | P a g e
x
x
220mm x 220mm x
260mm R2
R1 400mm R2
W1 W2 R1
W1 W2
W1 = 1.96 N (200g)
W1 = 4.912 N (500g)
W2 = 3.92 N (400g)
W2 = 3.92 N (400g)
Figure 2S1-5
Figure 2S1-4
Experiment 2: Bending Moment
2. Place a hanger with a 100g mass at the section ‘x-x’.
3. Record the Digital Force Display reading in Table 2S1-4.
4. Repeat using masses of 200g, 300g, 400g, and 500g as in Table 2S1-4.
5. Convert the mass into load as shown in Table 2S1-2.
7. Carefully apply load on the beam with the hangers in the positions shown in Figure 2S1-
6, using the loads listed in Table 2S1-5.
8. Calculate the support reactions (RA and RB) and calculate the theoretical bending
moment at the section ‘x-x’.
9. Repeat the procedure with the beam loaded as in figure 2S1-7 and 2S1-8.
28 | P a g e
x
x
x
x
Figure 2S1-6 Figure 2S1-7
Figure 2S1-8
29 | P a g e
2S2 TENSILE STRENGTH OF MILD STEEL
INTRODUCTION
One of the important considerations during the design stage of any structural member is to
ensure the structure is safe against failure. Tensile test is one of the methods to determine
the fundamental mechanical properties of structural members for use in design. Steel is
commonly used as structural members in bridges, buildings and for general purposes. In
reinforced concrete structure, steel bars are used as reinforcements. A knowledge of the
properties and an understanding of the behavior of steel is an important factor in the design
process.
OBJECTIVES
To determine the following mechanical properties of mild steel
1) Modulus of Elasticity
2) Yield Strength
3) Ultimate strength
4) Elongation
5) Percentage area of reduction
THEORY
When a mild steel specimen is subjected to tension, it will demonstrate a phenomenon as

shown in Figure 2S2-1. From Figure 2S2-1, it can be seen that stress is linearly proportional
to strain between point O and A. This relation, known as Hooke’s Law will continue until a
certain stress value which is called proportional limit (Point A). The region of proportionality
OA is defined as the elastic region. Beyond point A, the material is no longer follows directly
the Hooke’s Law although still behaves elastically if the load is released. The end of the
elastic region is called elastic limit (Point B). If the load exceeds beyond point B, plastic
deformation will occured and the specimen is permanently deformed. Point C is the upper
yield limit, where the material experiences sudden increase of strain. Lower yield limit
indicated by point D, which is the lowest stress level during yielding. After point D (yielding),
further increase of strain can only be achieved by the subsequent increase of load. The
30 | P a g e
stress continues to rise until its peak (Point E) and then decreases until fracture occurs
(Point F).
E Ultimate Strength
PLASTIC
Upper yield limit F
C
D Lower yield limit Stress during failure
B
Elastic limit
Stress
A Proportional limit
ELASTIC
O
Strain
Figure 2S2-1: Stress-strain curve from tensile test for mild steel
The ultimate tensile strength is calculated by dividing the applied load at point E by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Figure 2S2-2 shows the typical universal
testing machine.
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Figure 2S2-2: Tensile Test Machine
APPARATUS
1) Universal Testing Machine

2) Mild steel specimen
3) Micrometer
4) Extensometer
5) Divider
PROCEDURE
1) For round specimen, measure its diameter at any three locations along its gauge
length and take the average reading.
2) Mark two points on the gauge length of the specimen. The distance
between the two points is equal to the gauge length.
3) Place the specimen between the grips of the testing machine.
4) Install the extensometer to the specimen at the earlier mentioned marks.
32 | P a g e
5) Apply incremental load gradually.

6) When the specimen reaches its yield point, remove the extensometer. Measurement
of subsequent specimen elongation is based on the movement between the two grips
of the testing machine.
7) Increase the load until specimen fails.
EXAMPLE
The following data is obtained from a round cross sectional mild steel tensile test.
Data: Original diameter of the specimen = 25 mm

Diameter of the specimen after test = 18.6 mm
Gauge length = 200 mm
Stress-Strain Curve
600.0
Ultimate Stress
PLASTIC
500.0 Upper yield
limit
Stress (N/.mm2)
400.0 Stress during

Lower yield limit
failure
300.0
200.0
ELASTIC
100.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-3
Strain ( x 10 )
33 | P a g e
Load Elongation Stress

2)
(kN) (mm) (N/mm Strain
0 0.00 0.0 0.00000

20 0.04 40.7 0.00020
40 0.08 81.5 0.00040
60 0.13 122.2 0.00064
80 0.17 162.9 0.00084
100 0.21 203.7 0.00104
120 0.25 244.4 0.00124
140 0.29 285.1 0.00144
150 0.30 305.5 0.00152
160 0.33 325.9 0.00164
170 0.35 346.2 0.00176
172 0.38 350.3 0.00188
174 0.40 354.4 0.00200
176 0.44 358.5 0.00220
176 0.50 358.5 0.00248
175 0.53 356.4 0.00265
173 0.56 352.3 0.00280
176 0.58 358.5 0.00288
180 0.61 366.6 0.00304
190 0.72 387.0 0.00360
200 0.86 407.3 0.00428
210 1.00 427.7 0.00500
220 1.17 448.1 0.00584
230 1.36 468.4 0.00680
240 1.59 488.8 0.00796
250 2.01 509.2 0.01004
257 2.50 523.4 0.01248
260 3.00 529.5 0.01500
261 3.60 531.6 0.01800
259 4.00 527.5 0.02000
256 4.32 521.4 0.02160
250 4.48 509.2 0.02240
242 4.64 492.9 0.02320
229 4.68 466.4 0.02340
Modulus of Elasticity, E
Modulus of elasticity, E, for this specimen is calculated from the slope of the straight line of
the stress-strain curve.

E

where  is tensile stress
 is tensile strain
34 | P a g e
244.4 N/mm 2
From the stress-strain curve, E   197kN/mm 2
0.00124  10 3
Upper yield stress.

From the stress-strain curve,
Upper yield limit = 359 N/mm2
Lower yield limit = 352.3 N/mm2
Ultimate Strength
Maximum load sustained by specimen = 261 kN
Original area of cross section = 491 mm2
P
Ultimate Strength =
original area of cross section
= 261 x 1000 N
491 mm2
= 532 N/mm2
Elongation
Lf  Lo
Elongation =  100
Lf
4.68
=  100%
200
= 2.34 %
where Lo is the original length
Lf is the final length
Percentage area of reduction
 ( 25mm ) 2
Original area of cross section, Ao =  491 mm2
4
S2-6
 (18.6mm ) 2
Final area of cross section, Af =  272 mm2
4
Ao  Af
Percent reduction of area =  100%
Ao
491  272
=  100%
491
= 44.6 %
35 | P a g e
2S3 STRUT BUCKLING
INTRODUCTION
Column or strut is a structural member that carries axial compressive load. As per definition,
a strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical member. Vertical strut, used in buildings
or frames, is called a column.
The main criteria in designing compression members depend on the stability against
buckling slender. Strut or column usually failed because of buckling before direct
compression stress reached its yield point.
The main contribution to the buckling theory in columns is made in 18 century by EULER.
In general, column is subjected to a compressive load or stress. If the load is gradually

increased, the column will reach a stage, where it starts to buckle. The load at which the
column just buckles is called buckling load, critical load, crippling or Euler load.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this experiment is to determine the buckling load for a pinned ended strut
and for a fixed end strut.
THEORY
Euler Theory assumed that:
1. Strut is perfectly straight at the beginning

2. The load applied is truly axial.
3. The strut material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic.
In an ideal case, strut will remain straight when the load is increasing slowly until it reached
the critical load. At this point when it is disturbed the strut will suddenly buckle. If more loads
are added, the strut will fail. If the load decreased, the strut will be straight again.
If the conditions above are not fulfilled, the strut will bend just after the load is applied.
36 | P a g e
a) Both ends pinned (Figure 2S3-1)

Bending moment, M, at any z cross-section;
L z---z
M = -Py
x
y
P
Figure 2S3-1
M  Py
d2y M
but, 2

dx EI
d2y Py
2

dx EI
d 2 y Py
 0
dx 2 EI
d2y
2
 2y  0 (2S3-1)
dx
P
with, 2  (2S3-2)
EI
37 | P a g e
Solving equation (2S3-1) yields;
y   cos x  B sin x (2S3-3)
Boundary condition,
when x = 0, y = 0, A cos 0 = 0, so, A = 0
when x = L, y = 0, 0  B sin L  0 so, either B = 0 or sin L  0
If B = 0, so, y = 0 for all x values; therefore the strut will not buckle.
If sin L  0 , so, B will be indeterminate; therefore strut will have an indeterminate

buckling.
When; sin L  0
L =  ……
or, L = n with n = 1, 2, 3……
n
From the equation: 
L
n 2 2 P
From equation (2S3-2) 2  2

L EI
n 2EI
Therefore; P (2S3-4)
L2
So, the smallest value from the buckling load is when n = 1 in equation (S3-4), which is;
38 | P a g e
 2 EI
P  Pcr  , called EULER load.
L2
Where Le = L for both ends pinned
From the result, if the load, P, is smaller than Pcr, strut will remain in a straight condition (y =
0). But if P reached at Pcr, strut will start buckle
(b) both end fixed
When a member, clamped (fixed) at both ends, is subjected to a compressive load, the
member will buckle when the load exceeds the theoretical buckling load given by the
following equation:
For both ends fixed, Le = 0.5L, thus
Pcr = 4π2 EI / L2
Apparatus
See Appendix A
Procedure
(a) Both end pin
1. Switch on the digital indicator and warm it up for at least 10 minutes.
39 | P a g e
2. Choose a strut and measure its length. The width and thickness of the strut are
25mm and 3mm respectively.
3. Calculate the theoretical buckling load for a strut with pinned end condition. This is to
ensure that the load applied to the strut does not exceed the buckling load.
4. Placed the grooved support into the slot of the attachment for the end conditions and
tightened the side screws. Refer to the appendix for proper installation of the support.
5. Move the top platen upwards or downwards to suit with length of the strut.
6. Press the tare button on the digital indicator to set the reading to zero.
7. Place the strut in the groove of the top support.
8. While holding the strut, adjust the jack so that the lower end of the strut just rest in
the groove of the bottom support. (If the distance between the two supports is slightly
less than the length of the strut, turn the screw jack handle counter clockwise. If the
distance between the two supports is slightly greater than the length of the strut, turn
the screw jack handle clockwise.
9. Note the reading on the digital indicator. If the load is greater than 10 N turn the jack
handle counter clockwise to bring it to less than 10N.
10. Check the position of the dial gauge to ensure that it is at the mid-length of the strut.
Set the dial gauge reading to zero.
11. Press the tare button to set the load indicator to zero.
12. Load the strut in small increments by turning the screw jack handle slowly in the
clockwise direction.
13. For each load increment record the load and the corresponding mid-span deflection
(Table 1) . (Important: please ensure that the applied load is always less than 80
% of the buckling load.)
14. Unload the strut by turning the jack handle in the counter clockwise direction.
(b) both end fixed
1. Switch on the digital indicator and warm it up for at least 10 minutes.

2. Choose a strut and measure its length. The width and thickness of the strut are 25mm
and 3mm respectively.
3. Calculate the theoretical buckling load for a strut with fixed end condition.
4. Move the top platen upwards or downwards to suit with the length of the strut.
5. Press the tare button on the digital indicator to set the reading to zero.
40 | P a g e
6. Placed the strut in the slot of the upper attachment for end conditions. Refer appendix for
proper installation of the specimen.
7. lf the distance between the two attachments is less than the length of the strut, turn the
screw jack handle counterclockwise to lower the position of the attachment for the end
condition. If the distance is greater than the length of the strut, turn the screw jack
handle clockwise to close the gap.
8. Note the reading on the digital indicator. If the load is greater than 10 N turn the jack
handle counter clockwise to bring it to less than 10N.
9. Check the position of the dial gauge to ensure that it is at the mid-span. Set the dial
gauge reading to zero.
10. Press the tare button to set the load indicator to zero.
11. Load the strut in small increments by turning the screw jack handle slowly in the
clockwise direction.
12. For each load increment record the load and the corresponding mid-span deflection
(Table 2). (Important: please ensure that the applied load is always less than 80 %
ofthe buckling load.)
13. Unload the strut by turning the jack handle in the counter clockwise direction.
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APPENDIX
STRUT APPARATUS
42 | P a g e
Introduction
The apparatus consists of a two legs frame with a fixed base and a movable top platen. Strut
up to 1 m length can be tested with either pinned or fixed end condition. A manual screw
jack is used for ease and safe application of load to the strut.
Major Components
1. Top Platen
The top platen moves in the vertical direction along the height of the leg. This enables the
clear height between the top and the bottom platen to be varied to allow strut of different
lengths to be tested. Once the desired height is achieved, the top and bottom nuts are
tightened to anchor the platen to the supporting leg. The fixtures for the pinned-end and
fixed-end condition are attached to the platen through a hole at the centre of the platen and
held in position by a nut at the top of the platen.
43 | P a g e
2. Bottom Platen
The bottom platen is fixed and form the base of the frame. The loading fixtures is fixed to the
centre of this platen. The two leg are also anchored to this platen with a clear distance of
300 mm between them.
3. Loading Fixture
The load is applied to the strut by means of a manual screw jack. An S-shaped load cell is
fixed between the screw jack and the fixture for the end conditions to measure the load
being applied. The output from the load cell is indicated on tne digital indicator coupled with
the load cell.
4. Fixture For End Condition
It consists of a cylindrical solid with a 4 mm groove at the centre. It has been position such
that the strut does not twist when mounted. A tightening screw is provided to hold the strut in
position during testing.
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5. Other Fixtures
Dial gauge is provided to measure the horizontal displacement of the specimen during
testing. The gauge is mounted to the leg using holder.
A pulley is also provided to apply loads perpendicular to the specimen. The pulley is
attached to the leg using the holder.
To increase the clear height between the platen

a) Unscrew the top nuts upwards to the desired position, approximately the height of the
strut.
b) Turned the bottom nut so that it moves upwards with the platen
c) When the top surface of the platen touches the top nuts, tightened all the nuts and
insert the strut.
To decrease the clear height between the platen

a) Unscrew the bottom nuts downwards to the desired position, approximately the
height of the strut.
b) Turn the top nut so that it moves downwards to the top surface of the platen
45 | P a g e
c) When it touches the platen tightened all the nuts and insert the strut
To mount a fixed end specimen

a) Lower the screw jack shaft
b) Position the top platen such that the clear distance between the platen is slightly
longer than the length of the strut.
c) Slide the strut into the top and bottom groove at the fixture for the end condition.
d) At the top end, push the strut so that its end touches the base of the groove. Tighten
the screw at the side of the fixture.
46 | P a g e
e) At the bottom end, raise the shaft of the screw jack so that the base of the specimen
just touches the base of the groove. Check that the strut is straight. If the strut is
slightly bent, lower the screw jack shaft.
f) Tightened the screw at the side of the fixture. The strut is now ready for testing.
To mount a pinned end specimen

a) Lower the screw jack shaft
b) Position the top platen such that the clear distance between the platen is slightly
longer than the length of the strut.
c) Slide the knife edge attachment into the top and bottom groove at the fixture for the
end condition.
d) Push the knife edge attachment so that its end touches the base of the groove.
Tighten the screw at the side of the fixture.
e) Fixed the V groove on each end of the strut.

f) Place one end of the strut on the lower knife edge
g) Raise the screw jack shaft so that the top end of the strut just touches the
knife edge. Check that the specimen is straight. If the strut is slightly bent,
lower the screw jack shaft slightly.
h) The strut is now ready for testing.
47 | P a g e
2G1 SOIL COMPACTION TEST
INTRODUCTION
Soil compaction is a process of mechanically pressing together soil particles to increase the
density by expelling air from the void spaces of the soil. Compaction is normally performed
during construction, often by heavy compaction rollers. For laboratory test, this section
presents brief procedure from Standard Proctor Method.
OBJECTIVE:
To determine optimum water content and maximum dry density of soil samples
LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST
The test is in accordance to BS 1377: 1990: Part 4

(The 2.5 kg rammer method)
Procedure:
1. Prepare at least 5 kg of air dried soil sample that passes through 20 mm sieve
2. Mix thoroughly the sample with enough water to obtain a low value of water content
Extension
Mould
Guide
Tube
Mould
Rammer
Base Plate
Figure 2G1-1: The 2.5 kg rammer method
3. Weigh the mould with base plate attached to the nearest 1 g (m1). Measure the
internal dimensions to 0.1 mm.
48 | P a g e
4. Attach the extension mould to the mould assembly on a solid base, e.g., a concrete
floor.
5. Place a quantity of the soil mixture into the mould such that when compacted it
occupies a little over one third of the height of the mould body.
6. Apply 27 blows from the rammer dropped from a height of 300 mm above the soil as
controlled by the guide tube. Distribute the blows uniformly over the surface and
ensure that the rammer always falls freely and is not obstructed by soil in the guide
tube.
7. Repeat procedure 5 and 6 until the amount of soil used is sufficient to fill the mould
body, with the surface not more than 6 mm above of the upper edge of the mould
body.
Note: It is necessary to control the total volume of soil compacted. If the amount of
soil struck off after removing the extension is too great, the test results may be
inaccurate.
8. Remove the extension, strike off the excess soil and level off the surface of the
compacted soil carefully to the top of the mould using the straightedge. Replace any
coarse particles, removed in the leveling process, by finer material from the sample,
well pressed in.
9. Weigh the soil and mould with base plate to the nearest 1 g (m2).
10. Remove the compacted soil from the mould and place it on the metal tray. Take a
representative sample of the soil for determination of its water content.
11. Repeat the experiment with four varying water content.
12. Discard the remainder of each compacted sample.
13. The values of water content corresponding to each volume of compacted soil are
determined and it becomes possible to plot dry density to moisture content. (Figure
2G1-2)
The bulk density
b = Mass of the soil / Volume of the soil (Mg/m3)

M 2  M1 
b  (Mg/m3) (2G1-1)
V
where;
M1 = Mass of mould (g)
M2 = Mass of mould + soil (g)
49 | P a g e
The dry density
b
d  (Mg/m3) (2G1-2)
1  
where;
 = moisture content (in decimal)
Percentage of air void content
The relationship between d and Va is given by expression:
1  Va 
d   w (Mg/m3) (2G1-3)
 1 
   
 Gs 
where;
w = 1 Mg/m3
Va = Percentage of air void content (in decimal)
Gs = Specific gravity
Figure 2G1-2: Dry density Vs. Water content
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2G2 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
(A) DRY SIEVING

(B) ATTERBERG LIMITS
(A) DRY SIEVING
INTRODUCTION
This method covers the quantitative determination of the particle size distribution in a
cohesionless soil down to the fine-sand size. Test and sample preparation procedures are
as BS 1377: Part2: 1990)
BASIC THEORY
A soil consists of an assemblage of discrete particles of various shapes and sizes. The
character of the soil may be known by determining the particle distribution on the soil. The
objective of the test is to group soil particles into different range of sizes, and subsequently,
the relative proportions by dry weight, of each size range. The data collected and then
plotted into a graph called particle size distribution curve (see Example). The patterns of the
curve basically described the grading characteristics of a soil. The position of a curve on the
chart indicates the fineness or coarseness of the grains, the higher and the further to the left
the curve lies, the finer the grains, and vice versa. The steepness, flatness and general
shape indicate the distribution of the grain size for a given soil sample (Fig. 2G2-1).
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Particle size is usually given in terms of the equivalent particle diameter:

GRAVEL: 60mm to 2mm.
SAND: 2mm to 0.06mm
SILT: 0.06 to 0.002mm
CLAY: smaller than 0.002mm
FINES: pass a 63m sieve
51 | P a g e
Fig. 2G2-1: Typical grading curves
Some typical grading curves are shown in the Fig. 2G2-1:

A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (probably a deltaic or estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY
Fig. 2G2-2: Grading characteristics
A grading curve is a useful tool for soil description (Fig. 2G2-2). Grading curves are often
included in ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using
geometric properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading
characteristics
52 | P a g e
First of all, three points are located on the grading curve namely:
D10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
From these points the grading characteristics are calculated:

Effective size - D10
Uniformity coefficient - Cu = D60 / D10
Coefficient of gradation – Cc = [D30] 2 / [D60  D10]
Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Cc between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Cc < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
APPARATUS
Test sieves with the following aperture sizes or that equivalent to BS 1377: Part 2 may be
used: 10mm, 6.3mm, 2mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.3mm, 0.15mm, 0.063mm and the
appropriate receiver tray and lid.
TEST PROCEDURE
1. Weigh a dry sample (oven- or air-dried) to 0.1% of its total mass of about 200g.
2. Fit the largest size test sieve appropriate to the maximum size of material present to the
receiver and place the sample on the sieve.
3. Shake the sieve set using a suitable mechanical shaker for a minimum period of 10
minutes. Particles may be hand placed to see if they will fall through but they shall not be
pushed through the sieve aperture. Weigh the amount of retained material on each sieve
to 0.1% of its total mass.
53 | P a g e
Fig. 2G2-3: Sieve set and shaker
EXAMPLE
The following table shows the typical calculation of data obtained from sieve test and the
corresponding particle size distribution curve.
Table 2G2-1: Data Calculation

Sieve size
Mass retained (g) Mass passing (g) Summation (%)
(mm)
10 0.0 200 100
6.3 15.0 185 93
2 36.7 148.3 74
1.18 35.1 113.2 57
0.6 38.0 75.2 38
0.3 27.3 47.9 24
0.15 25.7 22.2 11
0.063 17.9 4.3 2
Pass 0.063 4.3
Total mass = 200g
54 | P a g e
Fig. 2G2-4: Particles size distribution curve
(B) ATTERBERG LIMITS
INTRODUCTION
This test consists of determination of soil moisture content, which deformed from plastic to
liquid. Based on the data, the soil may classify to certain classes. Test and sample
preparation procedures are as BS 1377: Part2: 1990)
BASIC THEORY
The moisture content will affect the behaviour of a soil. As the soil is slowly dried out a point
is reached when the soil just begins to exhibit a smaller shear resistance. If this shear stress
is removed, it is found that the soil has experienced a permanent deformation: it is acting as
a plastic solid and not as a liquid. The moisture content in the soil when it stops acting as a
liquid and starts acting as a plastic solid, is known as liquid limit (LL). As further moisture is
driven from the soil, resistance to large shearing stressed becomes possible. Eventually the
soil exhibits no permanent deformation and simply fractures with no plastic deformation, i.e.
when it acts as a brittle solid. The limit between plastic and brittle failure is known as the
plastic limit (PL).
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Volume
Brittle solid Plastic solid Liquid
SL PL LL Moisture
content
Fig. 2G2-5: Definition of Atterberg Limits
The plasticity index (PI) is the range of moisture content in which a soil behaves as plastic;
the finer the soil, the greater its plasticity index
PI = LL – PL
The liquid and plastic limits provide the most useful way of identifying and classifying the
fine-grained cohesive soils. Particle size tests provide quantitative data on the range of sizes
of particles and the amount of clay present, but say nothing about the type of clay. Clay
particles are too small to be examined visually, but the Atterberg limits enable clay soils to
be classified physically, and the probable type of clay minerals to be assessed. Classification
is usually accomplished by means of the plasticity chart. The classifications for cohesive
soils, as shown in Fig.2G2-6, include CL, CI and etc , ML, MI etc.
56 | P a g e
Fig. 2G2-6: Plasticity Chart
Based on the data obtained from plasticity chart, the soil sample can be accordingly
classified using Table 2G2-2.
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Table 2G2-2: Unified Soil Classification System
58 | P a g e
LIQUID LIMIT (Cone penetrometer method)
Apparatus
1. A flat glass plate.

2. Two spatulas.
3. Penetrometer (see Fig. 2G2-7) that complies with BS 2000: Part 49.
4. A cone of stainless steel approximately 35mm long, with smooth, polished surface and
an angle of 30  10
Fig. 2G2-7: Cone Penetrometer
5. One or more metal cups not less than 55mm in diameter and 40mm deep with the rim
parallel to the flat base
6. Apparatus for moisture content determination (moisture tin and oven).
7. A wash bottle containing distilled water
59 | P a g e
TEST PROCEDURES
1. Take a sample of about 300g from the soil which passing 425m sieve.
2. Place the soil sample on the glass plate and mix well with distilled water using spatulas
until it becomes paste form. If necessary, add more water so that the first cone
penetration reading is about 15mm.
3. Push a portion of the mixed soil into the cup with a spatulas taking care not to trap air.
Strike off excess soil with straightedge to give a smooth level surface.
4. With the penetration cone locked in the raised position lower the supporting assembly so
that the tip of the cone just touches the surface of the soil. When the cone is in the
correct position a slight movement of the cup will just mark the soil surface. Lower the
stem of the dial gauge to contact the cone shaft and record the reading on the dial gauge
to the nearest 0.1mm.
5. Release the cone for about period of 5s. After locking the cone in position lower the stem
of the dial gauge to contact the cone shaft and record the reading of the dial gauge to the
nearest 0.1mm. Record the difference between the beginning and the end of the drop as
the cone penetration.
6. Take about 10g of the soil specimen from the cup to determine its moisture content.
7. Repeat the same procedure for at least 4 times using same specimen with adding more
distilled water. Choose for the specimen that only shows the reading between 15mm to
25mm.
8. Plot a graph of moisture content versus penetration as in Fig. 2G2-8. Moisture content
corresponding to penetration of 20mm is the liquid limit (LL).
Moisture content, w(%)
40
30
20
10 20 40 60 80
penetration, d (mm)
Fig. 2G2-8 : Moisture content versus penetration graph
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PLASTIC LIMIT
APPARATUS
1. The person who undertakes the test should ensure his hand is clean and free from
grease.
2. A flat glass plates, smooth and free from scratches, on which threads are rolled.
3. Two spatulas.
4. Apparatus for the moisture content determination.
5. A short length (about 100mm) of 3mm diameter metal rod.
Fig. 2G2-9: Apparatus
TEST PROCEDURE
1. About 20g of soil sample used for the liquid limit test is required for this test. (Note: After
thoroughly mixing the sample for liquid limit test, it is convenient to set aside a portion of
the soil for the plastic limit test before proceeding with the LL test. If the sample is initially
too wet, it should be allowed to dry on the glass plate until it reaches the right
consistency).
2. When the soil is plastic enough, it is well kneaded and then shaped into a ball. Mould
and roll the ball using fingers and palms so the moisture in the sample slowly dries.
When fine cracks begin to appear on the sample surface, divide the ball into two
portions, each about 10g weight. Further divide each portion into four equal parts, but
keeping each set of four parts together.
3. Each part is then moulded into a thread of about 6mm diameter, using finger and thumb.
The thread must be intact and homogeneous. Using a steady pressure, roll the thread
between the fingers and the surface of the glass plate. The pressure should reduce the
diameter of the thread from 6mm to about 3mm after between five and ten times of back-
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and-forth movements of the hand. Roll the soil steadily until the thread crumbles when it
has been rolled to a size of 3mm diameter. The metal rod is used for gauging this
diameter (Fig.2G2-10).
Fig. 2G2-10
4. As soon as the crumbling stage is reached, place the crumbled threads into a moisture
tin of known weight. Replace the container lid immediately.
5. Repeat the procedure for the other three pieces of soil, and place in the same container.
Weigh the container and its content as soon as possible and place it in the oven for a
period of least 12 hours. Determine the moisture content of the sample and this is the
plastic limit, PL.
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2G3 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE TEST
INTRODUCTION
In an unconfined compression test, a cylindrical specimen of cohesive soil is subjected to

a steadily increasing axial compression until failure occurs. The axial force is the only
force applied to the specimen. The test is normally carried out on 38 mm diameter
specimens, but can also be performed on specimens up to 100 mm diameter. The test
provides an immediate approximate value of the compressive strength of the soil, either
in an undisturbed or remoulded condition. It is carried out within a short enough time to
ensure that no drainage of water is permitted into or out of the specimen. It is suitable
only for saturated, non-fissured cohesive soils.
FAILURE CRITERIA
The maximum value of the compressive force per unit area at which the specimen can
sustain is referred to as the unconfined compressive strength of the soil.
In soils of high plasticity in which the axial stress does not readily reach a maximum
value, an axial strain of 20 % is used as the criterion of failure.
TYPES OF TEST
There are two methods for determining the unconfined compressive strength of soil. The
first method is definitive method of using a load frame, in which specimens of any
suitable diameter can be tested. The other method makes use of autographic apparatus.
TEST PROCEDURE (Load frame method)
1. Determine the mass of the prepared test specimen to the nearest 0.1g.
2. Make at least three measurements of length and of the diameter of the specimen to
the nearest 0.1 mm, and determine the average dimensions.
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3. Place the specimen in the loading device so that it is centred on the bottom platen.
Avoid disturbance especially if the specimen is soft, and avoid loss of moisture from
the soil.
4. Adjust the loading device carefully so that the upper platen just makes contact with
the specimen. (Figure 2G3-1)
NOTE: A small seating force indicated by the force-measuring device confirms when
contact is made. The force is included as part of the force applied to the specimen.
5. Adjust the axial deformation gauge to read zero or choose an appropriate initial
reading.
6. Record the initial readings of the force and compression gauges.
7. Select rate of axial deformation such that the rate of axial strain does not exceed 2%
/ min.
8. Apply compression to the specimen at the selected rate and record simultaneous
readings of the force-measuring device and the axial deformation gauges at regular
intervals of compression, e.g. corresponding to each 0.5% strain. Obtain at least 12
sets of readings in order to define the stress-strain curve.
9. Continue the test until maximum value of axial stress (calculated as in 3.3) has been
passed, or the axial strain reaches 20 %.
10. Remove the load from the specimen and record the final reading of the forces
measuring gauge as a check on the initial reading.
11. Sketch the mode of failure of the specimen.
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Loading piston
Top platen
Sample Cell
Bottom platen
Motor
Figure 2G3-1
CALCULATION AND PLOTTING
1. Calculate the axial strain, , of the specimen for each set of readings from the
equation
 = L
Lo
where
L is the change in length of the specimen as indicated by the axial
deformation gauge (in mm);
Lo is the initial length of the specimen (in mm).
2. Calculate the force, P (in N), applied to the specimen for each set of readings by
multiplying the change in reading of the force-measuring device from zero load (in
divisions of digits) by relevant load calibration factor (in N/division or N/digit).
3. Calculate the axial compressive stresses, 1 (in kPa), in the specimen for each set of
readings, on the assumption that the specimen deforms as a right cylinder, from the
equation
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1 = P (1 - ) x 1000
Ao
where,
Ao is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen (in mm2)
4. Plot calculated values of compressive stress as ordinates against corresponding

values of strain (expressed in percentage) as abscissae, and draw the stress-strain
curve through the points.
5. From this graph, the unconfined compressive strength, qu (kN/m2) is evaluated as

either the maximum value of load per unit area or the load per unit area at 20%
strain, whichever occurs first.
6. Determine the axial strain of the specimen at failure.
7. Calculate the moisture content, bulk density and dry density of the test specimen.
8. Plot Mohr’s circle and determine the unconfined compressive strength. (Figure 2G3-
2)

Mohr's Circle
Shear Stress
 
0,0 Normal Stress n
Figure 2G3-2
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2G4 ROCK MECHANICS (OPEN ENDED EXPERIMENT)
PROJECT GUIDELINE
The project consists of three experiments. The execution of the experiment is very different
from the other labs. The lab activities are open ended that is you are required to brainstorm,
and give ideas in solving the problem using the available resources. The facilitator will give
you the ‘problem’ that will be completed in two weeks. You will be given altogether 4 hours
duration in lab sessions that are spread over two consecutive weeks. In addition, you may
need another 2 hours outlab session spread over between week 1 and week 2. In lab
session means you and your group will carry out works during laboratory class while out lab
session is the discussion handled outside of class time with your group members once the
project is underway.
You and your group must use the provided resources or given test manuals 2G4-1, 2G4-2
and 2G4-3. The facilitator willguide you the works that will be carried out in the first and
second weeks. You and your group must divide the work and work effectively to achieve
learning outcomes. After the experiments, discuss the obtained results. Produce only one
report with the number of pages for not more than 5 (not including Appendices) and
submitted exactly 3 days after the project completed. The leader must ensure that each
team member is responsible enough to contribute in completing the work.
2G4-1 CORE LOGGING
INTRODUCTION
Rock descriptions are made on samples recovered from boreholes and excavations
and/or from examination of the in-situ materials. The characteristics of a rock, which play a
major role in determining its engineering properties and need to be given due attention when
describing the rock, are the strength, weathering effects and the discontinuities. The
discontinuities are the most significant of these and so particular attention is paid to this
aspect. Engineering properties of rock are not included in and cannot be reliably inferred
solely from this type of geological classification, although a particular rock name can often
indicate a range of typical engineering, characteristics. Geological classification of rock
materials is necessary to appreciate the geological origin and structure of an area, to
establish geological correlation between boreholes, and to distinguish boulders from
bedrock. This knowledge is also of importance when rock material is required for
construction purposes.
OBJECTIVE
To obtain physical description and RQD of rock cores recovered from borehole drilling.
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THEORY
Rocks in the form of natural outcrops, cores and excavated surface should normally
be described in the following manner:
a) Material characteristics : strength, structure, colour, texture, grain size, rock name.
b) General information : additional information and minor constituents, geological
information.
c) Mass characteristics: state of weathering, discontinuities, fracture state.
APPARATUS AND ROCK SAMPLE:

1. Core barrel
2. Measuring tape
PROCEDURE:
State of weathering
- Include full details of the degree, extent and nature of weathering effects. Please
refers to any standard for determining the grades of weathering.
- Report the strength and reduction of strength using defined terminology, Include any
direct or indirect strength measurements made. Provide information on changes of
rock due to weathering and the extent of any such feature lie discontinuities should
also be reported.
Core Recovery (CR)
Core recovery is defined as the ratio of core recovered to the run length expressed as a
percentage.
Therefore:
Core Recovery (%) = [(Length of recovered core sample)/1500 mm] × 100%
These values should be recorded on the field logs on a core run by core run basis (see
Table 1).
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Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
The RQD provides a subjective estimate of rock mass quality based on modified CR. RQD is
defined as percentage of rock core recovered in intact pieces of 100 mm or more in length of
a core run. Therefore RQD is:
RQD (%) = (Summation of all core pieces with length > 100 mm) / (Length of Core Barrel) ×
100%
Note that the length of core considered in the RQD calculation are lengths of core separated
by natural joints. Mechanical breaks caused by drilling or handling should not be included in
the RQD calculation. Vertical fractures along the core should be discarded in the RQD
calculation
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Table 1 shows the standard indices of fracture state of rock cores.
CR (%) Ratio of core recovered (solid and non

intact) to length of core run
RQD Ratio of solid core pieces longer than
(%) 100mm to length of core run
RESULTS
Core No. CR (%) RQD (%) Description

(weathering and
special features)
C1
C2
C3
REFERENCE
ISRM, 2007. The complete ISRM suggested methods for rock characterization, testing and
monitoring: 1974 – 2006.
BS 5930 : 1981 Code of Practice for Site investigations (Formerly CP2001)
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2G4-2 SCHMIDT REBOUND HARNESS TEST
INTRODUCTION
Schmidt rebound hardness test is carried to determine the rebound hardness of a test
material, particularly rock by using the Schmidt impact hammer. With its portable, simple and
affordable attributes, the Schmidt hammer (SH) is an ideal index apparatus, which underlies
its increasing popularity and expanding range of applications. The SH rebound hardness
value (R) is perhaps the most frequently used index in rock mechanics practice for
estimating the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and the modulus of elasticity (E) of intact
rock both in laboratory conditions and in situ. The SH is also widely used for estimating the
UCS of discontinuity walls and assessing the workability, excavatability and boreability of
rocks by mechanical means (cutting, polishing, milling, crushing and fragmentation
processes in quarrying, drilling and tunneling). The device is portable and may be used both
in the laboratory and field.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the hardness and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of rock.
THEORY
Straightforward principles apply when operating the Schmidt hammer, shown in
Figure 1. A constant amount of stored spring energy is imparted through a hammer mass to
the plunger, causing the mass to rebound a distance proportional to the total energy
absorbed by the impact surface. The rebound index is shown by the indicator and is defined
as the ‘rebound index’. The degree of rebound varies, depending upon rock elastic
72 | P a g e
properties. The height of rebound of the mass is measured on a scale and is taken as the
measure of hardness.
APPARATUS:
The Schmidt hammer – Type L with impact energy of 0.74 Nm.
Sample cradle (steel) of minimum weight of 20kg. Note that when sample cradle is used,
hammer is vertically downwards
PROCEDURE:
1. Prior to each testing sequence, calibrate the Schmidt hammer.
2. Specimens obtained for the laboratory tests shall be representative of the rock to be
studied. Use larger piece of rock if possible. The test surface of all specimens shall
be smooth and flat over the area covered by the plunger.
3. Securely clamp the individual pieces of rock to a rigid base to adequately secure the
specimen against vibration and movement during the test. Place the base on a flat
surface that provides firm support.
4. Use hammer in one of the three positions: vertically upwards, horizontally, or
vertically downwards with the axis of the hammer  5° from the desired position.
Record and report the hammer orientation for the test and any corrections applied to
non-vertical or non-horizontal orientations in the results.
5. Conduct at least 20 individual tests on the rock sample. Separate the test locations
by at least the diameter of the plunger.
CALCULATIONS
The calibration curve in Chart A assumes the rock density of the order 2000kg/m³. The curve
applies with the hammer in the horizontal direction (i.e. vertical rock surfaces). If the hammer
is used in any other orientation, the correction factors in the table below must be applied to
the rebound value obtained.
Rebound R +90° +45° -45° -90°
10 +2.4 +3.2
20 -5.4 -3.5 +2.5 +3.4
30 -4.7 -3.1 +2.3 +3.1
40 -3.9 -2.6 +2.0 +2.7
50 -3.1 -2.1 +1.6 +2.2
60 -2.3 -1.6 +1.3 +1.7
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Note that the rebound number R can be converted to surface compressive strength (UCS)
using several methods:
1. For value of R greater than 50 use the following equation to obtain UCS:
UCS = 1.72R - 18.96
2. R can be converted to UCS using standard chart (Fig 20). Depending on rock types, the
rock unit weight lies between 20 and 32 kN/m3.
3. UCS can also be calculated using the following equation. Note that JCS = UC, and unit
Log10JCS = 0.00088 (g) (R) + 1.01 (after Broch & Franklin, 1972)
RESULTS
SAMPLE 1
Lithologic description of rock:
Type of specimen:
Shape and size of specimen:
Orientation of hammer:
Method of specimen clamping:
UCS
READING Rebound value Remarks
(MPa)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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REFERENCE
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2G4-3 POINT LOAD TEST
INTRODUCTION
Point load test is carried out on core rock specimens or irregular rock fragments to
obtain the point load strength index (Is(50)) and unconfined compressive strength. This test
does not require costly specimen preparation and is a quick simple test. The failure load P
and the distance between platens D are measured to obtain the uncorrected point load
strength P/D2. A correction is applied to account for the specimen size and shape, and the
unconfined compressive strength is obtained from a correlation equation. Depending on the
specimen geometry, three types of tests can be performed: diametral, axial, and irregular
lump Figure 1. Testing procedures as suggested by ISRM (2007).
Figure 1: Specimen shape requirements for (a) the diametral test, (b) the axial test, (c) the
block test, and (d) the irregular lump test (ISRM).
OBJECTIVE
To determine the compressive strength of rock specimens from irregular lump test.
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THEORY
When first introduced, the point load strength test was used mainly to predict uniaxial
compressive strength which was then the established test for general-purpose rock strength
classification. Point Load strength now often replaces the uniaxial compressive strength in
this role since when properly conducted it is as reliable and much quicker to measure. Is(50))
should be used directly for rock classification, since correlations with uniaxial compressive
strength are only approximation. On average, uniaxial compressive strength is 20 – 25 times
point load test. However, test on many different rock types the ratio can vary between 15
and 50 especially for anisotropic rocks, so that errors of up to 100% are possible in using an
arbitrary ration value to predict compressive strength from point load strength. The point load
strength test is a form of indirect tensile test, but it is largely irrelevant to its primary role in
rock classification and strength characterization. Is(50)) is approximately 0.80 times the
uniaxial tensile or Brazzilian tensile strength.
PROCEDURE:
1. Rock blocks or lumps of size 50  35mm and of the shape shown in Figure 1d are
suitable for the irregular lump test. The ration D/W should be between 0.3 and 1.0,
preferably close to 1.0.
2. There should preferably be at least 10 tests per sample, more if the sample is
heterogeneous or anisotropic.
3. The specimen is inserted in the test machine and the platens closed to make contact
with the smallest dimension of the lump or block, away from the edges and corner
(Figure 1d).
4. The distance D between the platen contact points is recorded  2%. The smallest
specimen width W perpendicular to the loading direction is recorded  5%. If the side
are not parallel, then W is calculated as (W 1 + W 2)/2 as shown in Figure 1d.
5. The load is steadily increased such that failure occurs within 10 – 60 sec, and the
failure load P is recorded. The test should be rejected as invalid if the fracture
surface passes through only one loading point (Figure 2).
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Figure 2: Typical modes of failure for valid and invalid test, ISRM (2007).
CALCULATIONS
The uncorrected Point Load Strength Is(50) is calculated is given as:
Uncorrected Point Load Strength, Is = P/De2

Equivalent core diameter, De2 = 4A/ (for lump test)
Minimum cross sectional area, A = WD
Point Load Strength, Is(50) = F x Is
Size correction factor, F = (De / 50) 0.45 or from FIGG
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RESULTS FORM
Rock Type & W.

Grade w2 Load
Sample w1 (mm) D (mm) Remarks
(mm) (kN)
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
REFERENCE
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2H1 CALIBRATION OF A PRESSURE GAUGE
INTRODUCTION
A Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device for measuring pressures. The gauge consists of a
curved tube that tends to straighten when place under pressure. The movement of free end
of the gauge will rotate the pointer over a scale from which the pressure can be read.
When it is desired to check the accuracy of a Bourdon gauge, the simple and usual
procedure is to load it with known pressures by a dead weight tester using water or oil to
transmit the pressure. The apparatus for this experiment consist of cylindrical piston, fitting
cylinder, and pressure gauge (refer to Figure H1-1). The theoretical pressure exerted by the
load assigned on this cylindrical piston is given by
F
P (H1-1)
A
where, P = pressure (N/m2)

F = force (N)
= mg
A = cross-sectional area of piston (m2)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
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Weights
Piston
Pressure
Flexible Gauge (kN/m2)
Tube
FIGURE H1-1
OBJECTIVE
To perform calibration of a pressure gauge by comparing the experimental and theoretical

pressures.
APPARATUS
1. Bourdon Gauge Pressure (TecQuipment, UK)

2. Weights
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
1. Measure the diameter of piston

2. Filled up the hose and cylinder gauge with water and remove air trapping inside the
hose and cylinder.
3. Insert piston into the cylinder. Read and record the gauge reading.
4. Add weights in an appropriate increment and record the pressure gauge reading for
each load increment.
5. Repeat step 4 by reducing the load on piston cylinder for decreasing pressure and
record pressure gauge reading.
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CAMPUTATIONS
d 2
1. Cross sectional area of piston, A  where, d is diameter of piston.
4
M  M load g
Pactual 
piston
2. (N/m2)
A
(H1-2)
where, g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
Pactual  Pexp eriment

3. Error (%) = x100 %
Pactual
GRAPHS
1. Plot the graph of gauge reading (increasing pressure and decreasing pressure)
versus true pressure.
2. Plot the graph of total load on piston versus gauge reading (increasing pressure and
decreasing pressure).
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
1. Give your conclusions and comments on the graphs that you have plotted.
2. What are the factors that many contribute to errors between experimental and
theoretical (true) pressures?
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2H2 CENTRE OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic structures constructed for the purpose of retaining water are subjected to
hydrostatic forces as long as water is at rest. Therefore, it is important to determine the
magnitude, direction and location of these forces.
Resultant force F on submerged flat surface is given by,
F  gh A (H2-1)
where,
 = fluid’s density (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h = the vertical distance from centroid of the area
(PG) to the fluid surface (m)
A = area of submerged surface (m2)
The force, F is acting through center of pressure, PT and PT is at yp distance from O (Figure
H2.1). O is the intercept point of the surface water line and the plane surface. The distance
of yp is measured in the direction of the plane surface.
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FIGURE H2-1
From theory, yp is;
I PG
y p (theory)  y  (H2-2)
Ay
where I PG = 2nd moment of area of the submerged surface. For a
rectangular shape, IPG is,

= bd 3 / 12 (m4) (H2-3)
A = area of the plane section,
= bd (H2-4)
y = distance from center of gravity (PG) to O (Figure H2.1)
Refer to Figure H2-i, y is given by,
y  h / cos (H2-5)
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where h is the vertical distance from centre of gravity of the submerged surface to (PG) to
the water surface. But the magnitude of h (refer to Figure H2-I) is given by,
h  ( h1  h2 ) / 2 (H2-6)
IPG d
PG
By taking moment at P,
Fy  mgs
where m is the load,
mgs
y (H2-7)
F
but
h1
y  y p  r1  (H2-8)
cos 
where r1 is the radius of the water container. Thus the value of experimental yp is
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h1
y p (exp eriment)  y  r1  (H2-9)
cos
OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the magnitude of hydrostatic force which acting on vertical and inclined
plane submerged surfaces.
2. To determine the location of hydrostatic force, yp (both theoretical and experimental by
experimental and theoretical yps.
3. To compare theoretical and experimental yp values.
APPARATUS
1. Hydrostatic pressure equipment manufactured by Techniquipment Ltd.
1. Adjust the container of the hydrostatic pressure to make sure its plane surface is in
vertical position.
2. Measures: (i) width of the plane surface, (ii) height of the plane surface, (iii) radius of the
water container, (iv) radius of water container and (v) the length of lever arm, s.
3. Pour the water into the balancing container.
4. Attach the load of 350g to the container’s arm (lever).
5. Add the amount of water as in step 3 to balance up the load attached in step 4 and make
sure the lever arm is horizontal.
6. Measure and record h1 and h2.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 6 for loads of 400g and 450g.
8. Repeat steps 2 to 7 by adjusting the plane surface to make an angle of 20o to vertical.
CALCULATION
Compute the error between experimental and theoretical yps using the following equation,
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y p (theory)  y p (exp eriment)

% Error = x100% (H2-10)
y p (theory)
CONCLUSIONS
1. Discuss the factors that may contribute to error in yp that you have obtained
theoretically and experimentally.
2. Give your conclusions and comments on the experiment.
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2H3 FLOW THROUGH V–NOTCH
INTRODUCTION
A variety of devices and methods are available for measuring fluid flow in the field and in the
laboratory. One of these devices that can be used for flow measurement is weir. Essentially,
a weir is a simple overflow structure extending across a channel and normal to the direction
of flow. Various types of weirs exist, and they are generally classified by shape. In this
experiment, a thin plate 90o V-notch weir will be used for flow measurement. The sides of
this notch are inclined 45o from the vertical. Before any measurement is made, the weir must
be calibrated so that the discharge to be measured represents the actual discharge.
Theoretically, the flow through the V-notch is given by
8
Qtheory = tan  2g H 5/2 (H3-1)
15
where H and  are shown in Figure H03-i.
Figure H3-1
The actual discharge can be calculated by multiplying a coefficient (cd) to theoretical

discharge (Equation H3-1) as follow
Qactual = cd Qtheory (H3-2)
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The value of cd has to be calibrated in order for a notch to be used for flow measurement in
an open channel. The determination process of cd is called calibration. Based on
manufacture specification, cd value for this apparatus is given as 0.61.
OBJECTIVES
i.. To determine the discharge coefficient, cd.

ii. To compare the experimental value of cd with the value given by the
manufacturer.
APPARATUS
1. V-notch plate
2. Hydraulic bench
3. Point gauge
4. Stop watch
PROCEDURES
1. Measure the distance from the channel bed to the apex of the notch, Ho
2. Measure the notch angle, 2.
3. Switch on the pump and open the valve to give maximum head over the notch.
4. Measure the volume of water collected in the storage tank.
5. Record the time to fill in the tank in step 4.
6. Measure the water surface elevation above the channel bottom, H1.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for different discharge measurements.
DATA COLLECTIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Use the calculation table to perform the calculations.

1) Distance from crest to channel bottom, Ho = ___________________________m
2) Notch angle, 2. = _________________
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RESULTS
The theoretical discharge equation (Equation (1)) can be expressed as follows:
Q = k Hn (H3-3)
or
log Q = n log H + log k (H3-4)
If experimental results are plotted on a graph having log H as abcissae and log Q as ordinate,
they will lie on a straight line having slope n and intercept log k on the axis of log Q.
Theoretically, n value in equations (H3-1) and (H3-3) is equal to 5/2. Therefore, the
experimental n value should be about 5/2.
From the equations (H3-1) and (H3-3), the k term can be written as
8
k= cd 2g tan  (H3-5)
15
Therefore, the value of cd can be determined from Equation (H3-5) as follow:
15 1
cd = k (H3-6)
8 2g tan 
From the results obtained:
1. Determine the percentage different between the experimental n value and

theoretical n value (5/2) using the following equation
| 5/2 - n |
% Different = x 100% (H3-7)
5/2
2. Determine the cd value using Equation (H3-6). (Note:This cd is the experimental

cd). Determine the percentage different between experimental cd and cd value
for the apparatus as specified by manufacturer (0.61).
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| 0.61 - c d ex p erimen t|
% Different = x 100% (H3-8)
0.61
CONCLUSIONS
1. Give your conclusions and state your suggestions to improve the experiment.
2. Compare your Cd value and Cd for the apparatus as specified by the
manufacturer. What are the factors that may contribute to the deviation of your
Cd value?
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2H4 FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI METER
INTRODUCTION
The Venturi is a device for measuring the discharge along a pipe. The fluid flowing in the
pipe is led through a contraction section to a throat, which has a smaller cross-sectional area
than the pipe, so that the velocity of the fluid through the throat is higher than that in the
pipe. The increase of velocity is accompanied by a fall in pressure, the magnitude of which
depends on the rate of flow. By measuring the pressure drop, the discharge may be
calculated. Beyond the throat the fluid is decelerated in a pipe of slowly diverging section,
the pressure increasing as the velocity falls.
THEORY OF VENTURI METER

Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through the convergent-divergent pipe shown in
Fig H4-1. The cross-sectional area at the upstream section 1 is A1, at the throat section 2 is
A2, and at any other arbitrary section n is An. Piezometer tubes at these sections register h1,
h2 and hn as shown.
Total head
v12/2g vn2/2g
v22/2g
h1
hn
h2
Direction of A1 A2 An
flow
Section 2
n
Section 1
Datum
Figure H4-1 Ideal conditions in a Venturi meter.
Assuming that there is no loss of energy along the horizontal pipe, and that the velocity and
piezometer heads are constant across each of the sections considered, then Bernoulli’s
theorem states that
v12 v 22 v n2
 h1   h2   hn (H4-1)
2g 2g 2g
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in which v1, v2 and vn are the velocities of flow through sections 1,2 and n. The equation of
continuity is
v1A1 = v2 A2 = vn An = Q (H4-2)
in which Q denoted the volume-flow or discharge rate.
Substituting in equation (1) for v1 from equation (H4-2)
2
v 22  A2  v
   h1  2  h2
2 g  A1  2g
and solving this equation for v2 leads to
2 g (h1  h2 )
v2  2
A 
1   2 
 A1 
so that the discharge rate, from equation (H4-2) becomes
2 g ( h1  h2 )
Qtheory = A2 2
(H4-3)
A 
1   2 
 A1 
In practice, there is some loss of energy between sections 1 and 2, and the velocity is not
absolutely constant across either of these sections. As a result, measured values of Q
usually fall a little short of those calculated from equation (H4-3) and it is customary to allow
for this discrepancy by writing
2 g ( h1  h2 )
Qactual = cd A2 2
(H4-4)
A 
1   2 
 A1 
In which cd is known as the flow coefficient of the meter, which may be established by
experiment. Its value varies slightly from one meter to another, and, even for a given meter it
may vary slightly with the discharge, but usually lies within the range 0.92 to 0.99.
The ideal pressure distribution along the convergent-divergent pipe may be seen from
Bernoulli’s equation to be given by
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v12  v n2
hn  h1 
2g
For the purpose of calculation and of comparison of experimental results with calculation, it
is convenient to express (hn – h1) as a fraction of the velocity head at the throat of the meter,
i.e.
hn  h1 v12  v n

v 22 v 22
2g
Substituting on the right hand side area ratios in place of velocity ratios from the equation of
continuity (2), the ideal pressure distribution becomes
2 2
hn  h1  A2   A2 
      (H4-5)
v 22  A1   An 
2g
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the experiment are as follows;
i) to determine the variation of flow coefficient, cd with Q through the Venturi meter.
ii) to make comparison between the measured and ideal pressure distribution along
the Venturi meter.
EQUIPMENTS
1. Venturi meter apparatus (Armfield).
2. Flow measurement tank.
3. Stop watch.
1. Open the control and supply valve to allow the water flow for a few seconds to clear
air pockets from the supply system.
2. Close the control valve gradually, so that the meter is subjected to increasing
pressure, which will cause water to pass up the piezometer tubes.
3. When the water levels have risen to a convenient height, close the bench valve.
Experiment 1
Determination the discharge coefficient, cd.
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1. Open the control valve successively to allow the water flow, record the head at tube
no. 1 (section 1) and tube no.4 (section 2).
2. Measure the flow rate by collecting the volume of water in the weighing tank and
time.
3. Repeats 1 and 2 for a different water level in piezometer tubes.
Experiment 2
Measured and ideal pressure distribution along Venturi meter.
1. Open the control valve and fix to any flow, record the water level in piezometer tubes
along the Venturi meter.
2. Measure the flow rate by collecting the volume of water in the weighing tank and
time.
3. Repeats 1 and 2 with a different flow rate.
GRAPH
1. Plot a graph of the variation of cd versus Q through Venturi meter.
2. Plot a graph of the measured and ideal pressure distribution along Venturi meter.
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

1. From the graph, draw the conclusion and recommendation of the experiment.
2. Please give your comment on how to minimize the difference between the measured
and ideal pressure.
Experiment 1 : Determination the flow coefficient , cd through the Venturi meter.
Table H4-1. Values of cd calculated from individual experimental results.

Collected Time to Piezometer Piezometer Actual
volume fill the head at head at discharge (h1 – h2) (h1 – h2)0.5 cd
in tank. tank tube No. 1 tube No. 4 Q=V/t
3
V(m ) t(second) h1 (mm) h2 (mm)
[data] [data] [data] [data] (m3/s) (m) (m)0.5 [eq. H4.4]
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Note: Tube No.1 is at section 1

Tube No.4 is at section 2
Experiment 2 : Measured and ideal pressure distribution along the Venturi meter.
A B C D E F G H I J K
Tube no. (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
All dimensions
Section 1
in mm
Direction of Section 2
flow
8 7
22 22
34 37
58 58 52
58 58
58 58
58
58
58
67
52
58
58
58
82
58 52
58
102
58
58
58
58
58 52
58
58
58
58 58
58
Fig. H4-1 Dimensions of Venturi meter and positions of piezometer tubes. 58
58
Table H4-2 Calculation of ideal pressure distribution .

Piezometer Dia. Of Area d2/dn  A2 
2
 A2
2
  A2 
2
Tube No., cross A (m2)

      
 An   A1   An 
n section dn
(mm) [data] [Eq. H4.5]
1 26.00
2 23.20
3 18.40
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4 16.00
5 16.80
6 18.47
7 20.16
8 21.84
9 23.53
10 25.24
11 26.00
Note: A1 = Cross section area of venture meter at section 1 or at n = 1

A2 = Cross section area of venture meter at section 2 or at n = 4
An = Cross section area of venture meter at n
d2 = Cross section diameter of venture meter at section 2 or at n = 4
Table H4-3. Measurements of pressure distribution along Venturi meter
Volume (m3) = Volume (m3) =
Piezometer Time (s) = Time (s) =

Tube No.,
n Q = V/t (m3/s) = Q = V/t (m3/s) =
hn hn – h1 hn – h1 hn hn – h1 hn – h1
(mm) (m) v22/2g (mm) (m) v22/2g
1
2
3
4
Note: v2 = velocity at the throat, section 2
GRAPH
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H5 IMPACT OF JET
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical work can be produced by using pressure of moving fluid at high velocity. As an
example jet of water from a nozzle can produce force when it strikes a plane flat surface or
plate. This type of force can produce power to generate a system such as hydropower
turbine. The force exerted onto the plate will depend on the density of fluid, discharge and jet
velocity. The force is also depends on whether the plate is at moving or stationary condition.
Theoretically, the force of water jet striking on a static plate can be calculated using the
following equation:
F  Qv (1  cos  ) (H5-1)
where v is a velocity of jet as it strikes the plate and  is the deflection angle as shown in
Figure H5-1. The jet velocity v can be calculated using the equation given below:
v  u ²  2gs (H5-2)
where,
Q
u = velocity of water at the pipe nozzle =
A
Q = Discharge
A = cross section area of the nozzle
In this experiment, two type of plates will be tested: flat plate and hemispherical plate.
i) For a flat plate,  = 90o, and according to Equation (H5-1), the force exerted on
the plate can be calculated as,
F  Qv (H5-3)
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ii) For a hemispherical plate,  = 180o, and according to Equation (H5-1), the force
exerted on the plate can be calculated as,
F  2 Qv (H5-4)
FIGURE H5-1
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the experiment are:
a) To measure the magnitude of force exerted on:

i. Flat plate.
ii. Hemispherical plate.
b) To compare the forces obtained from the experiment and the actual force
calculated using theoretical formula.
100 | P a g e
APPARATUS
1. An impact of a jet apparatus equipped with a flat plate and hemispherical plate.
2. A stop watch
3. Weights
1. Record the pipe nozzle diameter, d (m).

2. Record the vertical distance from the nozzle to the plate, s (m).
3. Switch on the electric supply and turn on the water supply valve.
4. Adjust the opening of the valve in such a way that the indicator of the valve is
exactly similar to that of indicator at the weight platform.
5. Place a weight of 0.1 kg and adjust the opening of the valve, so that the indicator
turns back to the original condition.
6. Determine the volume of the water collected in the storage tank and record the
time taken to fill-up the tank. This is to determine the discharge in the pipe.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 by adding the weight to 0.2 kg, 0.3 kg, etc.
8. Repeat steps 2 to 7 for a hemispherical plate.
CALCULATIONS
Fill-up the computational table using equations given:
V 3
i. Discharge, Q  (m /s)
t
where V= volume of water collected in the tank (m3)
t = time taken to fill-up the tank (s)
ii. Velocity of flow at pipe nozzle

Q
u
A
d 2
where A
4
101 | P a g e
d is the pipe nozzle diameter
iii. To obtain the jet velocity (v), use Equation (H5-2)

iv. To obtain the experimental force exerted to the plate, use Equation (H5-3) for flat
plate and Equation (H5-4) for hemispherical plate.
v. To obtain the theoretical (actual) force exerted to the plate, use the equation
below:
F  ma
where, F = force
m = mass of the weight
a = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²)
GRAPH
Plot actual forces ( F  ma ) versus experimental forces ( F  Qv ) for:
i. Flat plate
ii. Hemispherical plate
Determine the slope of the graphs:
a. For flat plate, m1 =………………………

b. For hemispherical plate, m2 =………………………
1. Compute the percentage difference (%) between experimental m1 and theoretical

m1.
For flat plate, because of the equation is F  Qv , therefore the slope of the
graph of F  ma versus F  Qv must be equal to 1.0. The percentage

difference (%) between experimental m1 and theoretical m1 can be calculated as:
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1.0  m1
% Difference =  100%
1. 0
2. Compute the percentage difference (%) between experimental m2 and theoretical

m2.
For hemispherical plate, because the force equation is F  2 Qv , therefore the
slope of the graph of F  ma versus F  Qv must be equal to 2.0. The

percentage difference (%) between experimental m2 and theoretical m2 can be
calculated as:
2.0  m2
% Difference =  100%
2.0
3. From the results, draw conclusions and recommendation of the experiment.

5. Please give your comment on how to minimize the difference between the
measured and ideal pressure.
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2H6 PIPE FRICTION
INTRODUCTION
Friction occurs when a fluid flowing through a pipe system. It may also decrease the
pressure head of the fluid. The major factor friction occurs is the roughness of pipe wall. Its
can be represented by a factor known as friction factor, f. Friction factor (f) depends on the
pipe length, pipe diameter, head loss and velocity of flow, that can be expressed as,
2 gdhf
f  (2H6-1)
4 Lv 2
where d = pipe diameter (m)

hf = head loss due to friction (m)
L = pipe length (m)
v = average velocity of flow (m/s)
Fluid flow in pipe can be divided into two conditions that are laminar flow and turbulence
flow. Theoretically, friction factor can be determined by an equation based on its condition of
flows as follows,
i) Laminar Flow (Hagen – Poiseuille Equation)

16
f  (2H6-2)
Re
and Re = Reynolds Number

(< 2000 for Laminar flow)
vd
= (2H6-3)

where  = density of fluid (kg/m3)
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid (Ns/m2)
ii) Turbulence Flow (Blasius Equation)

f  0.079Re 0.25 (2H6-4)
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and Re > 4000
OBJECTIVES
1) To determine the equation of friction factor

2) To determine the flow condition either laminar or turbulence flow by comparing
the friction factor equation through experimental and theoretical (equation (2H6-
3) and (2H6-4) ).
APPARATUS
1) Laminar/turbulence flow apparatus is provided by Plint & Partners, UK.

2) Stop watch
1) Record the following data:

i) pipe diameter, d
ii) length of testing point, L
iii) density of fluid in pipe, 
iv) density of manometer, m
v) dynamic viscosity of fluid in pipe, 
2) Switch on the power supply and run the pump to flow the fluid in pipe until stable
condition is achieved.
3) Open the valve to get the discharge.
4) Measure head loss by determining the different of head of themanometer, h.
5) Measure discharge by determining the collected volume of the fluid in tank (V)
and time to fill the fluid volume (t).
6) Repeats step 3 to 5 with different discharge.
CALCULATION
1) Flow velocity, v  Q / A (m/s) (2H6-5)
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where Q = V/t or Q = m/t (m3/s)

V = collected fluid volume in tank (m3)
t = time to refill the fluid volume in tank (s)
m = collected fluid mass in tank (kg)
 = density of fluid (kg/m3)
2) Head loss due to actual friction, hf as
 
h f ( actual)   m  1h (2H6-6)
  
where m = density of fluid in manometer

 = density of fluid in pipe
h = different level of fluid in manometer tube.
3) Reynolds Number , Re - using Equation (2H6-3)

4) Experimental friction factor - using Equation (2H6-1)
GRAPH
Plot a graph log f versus log Re. Your plotted graph should be a straight line. From the
graph, determine the slope (m) and intercept of log f axis (log c) when log Re = 0.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Generally the friction factor f can be determined by using the following equation
f = cRe m (2H6-7)
or
log f = m log Re + log c
106 | P a g e
1) The constant value m is a slope of the graph while log c is an intercept at log f
axis when log Re = 0. Determine the value of m and c from the graph.
2) By using the value of m and c, derive an equation of f by using the value of m and
c in equation (2H6-7).
3) Compare the equation you get with equation (2H6-2) and (2H6-4). Make a result
either the fluid flow in the pipe is in laminar or turbulence conditions.
4) Determine the percentage difference of theoretical and experimental value of m
and c by using the following equations;
mtheory  mexp erimental

% Difference of m = x100% (2H6-8)
mtheory
c theory  c exp erimental

% Difference of c = x100% (2H6-9)
c theory
If your result is laminar flow, the theoretical value of m and c are 16 and –1,
respectively, as given in Equation (2H6-2). If your result is turbulence flow, the
theoretical value of m and c are 0.079 and –0.25, respectively, as given in
Equation (2H6-4).
5) Make conclusions and recommendations for the experiment.
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2H7 HYDRAULIC JUMP
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic jump occurs when a supercritical flow changes to a subcritical flow. In such cases
the elevation of liquid surface increases suddenly in direction of flow. The violent motions of
flow are accompanied by a significant loss of energy head through the jump. It is an important
phenomenon associated with dissipation of energy in flows over dams, weirs, and other
hydraulic structures. The strength of the jump depends on the Froude number of the flow
entering the jump. Figure 2H7-1 shows an experimental set up which consists of rectangular
flume, sluice gate on the upstream part and a control gate on the downstream part that allow
for depth control within the flume.
Reservoir
Sluice gate
Control gate
yA Hydraulic jump
y2
y1
Figure 2H7-1
For a constant flow in a rectangular channels, the depth of flow immediately downstream of
the jump is given by the following equation,
y1  2 
y2 = - 1+ 1 + 8 F r1  (2H7-1)
2  
where Fr1 = Froude number of flow entering the jump.

For rectangular flume,
Q
F r1 = (2H7-2)
3/2
B y1 g
108 | P a g e
where Q = flow rate (m3/s)

B = flume width (m)
This energy loss due to jump in rectangular channel can be estimated the following equation,
( y - y )3
2 1
EL = (2H7-3)
4y y
1 2
and the power loss due to jump in rectangular channel can be estimated by the following
equation;
PL =  g Q E L (2H7-4)
Generally, hydraulic jump can be classified into five categories depending on the magnitude of
Froude number of flow entering the jump as summarized Table 2H7-1 below.
TABLE 2H7-1
Froude number, Fr1 Type of jump
1.0 < Fr1 < 1.7 Undular Jump
1.7  Fr1 < 2.5 Weak Jump
2.5  Fr1 < 4.5 Oscillating Jump
4.5  Fr1 < 9.0 Steady Jump
Fr1  9.0 Strong Jump
OBJECTIVES
1) To compare the downstream depth of flow from experiment to theoretical depth.

2) To determine the head loss and power loss due to hydraulic jump.
3) To determine the equation for the length of hydraulic jump.
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APPARATUS
1) Hydraulic jump apparatus manufactured by Armfield, UK

2) Flow depth gauge.
PROCEDURE
1) Measure the channel width.

2) Close the reservoir outlets.
3) Switch on the pump.
4) Release the flow into the reservoir until the water level is stable.
5) Open all reservoir outlets to give maximum flow rate (1 x 10-3 m3/s).
6) Create a stationery hydraulic jump in the flume by adjusting the sluice gate
and downstream control gate.
7) Measure the depths of flow y1, y2 and the length of jump, L.
8) Repeat steps 5 to 7 for another four different flow rates.
CALCULATIONS
1) Fill all data in table provided in laboratory sheet.

2) Calculate the downstream water depth, y2 by using equation (2H7-1)
3) Calculate Froude number, Fr1 , by using equation (2H7-2).
4) Compute the error between experimental and theoretical downstream depth of
flow.
| y 2th eo ry - y 2ex p erimen t |

% Different = x 100 % (2H7-5)
y 2th eo ry
5) Determine the type of jump ( refer Table 2H7-1).
GRAPHS
1) Plot a graph of conjugate depth (y2/y1) versus Froude Number (Fr1).
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2) Plot a graph of L/y2 versus Froude Number (Fr1).

3) Plot a graph of length jump (L) versus jump height (y2 - y1).
1) Establish an equation of L in terms of the jump height from graph of L versus

(y2-y1),
2) Give your conclusions and comments on the results of the experiment.
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2H8 COMPUTATION OF MANNING’S n
INTRODUCTION
If water flows in an open channel, friction occurs between the flowing water and the channel
boundary layer. The friction depends on the degree of roughness of wall and the bed of the
channel. The roughness is represented by a coefficient called the Manning’s n. The value
of the Manning’s n of any open channel can be determined if the water flows in a steady
uniform condition.
Theoretically, the value of the Manning’s n is determined by Manning’s formula that is
A 5 / 3 So
n (2H8-1)
P 2 / 3Q
where A = wetted cross section area (m2)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
So = channel bottom slope
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
The wetted cross section area and the wetted perimeter of the channel is depends on the
geometrical shape of the channel and the vertical depth of the flowing water. For uniform
flow, the water depth is called the normal depth (yo).
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to determine the value of the Manning’s n of a rectangular
open channel available in the laboratory.
APPARATUS
1) A rectangular flume manufactured by Armfield, UK
2) Water depth measuring device – point gauge.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1) Record the channel width.

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2) Adjust the channel bottom slope to a desired positive value.

3) Switch on the electric power supply.
4) Open the stop valve so that water flows in the channel with maximum flow rate.
5) Record the manometer reading (in mm) to obtain the value of the flow rate.
6) Wait until the flow in the channel is stabilized – no water depths variations.
7) Using the point gauge, measure and record the water depths in the channel at
various locations. These water depths should be the same – uniform flow.
8) Change the manometer reading by slowly reducing the flow rate that is by slowly
close the stop valve.
9) Repeat the procedure for different manometer readings.
10) Repeat the procedure for different channel bottom slope.
COMPUTATION
1) Perform all computations in the computational table provided.

2) To determine the flow rate in m3/s, use the available flow rate calibration curve as
shown in Figure 2H8-1.
3) The wetted cross section area (A) and the wetted perimeter (P) can be
determined referring to Figure 2H8-2 that is:
A  By o (2H8-2)
P  B  2y o (2H8-3)
4) The value of the Manning’s n is determined using equation (2H8-1).

5) Take the average value of the different Manning’s n values.
113 | P a g e
Figure 2H8–1: Flow Rate Calibration Curve
yo
Figure 2H8–2: Channel Cross Section
Conclusions
1. Give your conclusions on the results of the experiment.

2. Give your suggestions to improve the result of the experiment.
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2H9 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
INTRODUCTION
Gradually varied flows in open channels differ from the uniform flows and the rapidly varied
flows (hydraulic jumps, flow through transition, etc), in that the changes in water depth in the
channel take place very gradually with distance. In uniform flow water depth remains
constant known as normal depth, yo.
Gradually varied flow can be created in laboratory flume by installing broad crested weir in
which the height of the weir may cause an increase in water level profile on the upstream
portion of the weir (Figure 2H9-I)
y
Yc
Y1
Y3 Y2
Y6 Y5 Y4
Y0
N 4 3 2 1 Flow rate
 x5  x4  x3  x2  x1
L
FIGURE 2H9-1
For gradually varied flow situation, the distance (L) between two known water depths (y1 and
yN+1) can be determined. Several methods are available to determine this distance. One
commonly used method is the numerical integration approach. The distance (L) is the sum
of all sub distances. Each sub distance is computed using the numerical integration
equation that is (for rectangular channel):
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  3 
  yc  
1  _  
y   y i  
x i   2

So   (2H9-1)
 
1   K o  
  _  
  K i  
where, i= 1,2,3,4,…N
Before the Equation (2H9-1) can be solved, the distance, L in Figure 2H9-1 is divided into N
sections.
From equation (2H9-1),
x i  distance of each section i
y N 1  y 1
y  (2H9-2)
N
So  channel bed slope
yc  critical flow depth, i.e.
Q2
yc  3 2 (2H9-3)
B g
Ko = Conveyance factor, i.e.
Q
Ko  (2H9-4)
So
where, Q is the flow rate
y i 1  y i
yi  (2H9-5)
2
where i = 2,3,4,…,N+1
116 | P a g e
Ki 
By i 
5/3
nB  2y i 
5/3 (2H9-6)
where n = Manning’s coefficient
y i 1  y i  y (2H9-7)
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this experiment are as follows:
1) To determine the distance between two water depths of gradually varied flow
theoretically and experimentally.
2) To compare the distance and determine the percentage difference between
theoretical and experimental distances (L).
3) To conclude whether Equation (2H9-1) is applicable in analysing gradually varied
flow problem in open channel.
APPARATUS
1) A rectangular flume manufactured by Armfield, UK.

2) Water depth measuring device (point gauge).
3) A broad-crested weir
1) Measure the flume width, B

2) Divide the distance, L into N section (in this experiment, you may choose N = 5.
3) Install a broad crested weir into flume.
4) Switch on the electric power supply and pump.
5) Open the stop valve to a maximum flow rate.
6) Record the manometer reading in terms of head difference.
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7) Select one point just upstream of the weir and measure the water depth at this
point (y1). Named this point as point 1.
8) Select another point further upstream from the weir and measure the water depth
at this point (y6). Named this point as point N+1 = 6.
9) Measure the distance between point 1 and point 6. This is the experimental
distance, L
COMPUTATIONS
Perform all computations in the computation table provided. Use all the equations stated in
the table. Determine the distance, L by summing up the values of x . This value is called
the theoretical distance, L
1) Determine the percentage difference between theoretical and experimental

distance of gradually varied flow obtained from experiment.
2) Give your conclusions on the results of the experiment.
3) From the results obtained, do you think that Equation (2H9-1) is applicable to be
used in analysing gradually varied flow in open channel problem? Why?
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2H10 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
OBJECTIVE
The primary objectives of this experiment are to measure the performance of a centrifugal pump
and compare the results to the manufacturer’s specifications. Secondary objectives are to familiarize
the student with the characteristics of a centrifugal pump and to introduce the student to the
homologous scaling relationships. In addition, this experiment gives the student further exposure to
the use of computerized data acquisition systems. Additional objectives may be specified by the
instructor.
REFERENCES
Munson, B. et al: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley
Potter, M. and Wiggert, D.: Mechanics of Fluids, Prentice Hall
White, F.: Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill
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TABLE 2H10-1: SINGLE PUMP
Rotati Volum Time Dischar Inpu Pressure Pump Output Efficiency of

Head
onal e of Taken ge t Power Pump
Speed Collec for Pow Suction Pump Delivery Pump H = D1
of ted Collec er 1 (S1) 1, (D1) - S1 W2 n=

Pump, Water ted (W2/W1)
Q=(V/ Bar kN/m2 Bar kN/m2 W2 =
N ,V Water
gHQ
*100
,t t) x (%)
W1
(rpm) (liter) 0.001
(m3/ calculat calculat (watt)
(sec) calculat calculation
(wat dat dat
data sec) ion ion
t) a a ion calculat
data
data calculat
ion
ion
dat
a
In which,  kg/m and 1 BAR = 100kN/m

3 2
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TABLE 2H10- 2: PUMPS OPERATING IN SERIES
Rotational Volume Time Discharge Pressure Total Head of

Speed of of Taken Pump 1 and Pump
Pump, N Collected for 2
Water, V Collected
(rpm) Water, t
Q=(V/t) Suction Pressure Delivery Pressure H = D2 – S1
(liter) x 0.001 Pump 1 (S1) Pump 2, (D2)
data (sec) (m3/ sec)
Bar kN/m2 Bar kN/m2 kN/m2
data calculation calculation calculation calculation
data data data

3 2
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TABLE 2H10-3: PUMPS OPERATING IN PARALLEL
Rotati Volu Time Dischar Pressure Total

onal me of Taken ge Head of
Speed Collec for Suction Pressure Delivery Pressure Pump 1
of ted Collec & Pump
Pump, Water ted 2
N ,V Water
Q=(V
,t /t) x Pump 1 (S1) Pump 2 (S2) Pump 1 (D1) Pump 2 (D2) H = (D1
(rpm) (liter) 0.001 – S1)/2
3
(sec) (m / + (D2 –
sec) S2)/2
data
data
BA KN/m2 BA KN/m2 BA KN/m2 BA KN/m2 KN/m2
R R R R
data calcula
tion
calcula calcula calcula calcula calcula

tion tion tion tion tion
dat dat dat dat
a a a a

3 2
122 | P a g e
GRAPH
1. Plot the graph of pump characteristics for each speed of pump that you
have selected (for system operating with single pump).
(i) Input Power (W1) versus Discharge (Q),
(ii) Total Head (H) versus Discharge (Q) and
(iii) Efficiency of Pump (n) versus Discharge (Q).
2. For each speed of pump, plot the relationship between Head (H) and Discharge
(Q) for single pump, pump in series, and pump in parallel.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Please give your conclusions on the results of the experiment and

comments on the uses of pumps operating in series and parallel.
2. What would happen to the discharge and head if the motor speed is
increase to a higher speed?
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APPENDIX (Data sheet)

Concrete
Structure
Hydarul
Geotechnic
P/S: Please separate the data sheet to prepare the report
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2C1
DATA :
A. Fine aggregate sample weight : g
BS Sieve Retained Passed Weight Retained Passed

Size Weight Percentage Percentage
(gm)
(gm) (%) (%)
5 mm
No. 7
(2.36 mm)
No. 14
(1.18 mm)
No. 25
(600 m)
No. 52
(300 m)
No. 100
(150 m)
Pan
B. Coarse aggregate sample weight : g
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37.5 mm
(20.0 mm)
(14.0 mm)
(10.0 mm)
(5.0 mm)
(2.36 mm)
Instruction:
1. Please enclose the calculation example for each fine and coarse aggregate.
2. Based on the results, draw the grading curve for each fine and coarse aggregate
together with standard grading curve as given in Figure 2C1-4. Also, please give
your comment on the properties of tested aggregates.
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2C2
Result
The time from the moment of adding the water to the cement = _____________
The time for the plunger end C to reach 5 mm penetration from the mould bottom = ____
Time for the plunger F fail to provide mark on the cement paste = ____________
Initial setting time = ______
Final setting time = _______
Questions:
1) What is the standard time for initial setting time and final setting time according to
MS 522: 1989. Does your cement paste fulfill the standard?
2) Give the current temperature and relative moisture of the lab where you are
conducting your test and the standard values according to MS 522: 1989. If there
are differences, how you overcome the problem and what is the influences to
your result?
3) For practicality in construction site, what is the solution if the setting time
obtained do not meet the MS 522 standard?
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DATA
Number of test Volume of Percentage of Penetration Note
water/cement
water content
(mm)
(%)
(ml)
RESULT
1. Water content for 5 mm penetration = _______
2. Water content for 7 mm penetration = _______
3. Water content for standard cement consistency = ________
QUESTION
1) Why the cement paste becomes warm when water was added?
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2C3
DATA
Slump of concrete (mm)
Types of slump
Weight of partially compacted concrete
Weight of fully compacted concrete
Vebe Test
Degree/ V-B Time (second)
Hardened Concrete Test
Strength Test at the age ______ day
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Average
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Flexural Strength of Concrete
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CALCULATION
Weight of partially compacted concrete

Compacting Factor =
Weight of fully compacted concrete
Cube test
Load at failure
Compressive strength of cube =
Surface Area
Example:-
Compressive strength of cube =
Indirect Tensile Strength
2P
Indirect Tensile Strength =
DL
Where,
P = Cylinder Splitting load (kN)
` D = Diameter (mm)
L = Height of cylinder (mm)
Example:
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Flexural Strength of Beam
PL
Modulus of Rupture fb = if a > 5.33”
bd 2
3PL
fb = if a < 5.33”
bd 2
where,
P = Maximum applied load (kN)
L = Supported Span (mm)
b = Width of sample (mm)
d = Depth of sample at crack (mm)
Example:
Modulus of rupture, fb =
RESULT
Slump of Concrete =
Compaction factor =
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V-B time =
Mean Compressive Strength of Cube =
Flexural Strength =
QUESTION AND ANSWER
1) Compare the results of the slump and vebe time measurements with the
values adopted in the design process. Give your comments on the
results.
2) Compare the results of the strength tests with the target mean strength.
Discuss on the results.
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FIGURE 2C4-1 (all measurements in mm)

200 mm
Plan Elevation
Cross Section
Side Elevation
500 mm
2000 mm
WORKSHEET FOR LOCATION OF REINFORCEMENT AND COVER DEPTH

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2S1
DATA
Experiment 1: Shear Forces
Table 2S1-1: Result for Experiment 1
Mass Load Experimental Theoretical

(g) (N) shear force (N) shear force (N)
100
200
300
400
500
Table 2S1-2: Grams to Newton conversion table

Mass (Grams) Load (Newton)
100 0.98
200 1.96
300 2.94
400 3.92
500 4.90
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Table 2S1-3: Results for Experiment 1
W1 W2 Experimental RA RB Theoretical
Figure Shear Force Shear Force
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
S1-3 3.92
S1-4 1.96 3.92
S1-5 4.91 3.92
Experiment 2: Bending Moment
Table 2S1-4: Result for Experiment 2
Mass Load Force Experimental Theoretical

bending moment bending
(g) (N) (N) (Nm) moment (Nm)
100
200
300
400
500
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Table 2S1-5: Results for Experiment 2
W1 W2 Force Experimental RA RB Theoretical

Figure bending bending
(N) (N) (N) moment (Nm) (N) (N) moment (Nm)
S1-6 3.92
S1-8 4.91 3.92
Questions
1. Show the example calculation for every load cases.

2. Plot a graph, which compares your results to those you calculated using the theory.
3. Comment on the shape of the graph.
4. What is the impotence of shear force and bending moment in civil engineering area?
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2S2
DATA
Starting of experiment End of experiment
Diameter (mm)
Cross Section Areas, A (mm2) Ao= Af=
Gauge Length, L (mm) Lo= Lf=
Plot both the initial and complete stress-strain graph and define the followings in the
graph.
i. Upper yield limit

ii. Lower yield limit
iii. Ultimate tensile strength
iv. Breaking strength
Calculation:
Show the sample calculations for every item below:
Elastic Modulus, E (N/mm2)
Upper yield limit (N/mm2)
Lower yield limit (N/mm2)
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Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm2)
Elastic limit (N/mm2)
Elongation (%)
Data:
Load (kN) Elongation (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain (mm/mm)
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Questions
1. What is the importance of tensile test in structural engineering?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Give the differences of stress-strain curve between mild and high yield steel?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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2G1
SOIL COMPACTION TEST
Table 2G1-1
Test No. Unit 1 2 3 4 5
Mass of empty
kg
mould
Mass of empty
mould + wet kg
soil
Mass of wet
kg
soil
Volume of
m3
mould, V
Bulk
kg/m3
density, b *
Dry
kg/m3
density, b *
* to the nearest 0.01 Mg/m3
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Table 2G1-2
Container No. Unit
Mass of empty
g
container
Mass of empty
g
container + wet soil
Mass of empty
g
container + dry soil
Mass of wet soil g
Mass of dry soil, Ms g
Mass of water, Mw g
Water content,
%
(%)
** to the nearest 0.01 %
1. Plot a graph of dry density versus water content
2. Plot lines for 0 %, 5 % and 10 % air void contents on graph (1)
3. From the graph, determine the optimum water content and maximum dry density
of the samples.
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2G2
SIEVE TEST
DATA ANALYSIS
Total mass of dry soil = g
Cumulative
BS test sieve size Mass retained Mass Passing Percentage of mass
(mm) (g) (g) Passing(%)
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.600
0.300
0.212
0.150
0.075
Passing 0.075
Total mass after sieving = g
Losses = g
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CALCULATIONS
Examples of calculations for data from 4.75 mm sieve size.
Mass retained = g
Mass Passing = g
Total mass of dry soil = g
Total percentage of mass passing = g
RESULTS
Based on the data above, plot a graph for the cumulative percentage of mass passing
versus the size on the attached semi-log graph (Graph 1)
CONCLUSION
Using USCS, classify the soil sample that been tested.
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Cumulative percentage of mass passing,%
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0.01
0.1
Sieve Size, mm
1
10
100
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ATTERBERG LIMITS
(a) LIQUID LIMIT
DATA ANALYSIS
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Initial reading of dial gauge (in mm)
Final reading of dial gauge (in mm)
Cone penetration (in mm)
Container No. A1 A2 A3 A4
Weight of container (g)
Weight of container + wet soil (g)
Weight of container + dry soil (g)
Weight of dry soil , Mw(g)
Weight of wet soil , Ms (g)
Moisture Content , Mw/Ms(%)
RESULT
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From the data , plot a graph of cone penetration against moisture content and determine
the liquid limit of the soil.
(b) PLASTIC LIMIT
DATA ANALYSIS
Container No. 1 2 3 4
Weight of Container (g)
Weight of Container + wet soil (g)
Weight of Container + dry soil (g)
Weight of dry soil Mw (g)
Weight of wet soil Ms (g)
Moisture Content Mw/Ms x 100
RESULTS
Using the average moisture content from the above data, determine the value of plastic
limit for the soil.
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CONCLUSIONS
1. Determine the following parameters

Liquid limit (LL) =
Plastic Limit (PL) =
Plasticity Index (PI) =
2. Using Plasticity Chart, determine the type of soil that has been tested
3. Based on grain size, most of the classification systems divide soil into three major
types, Identify and classify the type of soil sample that has been tested
4. Explain briefly the main objectives of soil classification for the purpose of civil
engineering works.
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2G3
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE TEST
Diameter of the sample, D = mm
Height of the sample, H = mm
Initial area of the sample, Ao = m2
Volume of the sample, V = m3
Mass of the sample, M = kg
Density of the sample  = kg/m3
Table G3-1
Length Change in Proving Compressive Strain, Cross Normal

gauge length Ring dial section Stress,
Load, =L/H
reading gauge
L Area, Ac p
(division) P
(division)
(mm) (kN/m2)
(kN)
157 | P a g e
QUESTION
1. State the moisture content, the bulk density and the dry density of the soil
specimen.
2. Sketch the mode of the soil specimen at failure occurs and indicate the failure
plane.
3. Plot normal stress vs. strain and determine deviator stress.
4. Plot Mohr’s circle and determine the unconfined compressive strength.
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2H1
DATA
Instruction: show an example of calculation.
1. Diameter of piston, d = ____________ m
2. Cross-sectional area of piston, A = ____________ m2
3. Weight of piston = ____________ kg
2
Weight Total load Gauge reading (kN/m ) True Pressure
added to on 2
Increasing Decreasing (kN/m )
piston (kgf) piston(kgf)
pressure pressure
161 | P a g e
GRAPHS
3. Plot the graph of gauge reading (increasing pressure and decreasing pressure)
versus true pressure.
4. Plot the graph of total load on piston versus gauge reading (increasing pressure
and decreasing pressure).
a. slope of the graph (Gauge reading for increasing pressure versus true
pressure) : _____________________
b. slope of the graph (Gauge reading for decreasing pressure versus true
pressure) : _____________________
3. Give your conclusions and comments on the graphs that you have plotted.
4. What are the factors that many contribute to errors between experimental and
theoretical (true) pressures?
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2H2
DATA
1. Length of lever arm, s = m

2. Width of flat surface = m
3. Inner radius, r1 = m
4. Outer radius, r2 = m
5. Height of flat surface, d = r2 - r1 = m
6. Area of flat surface, A (Eqn. 2H2-4) = m
nd
7. 2 moment area, IPG = m
Table 2H2-1
No Angle H1 h2 h F y I PG yp (theory) Mass,m y h1 yp(experiment)

 o
cos 
% Error
(mm) (mm) (N) Ay (mm) (g) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
[data] [data] [data] [Eqn.2H2 [Eqn.2H2 [Eqn.2H [Eqn.2H2 [data] [Eqn.2H2 [Eqn.2H2-
-6] -1] 2-5] -2] -7] 9]
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
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CONCLUSIONS
1. Discuss the factors that may contribute to error in yp that you have obtained theoretically
and experimentally.
2. Give your conclusions and comments on the experiment.
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2H3
1) Distance from crest to channel bottom, Ho = ___________________________m
2) Notch angle, 2. = _________________
CALCULATION TABLE
Water Head on Collected Time to Discharge

surface the weir volume in fill the V
Q
No. elevation tank, tank, t Log Q Log H
above the H = H1 – V t
channel Ho
bottom
H1
(m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
GRAPH
Plot the graph of log Q versus log H
157 | P a g e
RESULTS:
1. Determine the percentage difference between the experimental n value and

theoretical value (5/2) using equation below (Equation (2H3-7)):
| 5/2 - n |
% Difference = x 100%
5/2
2. Determine the cd value using Equation (2H3-6). This cd is the experimental cd.
Determine the percentage difference between experimental cd and cd value for the
apparatus as specified by manufacturer (0.61) using equation below (Equation (2H3-
8)).
| 0.61 - c d ex p erimen t |
% Difference = x 100%
0.61
CONCLUSIONS
1. Give your conclusions and state your suggestions to improve the experiment.
2. Compare your Cd value and Cd apparatus as specified by the manufacturer. What are
the factors that may contribute to the deviation of your Cd value?
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2H4
Experiment 1 : Determination the flow coefficient , cd through the Venturi meter.
Table H4-1. Values of cd calculated from individual experimental results.
Collected Time to Piezomete Piezomete Actual

mass fill the r head at r head at discharge (h1 – h2) (h1 – h2)0.5 cd
in tank. tank tube No. 1 tube No. 4 Q=m/t
m(kg) t(second) h1 (mm) h2 (mm) (m3/s) (m) (m)0.5
[data] [data] [data] [data] [Eq. 2H4-

4]
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Experiment 2 : Measured and ideal pressure distribution along the Venturi meter.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
All dimensions
in mm
Direction of
flow
8 7
22 22
34 37
58
58 52
58 58
58 58
58
58
58
67
52
58
58
58
58 82
58
58
52
58
58
58
58
102
58
58 52
58
58
58
58
58
58
Fig. 2H4-1 Dimensions of Venturi meter and positions of piezometer tubes.
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Table 2H4-2 Calculation of ideal pressure distribution .
Piezometer Dia. Of Area d2/dn 2 2 2

 A2   A2   A2 
Tube No. cross A (m2)       
section dn  An   A1   An 
(mm) [data]
[Eq. 2H4-5]
1 26.00
3 18.40
4 16.00
5 16.80
6 18.47
7 20.16
8 21.84
9 23.53
10 25.24
11 26.00
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Table 2H4-3. Measurements of pressure distribution along Venturi meter
Mass (kg) = Mass (kg) =
Piezometer Time (s) = Time (s) =

Tube No.
Q = m/t (m3/s) = Q = m/t (m3/s) =
hn hn – h1 hn – h1 hn hn – h1 hn – h1
(mm) (m) v22/2g (mm) (m) v22/2g
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
GRAPH
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RESULT AND CONCLUSION
2. Please give your comment on how to minimize the difference between the measured and
ideal pressure.
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2H5
Date:………………………………………..
Time:………………………………………..
Data:
i. Nozzle diameter, d =……………….m
d 2
ii. Nozzle cross-sectional area, A  =……………….m²
4
iii. Vertical distance from nozzle to plate, s =……………….m
Calculation Table 2H5-1: Flat Plate
Mass Volume Time Jet Striking Experiment Actual

Discharge,
of of water taken velocity velocity, al force force,
weight, collected to fill- at the v F F  ma
V
m in the up Q nozzle,
t
storage the Q
u
tank, V tank, A
(kg) (m3) t (s) (m/s) (m/s) (N) (N)
(m3/s)
[Eq.2H5- [Eq.2H5-3]
2]
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Calculation Table 2H5-2: Hemispherical Plate
Mass Volume Time Jet Striking Experiment Actual

Discharge,
of of water taken velocity velocity, -al force force,
weight, collected to fill- V at the v F F  ma
Q
m in the up t nozzle,
storage the Q
u
tank, V tank, A
3 (m3/s)
(kg) (m ) t (s) (m/s) (m/s) (N) (N)
[Eq.2H5- [Eq.2H5-3]
2]
GRAPH
Plot actual forces ( F  ma ) versus experimental forces ( F  Qv ) for:
iii. Flat plate

iv. Hemispherical plate
The graph should begin at the origin of Cartesian coordinate (0,0). Determine the slope of the
graphs:
a. For flat plate, m1 =………………………

b. For hemispherical plate, m2 =………………………
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1. For the flat plate, compute the percentage difference between experimental m1 (graph)
and theoretical m1 (1.0).
2. For the hemispherical plate, compute the percentage difference between experimental
m2 (graph) and theoretical m2 (2.0).
3. From the results, draw a conclusions and recommendations of the experiment
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2H6
Instruction: Show an example of calculation.
DATA:
4) Fluid density in pipe, 

3
1) Pipe diameter, d = ___________m = ___________ kg/m
5) Fluid density in manometer, m

2 3
2) Pipe cross section area, A = ___________ m = ___________ kg/m
6) Fluid dynamic viscosity in pipe, 

2
3) Length of testing point, L = ___________ m = ___________ Ns/m
TABLE 2 H6-1
No. Collected fluid Time to fill the fluid Fluid discharge in Different head from Actual head loss Average flow Reynolds Numbers Friction factor
volume in tank volume pipe manometer due to friction velocity Re (experiment)
V = m/ t (s) Q = V/t H hf v = Q/A f
(m3) (m3/s) (m) (m) (m/s)
[data] [data] [data] [Eq. 2H6-6] [Eq. 2H6-5] [Eq. 2H6-3] [Eq. 2H6-1]
(cont’…)
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(cont’…)
No. Log Re Log f

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
168 | P a g e
GRAPH
Plot graph log f versus log Re. Your graph should be in straight line. Determine the
slope of the graph (m) and intercept at log f axis (log c) when log Re = 0.
a) Slope of the graph, m = _____________________

b) Log c = ___________________Thus c =
_______________________
1. m =________________________ and c =
_________________________
2. Write an equation for f from the value m and c into Equation (2H6-7).
3. Compare your equation with Equation (2H6-2) and (2H6-4). Make a

conclusion either the fluid flow condition in pipe is laminar or turbulence.
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4. Determine the percentage difference between m theoretical and m
experimental and also between c theoretical and c experimental.
5. Please give your conclusion and recommendation of the experiment.
6. Give your ideas to improve the experiment.
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2H7 DATA
1. Channel width, B = m
Table 2H7-2: Data/Calculation
Flow rate Depth Upstream Downstream Jump Length of Froude no. Y2 (theory) % Different Type of
Q yA Depth Depth height Jump Fr1 jump
y1 y2experimental y2-y1 L
3
(m /s) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
[Eq 2H7-2] [Eq 2H7-1] [Eq 2H7-5] [Table
2H7-1]
-3
1.0 x 10
-3
0.9 x 10
-3
0.8 x 10
-3
0.7 x 10
-3
0.6 x 10
-3
0.5 x 10
-3
0.4 x 10
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2. Channel width, B =
Table H2-3: Data/Calculation

Flow rate Upstream Downstream Froude no. Length of Head loss Power Loss
Q Depth Depth Fr1 Jump EL PL y2/y1 L/y2
y1 y2theory L (m) (kilowatt)
(m3/s) (m) (m) (m)
[from Table [Eq. 2H7- [Eq. 2H7-4]
2H7-2] 3]
1.0 x 10-3
0.9 x 10-3
0.8 x 10-3
0.7 x 10-3
0.6 x 10-3
0.5 x 10-3
0.4 x 10-3
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1) Slope of the graph =
2) Establish an equation for L in term of the jump height from the graph of L
versus (y2-y1).
3) Give your conclusions and comments on the results of the experiment.
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2H8
Date :……………..
Time :……………..
DATA
Type of channel material = ___________________________________
Channel’s width, B = _________ m
Channel Flow rate Water Wetted Wetted Manning’s

Bed Exp. Manometer Q Depth Area Perimeter n
Slope No. Reading yo A P
So H
(m)
3 2 [Eq. 2H8-1]
(mm) (m /s) (m ) (m)
[Fig. 2H8-1] [Eq. 2H8-2] [Eq. 2H8-
3]
1/100 2
1/200 2
1/300 2
Averag Manning’s n =
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CONCLUSIONS
3. Give your conclusions on the results of the experiment.
4. Give your suggestions to improve the result of the experiment.
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2H9
Date :……………..
Time :……………..
DATA
1) Width of the flume, B = _________m
2) Slope of the channel = _________
3) Manning’s n (taken from 2H8 experiment) = _________
4) Manometer difference, H = _________mm
5) Flow rate, Q (from graph 2H8-1) = _________m3/s
6) Channel is divided into N sections: N = _________
7) Water depth at point 1, y1 = _________m
8) Water depth at point 6, y6 = _________m
9) Distance between the two water depths, L experiment= _________m
10) y (Equation 2H9-2) = _________m
11) Critical depth, yc (Equation 2H9-3) = _________m
12) Conveyance factor, Ko (Equation 2H9-4) =

_________ m3/s
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COMPUTATION TABLE
Water Average Conveyance Denominator Numerator x i

y Column6 
Index, Depth, water factor, [Eq. 2H9-1] [Eq. 2H9-1]
i yi (m) depth, y i K i (m3/s) i.e., i.e.,
K 
2 3 So Column5 
(m) y 
1   0 
 1   c  or
[Eq.  yi 
[Eq. 2H9- [Eq. 2H9-6]  Ki  [Eq. 2H9-1]
(1) (2H9-7)] (7)
3) (4) (5) (6)
(2)
1 y1= m
3 y3= m
4 y4= m
5 y5= m
6 y6= m
L = Total of x i = m
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1) Determine the percentage difference between theoretical and

experimental distance of gradually varied flow obtained from experiment.
2) Give your conclusions on the results of the experiment.
3) From the results obtained, do you think that Equation (2H9-1) is

applicable to be used in analysing gradually varied flow in open channel
problem? Why?
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2H10
TABLE 2H10-1: SINGLE PUMP (PLINT & PARTNERS PUMP)

Rotational Difference Discharge Generated Suction Pump 1 (S1) Delivery Pump 1, (D1) Head of Input Power of Output Power Efficiency of
Speed of Heads of Force by Pump Pump of Pump Pump
Reading of Head Reading of Head
Pump Mercury Pump 1 (Pump1) W1 W2 n
Head S1 Pressure Pressure D1 Pressure
N h Q  0.196 h F H = hd1-hs1 W1=FN /53.35 W2=gHQ N=
hm hs1 = 0.136hm P hd1 = 10P
(rpm) (mm Hg) (litre/sec) (Newton) 2 (water meter) (Watt) (Watt)
(cm Hg) (water meter) (kgf/cm ) (water meter) (W2/W1)*10
data
data data calculation data calculation calculation calculation 0
data calculation (7) calculation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (9) (10) (11) (%)
(5) (6) (8)
calculation
(12)
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TABLE 2H10-2: PUMPS OPERATING IN SERIES (PLINT & PARTNERS PUMP)
Rotational Manomete Discharge Suction Pump (S1) Delivery Pump (D2) Total Head
speed of r Reading H = hd2-hs1
Manometer Pressure
pump h (meter of water)
Reading Pressure Gauge Pressure Head
N (mm Hg) Q  0.196 h S1 Head Reading Hd2 = 10P
(rpm) (litre/sec)
hm hs1 = 0.136hm D2 (meter of water )
(cm Hg) (water meter) P
(kgf/cm2 )
data data calculation calculation
data data calculation
(1) (2) (3) (8)
(4) calculation (6) (7)
(5)
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TABLE 2H10-3: PUMPS OPERATING IN PARALLEL (PLINT & PARTNERS PUMP)
Rotational Difference Discharge Suction Pressure Delivery Pressure Total Head of
Speed of Heads of Pump 1 Pump 2 Pump 1 Pump 2 Pump 1 &
Pump Mercury Reading S1 Head Reading S2 Head Reading D1 Head Reading D2 Head Pump 2
N h  hd1 - hs1   hd 2 - hs 2 
Q  0.196 h Hm1 hs1 = 0.136hm1 Hm2 Hs2 = P1 Hd1 = 10P1 P2 Hd2 = 10P2 H = + 
 2   2 
(rpm) (mm Hg) (litre/sec) (cm Hg) (water meter) (cm Hg) 0.136hm2 (kgf/cm2 ) (water meter) (kgf/cm2 ) (water meter) (water meter)
data (water meter)
data (2) calculation data calculation data calculation data calculation data calculation calculation
(1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
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GRAPH
1. Plot the graph of pump characteristics for each speed of pump that you
have selected (for system operating with single pump).
(i) Input Power (W1) versus Discharge (Q),
(ii) Total Head (H) versus Discharge (Q) and
(iii) Efficiency of Pump (n) versus Discharge (Q).
2. For each speed of pump, plot the relationship between Head (H) and Discharge
(Q) for single pump, pump in series, and pump in parallel.
CONCLUSIONS
3. Please give your conclusions on the results of the experiment and

comments on the uses of pumps operating in series and parallel.
4. What would happen to the discharge and head if the motor speed is
increase to a higher speed?
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Acknowledgement
We take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and deep regards
to the lecturers in Faculty of Civil Engineering, UTM Skudai for their time and
effort to prepare the manual procedure of Civil Engineering Laboratory
(SKAA 2012) course.
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CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY (I) SKAA 2012

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UTM SKUDAI

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Perform laboratory experiments in

Analyze, interpret and relate

Work in team during laboratory

APPENDIX (Data sheet)

2C1 SIEVE ANALYSIS (AGGREGATE GRADING) FOR FINE AND

Figure 2C1-1 Figure 2C1-2 Figure 2C1-3

1. Choose a representative sample by quartering (according to BS 812: Part 102: 1984) or

1. Choose a representative sample by quartering (according to BS 812: Part 102: 1984) or

2C2 NORMAL CONSISTENCY CEMENT PASTE

Cement Paste Mould

Figure 2C2-1: Vicat Apparatus

(ml) (%) (mm)

Distance from base vs percentage of water

Distance from base (mm)

Figure 2C2-2: Graph of Distance from base vs. percentage of water

2C3 FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE TEST

Tests to be conducted on fresh concrete to measure its workability consists of:

Hardened concrete tests to destruction consists of:

1. Workability of fresh concrete

1. FRESH CONCRETE TEST (WORKABILITY)

Compacting factor test:

Vebe Time test:

Preparation of concrete mix:

1. Calculate the volume of concrete needed for the tests

Constituent Table 2C3-2 [adopted from Tests requirements

Water (w/c=0.5) 0.5340 kg = 170 kg 170 kg 0.032 = 5.44 kg

4. Mix cement, fine and course aggregate in a mixer for 1 minute.

1. Place the cone on a smooth, flat and clean surface.

Compacting Factor Test

1. Assemble the apparatus vertically, placing the bigger hopper

weight of partially compacted concrete

2. HARDENED CONCRETE TEST

Indirect Tension Test Methods (Cylinder Splitting Tension Test):

Flexural Strength of Concrete:

Indirect Tension Test

1. Prepare two moulds of cylinder measuring 150mm diameter by

Flexural Strength of Concrete

1. Prepare a mould of beam measuring 100100500mm long.

10. Calculate the modulus of rupture using the formulae below:

Do all the calculations in the laboratory sheets provided.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Standard mix Characteristic compressive strength at 28

Nominal maximum size of

2C4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

i) To determine the depth of concrete cover, size of reinforcement and

Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt Hammer)

i) To estimate the strength of concrete.

Ultrasonic Pulse Test

i) To estimate the strength and the elastic modulus of concrete mix.

Figure 2C4-1: Electromagnet Cover Meter

For determining the position of shear reinforcement:

Direction of instrument movement

Top surface of beam

Meter gives lowest reading

Cross section of shear

To determine the position of main reinforcement bar:

To determine the concrete cover of the beam:

Rebound Hammer test

Figure 2C4-6: Several types of Rebound Hammer