Module 1

1.1 Environmental degradation, Types of environmental degradation, factors affecting

environmental degradation.

Introduction

Environment: The biophysical environment is the biotic and abiotic surrounding of an

organism or population, and consequently includes the factors that have an influence in their
survival, development, and evolution.

Concept of Environmental degradation: Increasing use of natural resources by rapidly

increasing human population has resulted in overexploitation of natural resources. The
consequences of such exploitation are clearly seen in soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and
pollution of land, air and water bodies. The degradation of the environment from
overexploitation has reached a level which is threatening human well-being and survival.

Major types of Environmental Degradation:

 Deforestation
 Soil Erosion
 Landslide
 Flood
 Pollution

1. Deforestation:

Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and industries. Rapid
growth in population and urban sprawl are two of the major causes of deforestation. Apart
from that, use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing, harvests for fuel wood and
logging are some of the other causes of deforestation. Deforestation contributes to global
warming as decreased forest size puts carbon back into the environment.

Forests have been cleared for the various reasons

• Developmental activities
• For timber and wood
• For pastures
• Shifting cultivation

Consequences of deforestation

• Soil erosion
• Landslides
• Silting
• Loss of wild habitat
• Deforestation
• Loss of CO2 sink
• Pollution
• Loss of medicinal and other useful plants

2. Soil erosion

‘Soil erosion’ has been defined as the gradual removal of the top soil by running water, wind,
glacier, sea-waves, anthropogenic agents and animals.

Types of soil erosion

• Normal erosion: This is caused by the gradual removal of topsoil by natural processes. The
rate of erosion is slow.

• Accelerated erosion: This is caused by manmade activities. In this case, the rate of erosion
is much faster than the rate of formation of soil.

Causes of soil Erosion

• Running water:
• Uniform removal of soil
• Rill erosion
• Wind Erosion: Mainly in the arid and semi -arid regions.
• Biotic agents: Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents causing
soil erosion. These processes disturb the top soil thereby exposing the soil to various
physical forces inducing erosion.
• Landslides cause soil erosion: Construction of dams, buildings and roads removes the
protective vegetal cover leading to soil erosion.

Harmful Effects of Soil Erosion

• Loss of fertile top soil leading to gradual loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity.
• Loss of mineral nutrients from soil through leaching and flooding.
• Loss of soil ability to hold water and sediment
• Sediment runoff can pollute water courses and kill aquatic life
• Lowering of the underground water table and decrease in the percentage of soil moisture.
• Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands.
• Increase in frequency of droughts and floods.
• Silting of river and canal belts.
• Recurrence of landslides.
• Adverse effect on economic prosperity and cultural development.

3. Landslides

Landslides are the downward movement of a slope composed of earth materials such as rock,
soil or artificial fills. Landslides are also called rock-slide, debris-slide, slump, earth-flow or
soil-creep.
During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of mountainous fragile areas
are cut down and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. These land masses weaken the
already fragile mountain slopes leading to man-induced landslides.

Causes of landslides

• Removal of vegetation - Deforestation in slopes creates soil erosion leading to landslides

• Underground mining activities cause subsidence of the ground
• Movement of heavy vehicles in areas with unstable slopes causes landslides.
• Addition of weight by construction on slopes causes landslides.
• Over exploitation of groundwater also leads to landslides.

Effects of landslides:

• Landslides increase the turbidity of nearby streams, thereby reducing their productivity
• Destruction of communicative links
• Loss of habitat and biodiversity
• Loss of infrastructure and economic loss

4. Flood:

Piece of land (or area) that is usually dry land, suddenly gets submerged under water

Types of floods:

 Slow-onset floods -Inland Rivers in the vast, flat areas. May take days to build-up, but
can last for weeks or even months.
 Rapid-onset floods -More damaging and pose a greater risk to loss of life and property
because there is generally less time to take preventative action from a faster, more
dangerous flow of water. This type of flooding can affect most of our major towns and
cities.
 Flash floods -Short, intense bursts of rainfall. Poses the greatest threat to life. People are
often swept away after entering floodwaters on foot or in vehicles. Significant property
damage and major social disruption. Serious problem in urban areas where drainage
systems are often unable to cope with large amounts of water in a short time.

Environmental Impacts of Flooding

Flooding can have a variety of direct impacts on the environment and ecosystems contained
within a flooded region. Some of these impacts are positive; flooding is a natural ecological
process that plays an integral role in ensuring biological productivity and diversity in the
flood plain. Other impacts of flooding may be less positive, and in some cases can result in
environmental degradation. The most extensive and difficult to repair environmental damage
usually occurs in developed areas located in the floodplain. Flooding can directly impact: the
health and wellbeing of wildlife and livestock; riverbank erosion and sedimentation; the
dispersal of nutrients and pollutants; surface and groundwater supplies; and local landscapes
and habitats.
 Wildlife and Livestock Health and Well-being
 Riverbank Erosion and Sedimentation
 Dispersal of Nutrients and Pollution
 Replenishment of Surface and Groundwater
 In urban areas, flooding can be extremely damaging and costly, as it can negatively
impact infrastructure, homes and businesses. In the natural environment, however,
flooding has a more positive impact on the natural environment as flood water provides
nourishment to the landscape.

5. Pollution

Pollution: Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful for the
environment. Air pollution pollutes the air that we breathe which causes health issues. Water
pollution degrades the quality of water that we use for drinking purposes. Land pollution
results in degradation of earth’s surface as a result of human activities. Noise pollution can
cause irreparable damage to our ears when exposed to continuous large sounds like honking
of vehicles on a busy road or machines producing large noise in a factory or a mill.

Water pollution

Water pollution is defined as the presence in groundwater of toxic chemicals and biological
agents that exceed what is naturally found in the water and may pose a threat to human health
and/or the environment.

Types of Water Pollution

There are various types of water pollution based on the various causes of water pollution.
Various classifications can be made, based on various water pollution causes:

1. Chemical – when various chemicals are the water pollution causes. The following
chemicals are the most common water pollutants:
 Crude oil and various petroleum products (including gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene,
motor and lubricating oils, jet fuel).
 Fertilizers
 Chlorinated solvents
 Petroleum solvents (including benzene, toluene, xylenes, ethylbenzene)
 Antibiotics and other pharmaceutical products;
 Metals and their compounds –
 Pesticides/insecticides/herbicides

2. Radiological – when radioactive materials are the water pollutant causes.

3. Biological – when various microorganisms (e.g., bacterial species and viruses),
worms, and/or algae occurring in a large number are the water pollution causes. This
type of pollution is caused by decaying organic material in water, animal wastes, as
well as improper disposal of human wastes.
Water pollution may cause a large variety of diseases and poses a serious problem for human
health.

Diseases

The effects of water pollution may appear immediately after exposure and be more or less
violent in the case of drinking water with a high amount of pollutants. On the other hand, the
effects may appear some time after repetitive exposure to water contaminated with lower
amounts of pollutants. The health effects of drinking contaminated water may range from
simple intoxication and stomach aches to deadly diseases or sudden death.

Air pollution

Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of
indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere
can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the
atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air
becomes dirty.

Types of Pollutants

In order to understand the causes of Air pollution, several divisions can be made. Primarily
air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The pollutants that are
a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a primary
pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories

Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of
primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known
to be as secondary pollutant.

Causes of Air pollution

 Burning of Fossil Fuels

 Agricultural activities
 Exhaust from factories and industries:
 Mining operations
 Indoor air pollution

Effects of Air pollution

 Respiratory and heart problems:

 Global warming
 Acid Rain
 Eutrophication
 Effect on Wildlife
 Depletion of Ozone layer
Factors affecting environmental degradation

Social factors

 Population
Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major source of
environmental degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support systems.
Unless the relationship between the multiplying population and the life support system
can be stabilized, development programmes, howsoever, innovative are not likely to yield
desired results. Population impacts on the environment primarily through the use of
natural resources and production of wastes and is associated with environmental stresses
like loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution and increased pressure on arable land.
 Poverty
Poverty is said to be both cause and effect of environmental degradation. The circular link
between poverty and environment is an extremely complex phenomenon. Inequality may
foster unsustainability because the poor, who rely on natural resources more than the rich,
deplete natural resources faster as they have no real prospects of gaining access to other
types of resources. Moreover, degraded environment can accelerate the process of
impoverishment, again because the poor depend directly on natural assets.
 Urbanisation
Lack of opportunities for gainful employment in villages and the ecological stresses is
leading to an ever increasing movement of poor families to towns. Mega cities are
emerging and urban slums are expanding such rapid and unplanned expansion of cities
has resulted in degradation of urban environment. It has widened the gap between
demand and supply of infrastructural services such as energy, housing, transport,
communication, education, water supply and sewerage and recreational amenities, thus
depleting the precious environmental resource base of the cities. The result is the growing
trend in deterioration of air and water quality, generation of wastes, the proliferation of
slums and undesirable land use changes, all of which contribute to urban poverty

Economic factors

 Market failure
To a large extent, environmental degradation is the result of market failure, that is, the
nonexistent or poorly functioning markets for environmental goods and services. In this
context, environmental degradation is a particular case of consumption or production
externalities reflected by divergence between private and social costs (or benefits). Lack
of well defined property rights may be one of the reasons for such market failure. On the
other hand, Market distortions created by price controls and subsidies may aggravate the
achievement of environmental objectives
 Industrial activities
Large quantities of industrial and hazardous wastes brought about by expansion of
chemical based industry has compounded the wastes management problem with serious
environmental health implications
 Transport
Transport activities have a wide variety of effects on the environment such as air
pollution, noise from road traffic and oil spills from marine shipping. Transport
infrastructure in India has expanded considerably in terms of network and services. Thus,
road transport accounts for a major share of air pollution load in cities such as Delhi. Port
and harbour projects mainly impact on sensitive coastal eco systems. Their construction
affects hydrology, surface water quality, fisheries, coral reefs and mangroves to varying
degrees.
 Agricultural development
Direct impacts of agricultural development on the environment arise from farming
activities which contribute to soil erosion, land salination and loss of nutrients. The
spread of green revolution has been accompanied by over exploitation of land and water
resources, and use of fertilizers and pesticides have increased many fold. Shifting
cultivation has also been an important cause of land degradation. Leaching from
extensive use of pesticides and fertilizers is an important source of contamination of
water bodies. Intensive agriculture and irrigation contribute to land degradation
particularly salination, alkalization and water logging.

Institutional factors

 Lack of communication between institutions

The Ministry of Environment & Forests (MOEF) in the Government is responsible for
protection, conservation and development of environment. The Ministry works in close
collaboration with other Ministries, State Governments, Pollution Control Boards and a
number of scientific and technical institutions , universities, non-Governmental
organisations etc. There is no effective coordination amongst various
Ministries/Institutions regarding integration of environmental concerns at the
inception/planning stage of the project. Current policies are also fragmented across
several Government agencies with differing policy mandates
 Untrained professionals
Lack of trained personnel and comprehensive database delay many projects. Most of the
State Government institutions are relatively small suffering from inadequacy of technical
staff and resources. Although overall quality of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
studies and the effective implementation of the EIA process have improved over the
years, institutional strengthening measures such as training of key professionals and
staffing with proper technical persons are needed to make the EIA procedure a more
effective instrument for environment protection and sustainable development.
1.2 Environmental monitoring –sampling (land, air, water) analysis – physical,
chemical, biological, pollution monitoring- bio indicators, biosensors, biomarkers,
pollution control aspects

Environmental monitoring

 Environmental monitoring is the observation and study of the environment

 It has become even more critical as human populations increase, adding ever increasing
strains on the environment
 Environmental monitoring is very broad and requires a multi-disciplinary scientific
approach.
 Environmental scientists require skills in basic sciences such as chemistry, physics,
biology, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. Therefore, all science-based
disciplines are involved in this endeavour.
 It involves the collection of one or more measurements that are used to assess the status
of an environment.
 However, the goals, sample collection strategies, and methods of analysis used in
monitoring must be well defined in advance to obtain robust results.
 In the preparation of a sampling plan, goals, strategies, and methods must be considered
in conjunction with an understanding of the target environment, including the physical,
chemical, and biological variables and processes involved.

Environmental Characteristics:

Spatial Properties:

 The earth environment is defined by 2 or 3 spatial dimensions.

 Measurements at interface between two environments have two dimensions (X–Y) along
a plane or surface. This plane is often the surface of the earth and defines many critical
environments, including agricultural and range lands, wetlands, forests, or lake and ocean
surfaces.
 The third dimension is the Z-axis. Z dimension comprises height or depth and
incorporates environments such as the atmosphere, the earth’s subsurface, and the ocean
depths.
 Human beings live inside the atmosphere and walk on the X–Y plane defined by the
earth’s surface
 Therefore environmental scientists spend much time trying to quantify what happens at or
very near the earth crust–atmosphere interface.
 The collection of samples at multiple depths or altitude intervals adds a third dimension
(Z) to two-dimensional (2-D) sampling.
 It is possible to collect samples at random intervals down a soil/geological profile.
However, most of the time, either discrete sampling (at fixed intervals) or stratified
sampling (defined by geologic layers) is chosen.
 In the laboratory, cores are visually inspected and often separated in layers.
 Similarly, for atmospheric measurements a prior knowledge of possible temperature
inversions, winds, and turbulent layers helps atmospheric scientists define sampling
locations, altitudes, and ranges.

Temporal Properties:

 Usually sample collection or measurements over time are defined with natural cycles such
as daytime; night time; or daily, seasonal, or yearly intervals.
 More precise intervals are sometimes simply defined in convenient time units such as
seconds (or fractions), minutes, hours, weeks, or months.
 Most temporal sampling programs can be defined as systematic because they are usually
carried out at regular intervals.
 For example, groundwater monitoring at landfill sites is often done once every 4 months
over a year. Farmers collect soil samples for fertility evaluations usually once a year in
the spring before the planting season.

Sampling Locations

 Statistical-based monitoring plans require environmental scientists to collect samples

from an environment at statistical determined locations.
 Ideally, each sampling location should be selected at random.
 Number of samples must be defined with a maximum-accepted level of error in the
results
 In reality, sample location and number of samples must be considered in concert with
several other important aspects unique to environmental science. For example, costs of
sampling and analysis
 Other factors such as accessibility and time may constrain statistical schemes and result in
unintentional bias. The degree of the bias varies with the type of knowledge available to
the designer(s) of the sampling plan. Some bias is expected, acceptable, and even
necessary to reduce costs.
 The use of previously acquired knowledge about an environment to select a specific
location, soil depth, or plant species is acceptable. For example, if it is known that a type
of plant found in an abandoned industrial site is a metal accumulator, it would make sense
to sample this plant versus others found at the site, to estimate the potential impact of
metals found in plants that may be consumed by grazing wildlife visiting the site.
 However, this process, if left unchecked, can quickly become judgment sampling, which
has some inherent shortcomings.

Judgment sampling:

 Assumes that the sampler ‘‘knows best’’ and that the location or time of the sample
selected by the sampler is ‘‘representative.’’
 Often this approach produces biased data that have no defined relevance.
 Nonetheless, some forms of this approach are often used in environmental monitoring to
reduce costs and save time
Types of Environmental Sampling:

 Environmental monitoring is paradoxical in that many measurements cannot be done

without in some way affecting the environment itself
 Varying degrees of disturbance are imposed on the environment with measurements.
 Destructive sampling: Has a long-lasting and often permanent impact on the
environment. An example is drilling a deep well to collect groundwater samples.
Although here the groundwater environment itself suffers little disturbance, the
overlaying geological profile is irreversibly damaged.
 When biological samples are collected, the specimen must often be sacrificed. Thus,
sampling affects an environment when it damages its integrity or removes some of its
units.
 When samples are physically removed from an environment, it is called destructive
sampling.
 Non-destructive sampling: often called non-invasive sampling, is becoming increasingly
important as new sensors and technologies are developed.
 Two major techniques are:
 Remote sensing, which records electromagnetic radiation with sensors
 Liquid-solid or gas-solid sensors, which provide an electrical response to changes in
parameter activity at the interface.
 The first sampling technique –Remote Sensing -best illustrated by satellite remote sensing
that uses reflected visible, IR, and UV light measurements of the earth’s surface.
 The second technique –Liq-Solid or Gas-Solid sensors -Commonly used in the direct
measurement of water quality parameters such as E.C. or pH with electrical conductivity
and Hþactivity–sensitive electrodes.
 Random: Sampling location selected at random. All units have the same chance of being
selected. Also, the original environment can be subdivided into smaller domains by visual
observations and prior information. This approach still yields random datasets, if data are
also collected randomly, as they were in the original domain
 Systematic: This approach is a subset of random sampling if the initial sampling
locations are selected randomly. This type of sampling is very useful to map out pollutant
distributions and develop contour maps. Systematic sampling is also very useful to find
hot spots, subsurface leaks, and hidden objects. Systematic sampling can be called search
sampling when grid spacing and target size are optimized to enhance the chance of
finding an object or leak.
 Grab, Search, or Exploratory: Typically used in pollution monitoring and may include
the collection of one or two samples to try to identify the type of pollution or
presence/absence of a pollutant. This haphazard approach of sampling is highly suspect
and should be accepted only for the purposes previously stated. Exploratory sampling
includes, for example, the measurement of total volatile hydrocarbons at the soil surface
to identify sources of pollution. Faint hydrocarbon vapour traces, emanating from the soil,
can be detected with a portable hydrocarbon gas detector
 Surrogate: Done in cases where the substitution of one measurement is possible for
another at a reduced cost. For example, if we are trying to map the distribution of a brine
spill in a soil, we know that the cost of analysis of Na and Cl ions is much more
expensive than measuring electrical conductivity (EC).Therefore a cost-effective
approach may be to collect samples in a grid pattern and measure EC in a soil water
extract.
 Composite (bulking): Commonly done to reduce analytical costs in sampling schemes
where the spatial or temporal variances are not needed. This approach is common in soil
and plant fertility sampling where only the average concentration of a nutrient is needed
to determine fertilizer application rates. Composite sampling is usually limited to
environmental parameters that are well above the quantifiable detection limits
 Path Integrated: Used in open path infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy air
chemical analysis
 Time Integrated: Commonly used in weather stations that measure ambient air
properties such as temperature and wind speed, but report time-averaged hourly and daily
values
 Remote sensing: Commonly used to collect two-dimensional photographs of the earth
surface passive radiation using IR, UV, and Vis light sensors

Elements of a Sampling Plan:

 Implementation: A detailed discussion on how to implement the plan should be provided.

Discuss in detail the following issues, when applicable.
 Site location: Provide a physical description using maps to scale (photos, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, topographic).
 Site accessibility: Show maps of physical and legal boundaries.
 Equipment needed: Down to the last pencil.
 Timetable: List/graph dates (seasons) and times to complete.
 Personnel involved: All personnel, chain-of command, qualifications. Personnel training:
Any specialized training needed certifications.
 Safety: List any safety equipment/training needed. Type and level of protective
equipment.
 Sample containers: List types and numbers of containers.
 Sample storage and preservation: Describe methods and container used to store and
transport samples.
 Sample transportation: Describe methods and equipment for sample transportation.
 Forms: Provide copies of all the forms to be filled out in the field, including sample labels
and seals, and chain-of-custody forms.

Water, soil and land sampling

Soil sampling

Soil tests measure the relative nutrient status of soil. The accuracy of a soil test is influenced
by the laboratory analysis but may be influenced even more by the quality of the soil sample.
Sample collection is extremely important in the accuracy and repeatability of a soil test.
Sample handling following collection is also important. A soil sample which does not
represent the area being sampled will be misleading and result in over or under-application of
fertilizer. It is therefore very important to collect and handle soil samples properly.

Sample collection

Soil Sample Collection

The first step in soil analysis is soil sample collection. It’s important to realize that only a
tiny portion of a field is actually analyzed in the laboratory. Thus, collecting a representative
soil sample is critical for accurate results. An accurate and reliable analysis of soil samples
(physical, chemical, biochemical, microbiological) presupposses a well designed and
executed sampling strategy. If sample collection technique is poor, if samples are not
representative, or if sample handling is careless, then the reliability of the data will be
questionable and any decisions or conclusions based on the data will be suspect.

Soil samples should be immediately air-dried at room temperature for two to three days and
should not be heated or dried in an oven. If samples cannot be dried immediately, they can be
refrigerated for several days and taken to a laboratory as soon as possible. The primary
consideration for timing of soil sample collection is convenience. Collect samples early
enough to allow for interpretation and soil management adjustments. Status of some soil
nutrients can change quickly, whereas others do not. For example, phosphorus levels in soil
are unlikely to change rapidly and frequent testing is unnecessary. Nitrogen levels, on the
other hand, change very quickly and only very recent tests will reflect current plant-available
levels.

After collection, soil samples are transferred lob for physical, chemical, micorbioloigical and
biochemical analysis. Measures should be taken for the conservation of samples qualiy up to
their transport to the laboratory

Soil Physical Analysis

Soil physical analysis generally includes the identification of:

1. Dry matter and Water content (ISO 11465:1993)

2. Infiltration and hydraulic conductivity (Klute and Dirksen, 1990; Amoozegar and
Warrick, 1990, Green et al., 1990)
3. Evapotranspiration (Bruce and Luxmoore, 1990)
4. Pore water pressure (ISO 11276:1995)
5. Temperature (Taylor and Jackson, 1990)
6. Permeability (ISO 17892-11:2004)
7. Porocity(Danielson and Sutherland, 1990)
8. Particle Density (ISO 11508-1998; 17892-2:2004)
9. Bulk density (ISO 11272:1998)
10. Aggregate stability(Kemper and Rosenau, 1990)
11. Particle size distribution (ISO/TS 17892-2:2004)
12. Specific Electrical Conductivity (ISO 11265:1994)

Soil Chemical Analysis

Measurements, which involve characterization of the soil solution and its constituents and of
the composition of the inorganic phases in soils, are broadly termed chemical. A typical
chemical analysis involves the identfication o the following parameters :

 Soil pH and Exchangeable Acidity (ISO 14254:2001)

 Redox potential (ISO 11271:2002)
 Saturation percentage (Rhoades, 1982)
 Soluble salts (Roades, 1982)
 Organic Matter Content, Organic Carbon (ISO 14235:1998)
 Total Nitrogen (ISO 11261:1995; ISO 13878:1998)
 Calcium Carbonate content (ISO 10693:1995)
 Available Phosphorous (ISO 11263:1994)
 Exchangeable Potassium (ISO 11260:1994; ISO 13536:1995)
 Exchangeable Calcium (ISO 11260:1994; ISO 13536:1995)
 Exchangeable Magnesium (ISO 11260:1994; ISO 13536:1995)
 Exchangeable Sodium (ISO 11260:1994; ISO 13536:1995)
 Cation Exchange Capacity (ISO 11260:1994; ISO 13536:1995)
 Available Boron (Bingham, 1982)
 Available metals (Cu, Zn, Mn and Fe) (ISO 14870:2001)
 Total Sulphur (ISO 15178:2000)
 Anions content (NO3-, SO42-, PO43-, Cl-) (Page et al., 1982)

Soil Biochemical Analysis

 Soil dehydrogenase activity is determined using 1 g of soil, and the reduction of

piodonitrotetrazolium chloride (INT) to p-iodonitrotetrazolium formazan is measured by
a modification of the method reported by Von Mersi and Schinner (1991) and modified
by García et al. (1993). Soil DHA is expressed as μg INTF g-1 soil h-1.
 Soil urease activity is determined by the buffered method of Kandeler and Gerber (1988).
In this procedure, 0.5 ml of a solution of 0.48% urea and 4 ml of borate buffer at pH 10
are added to 1 g of soil in hermetically sealed flasks, and then incubated for 2 hours at 37º
C. The ammonium content of the centrifuged extracts is determined using a colorimetric
method. Controls are prepared without substrate to determine the ammonium produced in
the absence of added urea.
 Microbial biomass C is generally determined by the fumigation-extraction method. Ten
grams of sample are fumigated with chloroform and another 10 g are fumigated. Carbon
are extracted with 40 ml of 0.5 M K2SO4 solution from fumigated and non-fumigated
samples and measured in the centrifuged and filtered extract using a soluble-organic C
analyzer (Shimadzu TOC-5050A). Microbial biomass C (Cmic) is calculated by the
 expression: Cmic=Cextr x 2.66, where Cextr is the difference between the C extracted
from fumigated samples and C extracted from non-fumigated samples.
 Soil basal respiration is analyzed by placing 50 g of soil moistened at 30-40% of its
water-holding capacity (water potential: -0.055 Mpa) in hermetically sealed flasks and
incubating for 31 days at 28º C. The CO2 evolved is periodically measured, every day for
the first 4 days and then weekly, using an infrared gas analyzer (Toray PG-100, Toray
Engineering Co. Ltd., Japan). The data are summed to give a cumulative amount of CO2
evolved after 31 days of incubation, and basal soil respiration is expressed as mg CO2–C
kg-1 soil per day.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is extracted from soil using the Webster et al. (1984)
procedure and measured as recommended by Ciardi and Nannipieri (1990). Twenty
milliliters of a phosphoric acid extractant is added to 1 g of soil, and the closed flask is
shaken in a cool bath. Then the mixture is filtered through ash-less cellulose filter and an
aliquot is used to measure the ATP content by the luciferin-luciferase assay in a
luminometer (Optocomp 1, MGM Instruments, Inc.)

Water sampling

Water quality characteristics are often classified as physical, chemical, (organic and
inorganic) or biological and then further classified as health related or aesthetic. To
characterize water effectively, appropriate sampling and analytical procedures must be
established

Sample analysis involves the use of one or more analytical methods to determine the
concentration of the constituent of interest. The level of detection is a measure of the
resolution possible using a given analytical technique. The methods of analysis used to define
the physical and chemical characteristics of water samples can be defined as follows

 Gravimetric analysis (i.e. weighting) is used to assess the mass of a given constituent that
may be present. The total suspended solids and total dissolved solids content of water are
the most common parameters determined gravimetrically.
 Volumetric analysis is based on the principle of conservation of mass in which the
concentration of an unknown constituent or group of constituents is compared
volumetrically to a known standard
 Physicochemical analysis is used to measure physical properties other than mass and
volume. Turbidimetry, colorimetry, potentiometry, polarography, adsorption
spectrometry, fluorometry, spectroscopy and nuclear radiation are representative of the
physicochemical methods.

Instrumental methods of analysis

Analysis should be conducted promptly after sample collection so that the chemical nature of
the sample does not change. The methods seen as follows, are suitable for on-site analysis.;
they involve the use of apparatus and chemicals. Lists of required materials are provided with
each titrimetric, spectrophotometric and colorometric procedure. In some cases, other
appropriate equipment may be substituted for the apparatus listed.
Titration Methods

Titration is based on the use of a burette, from which a standard solution is added to the
sample until an "end point" is reached. The end point is generally indicated by a colour
change or detected by potentiometric device (e.g., pH meter).

Several types of burettes are available:

 semi micro burettes (2 or 3 mL capacity) are used to titrate low concentrations of species
in the sample
 large burettes (25 or 50 mL capacity) are used to titrate species found in higher
concentrations
 automatic burettes feature a reservoir for "automatic" filling of the buret and an overflow
and reset to 0 mL
 Digital titrators provide a more portable approach to titration in the field. These hand-held
units are widely accepted because they are rugged and easily carried from one location to
another. The digital titrator is equivalent to a burette in the conventional titration
methods. The titrator acts as a plunger and forces concentrated titrant from an attached
plastic cartridge. Each cartridge can perform the same amount of testing as one quart of
titrant in conventional tests.

Photometric Methods

Photometers or spectrophotometers provide the most accurate means of measuring the color
of a reacted sample. In field analysis applications, simple filter photometers have been
replaced by monochromator-based spectrophotometers. The essential components of a
spectrophotometer include the following:

 a stable source of radiant energy

 a system of lenses, mirrors and slits that define, collimate (make parallel) and focus the
beam
 a monochromator, to resolve the radiation into component wavelengths or "bands" of
wavelengths
 a transparent container to hold the sample
 a radiation detector with an associated read-out system
 Light from a tungsten bulb is reflected off of a parabolic mirror and dispersed with a
double pass through a high-dispersion prism. The selected wavelength is imaged onto a
movable slit, ensuring a uniform band width.

Colorimetric Methods

 Colorimetric comparator tests are not as accurate as the photometric or

spectrophotometric methods. Colorimetric methods have become popular because of their
 simplicity and relatively low cost. However, tight control of most industrial water systems
should not be entrusted to this technique alone.
 In a comparator test, a colour is developed that is proportional to the concentration of the
substance being determined. The concentration present in the sample is determined by
comparison with sealed colour standards.

Other instrumental methods used in the laboratory

 Common methods of water analysis often involve highly sophisticated electronic

instrumentation not generally used on-site. Some of them include
(http://www.gewater.com):
 Ion Chromatography is used to measure trace levels of anions in feed water, steam,
condensate, and boiler water.
 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AA), Inductively Coupled Ion Spectroscopy (ICP), X-
ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy, and other laboratory procedures are used routinely to
measure many elements at trace levels. Some instruments can provide concurrent read-
outs of over 40 elements in ppb measurements.
 Gas Chromatography (GC), or Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS),
quantitatively separates and detects volatile components (e.g., neutralizing amines) in
boiler condensate.
 High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) permits the separation and detection of
trace organic compounds in antimicrobial applications.
 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) measurements are used to determine the amount of organic
compounds present in water as a result of water treatments or process leaks.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) provides an analytical tool to aid in
determining the structure of organic polymers and other organic water treatment
chemicals.
 Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis (FT-IR) permits the qualitative and quantitative
determination of the composition of organic compounds or the chemical structure of
inorganic compounds.

Benefits of Environmental Monitoring

 Protection of public water supplies: Including surface and groundwater monitoring;

sources of water pollution; waste and wastewater treatment and their disposal and
discharge into the environment.
 Hazardous, non-hazardous and radioactive waste management: Including disposal, reuse,
and possible impacts to human health and the environment
 Urban air quality: Sources of pollution, transportation, and industrial effects on human
health
 Natural resources protection and management: Land and soil degradation;forests and
wood harvesting; water supplies, including lakes, rivers, and oceans; recreation; food
supply
 Weather forecasting: Anticipating weather, long and short-term climatic changes, and
weather-related catastrophes, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, and tornadoes
 Economic development and land planning: Resources allocation; resource exploitation
 Population growth: Density patterns, related to economic development and natural
resources
 Delineation: Mapping of natural resources; soil classification; wetland delineation;
critical habitats; water resources; boundary changes
 Endangered species and biodiversity: Enumeration of species; extinction, discovery,
protection
 Global climate changes: Strategies to control pollution emissions and weather-and health-
related gaseous emissions

Pollution monitoring

Bio indicators

Naturally occurring Bio indicators are used to assess the health of the environment and are
also an important tool for detecting changes in the environment, either positive or negative,
and their subsequent effects on human society. There are a certain factors which govern the
presence of Bio indicators in environment such as transmission of light, water, temperature,
and suspended solids. Through the application of bioindicators we can predict the natural
state of a certain region or the level/degree of contamination

The advantages associated with using bioindicators are as follows:

 Biological impacts can be determined.

 To monitor synergetic and antagonistic impacts of various pollutants on a creature.
 Early stage diagnosis as well as harmful effects of toxins to plants, as well as human
beings, can be monitored.
 Can be easily counted, due to their prevalence.
 Economically viable alternative when compared with other specialized measuring
systems.

Types of bio indicators

 Microbes indicator
 Plant indicator
 Animal indicator

Microbes indicator

Microorganisms are often used as health indicators of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Due
to their abundance, they are easy to test and readily available. Some microorganisms when
exposed to cadmium and benzene contaminants develops new proteins known as stress
proteins which can be used as early warning signs. Influences of natural and anthropogenic
factors on surface and groundwater quality in rural and urban areas. Microorganisms are an
important part of oceanic biomass and are responsible for the majority of productivity and
nutrient cycle in a marine ecosystem. Microorganisms have a rapid rate of growth, and react
to even low levels of contaminants and other physicochemical and biological changes

Microbial indicators can be used in a variety of ways to detect environmental pollutants in

water including the use of bioluminescent bacteria. The presence of toxins in waters can be
easily monitored either by changes in the digestion system of microbes which is hindered or
disturbed by the presence of toxins which may result in changes in the amount of light
emitted by the bacteria

One such example is the bacterium Vogesella indigofera which reacts to heavy metals
quantitatively. Under the influence no metal pollution, this bacterium produces blue
pigmentation which is an important marker of morphological change that has taken place
which can be effectively observed visually. Alternatively, under the vicinity of hexavalent
chromium, the production of pigment is blocked. This pigment production can be attributed
due to the relationship between concentration of chromium and the generation of blue
pigmentation by the bacterium

Animal indicators

Variations in the populations of animals may indicate harmful changes caused due to
pollution into the ecosystem. Changes in the population density may indicate negative
impacts to the ecosystem. Changes in populations may be a result of the relationship between
populations and food sources; if food resources become scarce and cannot provide for the
population demand reduction of said population will follow

Animal indicators also help in detecting the amount of toxins present in the tissues of animals

Frogs are also Bioindicators of quality of environment and changes in environment. Frogs are
basically influenced by changes that take place in their freshwater and terrestrial habitats.
This makes them important Bioindicators of ecological quality and change. Invertebrates can
also be Bioindicators; aquatic invertebrates tend to be bottom feeders (also known as Benthos
or macro invertebrates), living near the bottom of water bodies. These types of Bioindicators
may be particularly powerful indicators of watershed health as they are not difficult to
distinguish in a lab, frequently live for more than one year, have restricted mobility, and are
integrators of ecological condition

Plant indicators

Plants are used as very sensitive tools for prediction and recognition of environmental
stresses. In recent time, due to industrialization and urbanization the problem of
contamination of water and water pollution has intensified Chesapeake Bay submerged
aquatic vegetation habitat requirements and restoration targets: a technical synthesis. Marine
plants provide valuable information to predict the status of oceanic environment, as they are
immobile and rapidly obtain equilibrium with their natural surroundings .Rapid assessment
protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macro invertebrates and fish. The presence or
absence of some specific plants or other vegetation provides ample information about
environmental health. Lichens generally found on the trunks of trees and rocks are composed
of algae and fungi both. They react to ecological changes in forests, including changes in the
structure of the forest, air quality, and climate. Environmental stress can be indicated by the
disappearance of lichen in forests, as caused by changes such as increases in the level of
sulfur dioxide (SO2), pollutants of sulfur and nitrogen (N2) (Walsh 1978 Walsh GE. 1978.
Toxic effects of pollutants on plankton. hanges in the diversity of species of phytoplankton,
including Euglena clastica, Phacus tortus, and Trachelon anas, indicate the pollution of
marine ecosystems Wolffia globosa is an important tool for showing cadmium sensitivity and
also used for indicating cadmium contamination.

Biosensors

A biosensor is a compact analytical device, incorporating a biological or biologically derived

sensing element, either closely connected to, or integrated within a transducer system. The
principle of detection is the specific binding of the analyte of interest to the complementary
bio recognition element immobilized on a suitable support matrix. The specific interaction
results in a change in one or more physico-chemical properties (viz .pH change, electron
transfer, mass changes, heat transfer, uptake or release of gases or specific ions) which can be
detected and measured by the transducer. The usual aim is to produce an electronic signal,
which is proportional to the concentration of a specific analyte or group of analytes, to which
the biosensing element binds Biosensors can be classified according to biorecognition
system. The biological elements used in biosensor technology are the enzymes,
antibody/antigens and nucleic acids/complementary sequences. In addition, microorganisms,
animal or plant whole cells and tissue slices, can also be incorporated in the biosensing
system.

Biosensor for Environmental Monitoring towards monitoring of different environmental

pollutants, scientists are working on the development of biosensors for pesticides and
phenolic compounds. Methyl parathion pesticide is extensively used in the field of agriculture
despite its high toxicity and contributes a major share in terms of restricted use in India.
Among the various, biosensors for methyl parathion detection, major systems are based on
acetylcholinesterase (AchE) and organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) enzymes. AChE
biosensor is based on enzyme inhibition mechanism; hence it requires longer incubation time
and also has poor specificity because of interference from carbamate pesticide and metals.
OPH catalyzes hydrolysis of methyl parathion pesticide into detectable product p-nitrophenol
(PNP) and generates two protons as a result of the cleavage of the P-O bond. Products that
are chromophoric and/or electroactive can be detected by colorimetric and electrochemical
methods, and are exploited to develop biosensors for detection of methyl parathion pesticide.
The analyte can be determined, as the rate of product formation is directly proportional to the
concentration of the analyte. As the OPH is a periplasmic enzyme, whole cells can be
immobilized directly on the matrix and integrated with transducers for biosensor
development.
Biomarkers

The term biomarker has been defined as a xenobiotically induced variation in cellular or
biochemical components or processes, structures, or functions that is measurable in a
biological system or sample. Biomarkers were originally developed in the medical and
veterinarian sciences and there has been an increasing emphasis on the use of invertebrate
and particularly bivalve biomarkers to assess marine pollution. Biomarkers can be generally,
broadly categorized as markers of exposure and effect.

1. Biomarkers of exposure are the product of integration between a xenobiotic and some
target molecule or cell that is measured within a compartment of an organism. In general,
biomarkers of exposure are used to predict the dose received by an individual, which can be
related to change resulting in a disease state.

2. Biomarkers of effect are defined as measurable biochemical, physiological, behavioral, or

other alterations within an organism that, according to their magnitude, can be recognized as
established or potential health impairment or disease. Examples metallothioneins (MTs),
malonedialdehyde (MDA), acetylcholinesterase (AchE) glycogen

Biochemical and physiological mechanisms allowing bivalve species to accumulate and

tolerate high amounts of heavy metals are based on their metal handling by metallothioneins
(MTs). These are low molecular weight, cysteine-rich, cytosolic proteins of ubiquitous
occurrence which are suggested to inactivate toxic metal ions by binding them to sulphur
atoms of the peptide cysteine residues. In fact, it has repeatedly been shown that
concentrations levels of MT can be correlated to accumulated fractions of toxic metal ions
such as copper or cadmium in animals ‘tissues