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The Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra

An Annotated Translation from the Chinese Version


GUANG XING

Table of Contents

Abbreviation 116
I. Introduction 117
1. Nngasena’s Previous Life as an elephant-king / 117
2. The Attendance of Elephant-king to the SÊtra-recitation / 118
3. Relation Between Nngasena and Menander in Their
Previous Lives / 119
4. The Births of Nngasena and Menander According to Their
Vows in Previous Lives / 119
5. Nngasena's Going Forth / 120
6. Nngasena's Attainment of Arahathood / 123
7. Nngasena's Preaching Activities / 123
8. King Menander's Learning / 124
9. Description of Se-jian (Sagala) / 124
10. Discussion Between Ye-he-luo and King Menander / 125
11. Nngasena's Learning in Dharma / 126
12. Menander's Invitation to Nngasena / 127

II. Dialogue 128


1. The Person and His Name / 128
2. Methods of Discussion / 130
3. Nngasena’s Wit in Answering Questions / 131
4. Dialogue Between Zhan-mi-li, Wang-qun and Nngasena / 132
5. Aim of Spiritual Life / 133
6. Spiritual Qualities Necessary for Transcending Rebirth / 134
7. On Soul / 141
8. Knowledge of One Who Has Spiritual Attainments / 142
9. Wisdom of Arahat and That of Ordinary People / 143
10. The Bodily Pain of an Emancipated One / 145
11. Different Kinds of Feelings / 146
12. What is Reborn? / 148
13. Will Nngasena be Reborn? / 152

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14. On the Rebirth of Name and Form / 152
15. Question on Time / 152
16. The Essence of Past, Present and Future Dharmas / 153
17. The Endlessness of Birth and Death / 155
18. The Origination of Things / 157
19. Is There a Soul? / 159
20. Visual Consciousness and Mental Consciousness / 161
21. Contact / 163
22. Feeling / 164
23. Apperception / 164
24. Volition / 164
25. Initial Investigation / 165
26. Inseparability of Dharmas / 165
27. Taste of the Salt Known by the Tongue / 166
28. Spheres of Perception / 166
29. Difference of Men Due to Karmas / 166
30. Doing Good to Obtain Subsequent Benefits / 167
31. Hell Fire and Ordinary Fire / 168
32. Wind Element Supporting Water Element / 170
33. On NirvnØa / 170
34. Spiritual Practitioners’ Attainment of NirvnØa / 171
35. On NirvnØa as Happiness / 171
36. Existence of the Buddha / 171
37. Incomparability of the Buddha / 172
38. On How to Know the Buddha's Incomparability / 173
39. The Difference Between Rebirth and Reincarnation / 173
40. On Good and Bad Actions / 174
41. On Whereabouts of Good and Bad Deeds / 174
42. Knowledge of Rebirth / 175
43. The Buddha’s Whereabouts After ParinirvnØa / 175
44. The Function of a ÌramaØa’s body / 175
45. The Thirty-two Marks of the Blessed One / 176
46. Relation Between the Buddha and Brahman / 177
47. The Buddha’s Teacher / 177
48. Two Kinds of Tears / 178
49. The Emancipated Versus the Non-emancipated / 178
50. Memory and Mind / 178
51. The Sixteen Ways of Memory / 179
52. The Buddha’s Omniscience / 181
53. The Power of Single Mindfulness of the Buddha / 182
54. Aim of ÌramaØahood / 182
55. An Arahat’s Ability of Travel / 183

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56. Duration of Taking Rebirth / 183
57. Seven Kinds of Wisdom / 184
58. Merit and Demerit / 185
59. Doing Evil Knowingly and Unknowingly / 185
60. The Supernormal Power of Arahats / 186
61. On the Very Long Bone / 186
62. On Stopping to Breath / 186
63. On the Ocean / 187
64. Power of Wisdom / 187
65. No Soul in the Physical Body / 187
66. The Infinity of the Buddha's Knowledge / 188
67. Concluding Section / 189
Acknowledgement 190
Notes 191

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Abbreviation
A Aœguttaraniknya
BEFEO Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise de l'Extreme Orient
DCBT A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms (ed. W.E.
Soothill and L.Hodous)
Demieville Les versions chinoises du Milindapaxha (P. Demieville)
DPPN Dictionary of Pali Proper Names (G.P. Malalasekera)
GBI The Greeks in Bactria and India (W.W. Tarn)
KIK Kokuyaku Issai Kyo (Japanese Translation of the
Chinese Tripi‚aka)
IB Indian Buddhism, a survey with bibliographical notes (H.
Nakamura)
NBS Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra
NBS-A Version A of Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra
NBS-B Version B of Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra
NBS-C Version C of Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra
MA Majjhimaniknya Ahakathn
Miln Milindapaxha (ed. V. Trenchner)
Miln-S Milindapaxha, Siamese edition
Miln-T Milindapaxha ˖kn (ed. P. Jaini)
M Majjhimaniknya
MNBS Milindapaxha and Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra (Thich Minh
Chau)
MQ Milinda's Question (tr. by I.B. Horner)
PED Pali English Dictionary (PTS)
PTS Pali Text Society, London
QKM Question of King Milinda (tr. by Rhys Davids)
RMP On the Recessions of Milindapaxha (Kogen Mizuno)
S Sa—yuttaniknya
SA Sa—yuktngama
Sn Suttanipnta
T Taisho Edition of the Chinese Tripiaka (ed. Takakusu
and Watanabe)

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Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra1
(No. 1670 (b) in the Taisho Tripi‚aka) The translator’s name is lost and
it is included in the list of the Catalogue of the Eastern Jin Dynasty
(317-420 CE)2

Chapter One

I Introduction3
The Buddha4 (once) dwelt at Ìrnvast–, in the grove of Jeta, in the
gardens of Annthapiؘika. At that time all the bhik™u-saœgha,
bhik™un–-saœgha, upnsakas, upnsikns, all the kings of heaven, great
ministers, weathy men and ordinary people, and also those who pursue
the (heretic) views of ninety six doctrines,5 the total number amounting
to more than 10,000, came daily to the Buddha to hear his religious
discourses.

It occurred to the Buddha: “The assembly of men here is becoming


greater from day to day, and my body cannot be at ease.” The Buddha
wished to forsake the assembly of men and retire to a solitary place,
where he could sit down, contemplate, and meditate on the Path. The
Buddha then deserted the assembly of men, and entered a mountain
called Jiao-luo6 forest. These trees were imbued with spirits;7 and the
Buddha seated himself at the foot of one of the trees and was meditating
on the path of purity.

1. Nngasena Previous Life as an Elephant-king


Not far from the forest, there was a group of elephants to the number of
more than 500. Among them there was an elephant-king that was wise
and good, and was able to judge what is good or bad; his manners
resembling those of men. All the elephants used to surround the king;
among them there were males and females, long-toothed,
middle-size-toothed, and small-toothed.8 Whenever the elephant-king,
being thirsty, wished to go and drink water, all the smaller elephants ran
before the king and entered the water to drink. After that, they would
play in the water, running about, stirring it up, or fish in the water, and
make it turbid and impure. As a result, the king could not have any pure
water to drink. Whenever the king was hungry and wanted to go and eat

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grass, all the small elephants used to run before him and eat all the
beautiful grass before sporting around, running about, jumping, and
treading on the grass until the king himself would not have any fresh
grass to eat at all.

The elephant-king thereupon thought to himself, “My companions are


too numerous, and they are troublesome. I regret that all the elephants
and their young ones stir up water (before I drink), making it turbid, or
eat grass before me, making it impure (by treading on) and I have
always to drink impure water and eat trodden grass. What if I were to
abandon all the elephants and retire to a quiet place where I can be
happy?”

Thereupon the elephant-king abandoned the assembly, went to the


mountains, and came upon the Jiao-luo forest. (Thus happened to be the
place where the Buddha was) he saw the Buddha there, sitting at the
foot of a tree. Then greatly rejoicing in his heart, the elephant-king
came before the Buddha, bowed, knelt down, and worshipped him, and
then retired to one side and remained there. The Buddha then thought to
himself: “I have abandoned my companions and have come here in the
forest. The elephant-king has also forsaken his retinue and come here to
the same place.” (704a)9 Thus, we have come here for exactly the same
purpose.” The Buddha then gave a religious discourse for the sake of
the elephant-king, and said, “A Buddha is the most honoured among
men, and the elephant-king is the most honoured among the elephants.”
Further: “My intention10 is similar to that of (yours) the elephant-king;
I shall be happy being together with the elephant-king in the forest.”

When the elephant-king heard the religious discourse, his mind was
enlightened and he understood what the Buddha taught. Then he
wandered about at the place where the Buddha was.11 He drew water
with his trunk and watered the ground, then he plucked some grass with
his nose and swept the place, and he made the ground flat by treading
on it. The elephant-king served the Buddha in this way from morning
till evening everyday.12

2. The Attendance of Elephant-king to the SÊtra-recitation


Sometime afterwards the Buddha took the quiet path of nirvnØa13 and
disappeared. The elephant-king did not know where the Buddha was
and therefore he wandered about to look for the Buddha, but without
success. Thereupon he wept, cried, and was full of sorrow, unable to
enjoy anything; he did not even eat or drink.

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At that time there was a Buddhist monastery on a mountain in that
country. It was called Jia-luo-huan, 14 and in it lived five hundred
‰ramaØas, who were all arhats. They used to recite sÊtras throughout
the night on the six fast-days each month.15 The elephant-king was also
on the mountain, near the monastery.16 He noticed that there was a
recitation of sÊtras on the six fast-days, and came to the monastery
every fast-day in order to hear sÊtra recitation.

All the ‰ramaØas knew that the elephant-king was glad to hear the
recitation, and waited each time till he arrived before start. While
hearing the recitation of sÊtra he would neither sleep nor lie down,
neither move nor sway the whole night.

3. Relation between Nngasena and Menander in Their


Previous Lives
As the elephant-king had often heard the exposition of the sÊtras and
had served the Buddha, when his long life as an elephant-king had
come to an end, later he was born as a man. He was born in a Brahmin
family, he did not hear of the Buddha or of the sÊtras, nor did he see
any ‰ramaØa. Thus, he left his family, went into the deep forest of a
mountain and learning the path of brahman. There was another hermit
Brahman living in the same forest and the two visited each other and
made each other acquaintance.

One of the two thought to himself, “I am disgusted with the human life,
with the district magistrate,17 with the conditions of sorrow, suffering,
old age, sickness and death; after death we are to fall into hell, or to
become a hungry spirit (preta), or an animal, or to live a poor and
miserable life when born as a man. Therefore I will shave my hair and
beard, and become a ‰ramaØa, wearing a ka™nya (yellow robe), and
seek after the quiet path (nirvnØa), which is the means of saving the
world.”18 The other Brahman also thought to himself, “I wish to be a
sovereign, possessed with might and power, and let all the people under
heaven follow me and obey my commands and instructions.”

4. The Births of Nngasena and Menander According to


Their Vows in Previous Lives
Some time after they both made these vows, they died and were reborn
in the world as men. The one who wished to become a sovereign in his
former life was born as a crown-prince to a king in a land bordering a
sea. His parents19 named him “Milan”.20 The other, who wished to

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pursue the quiet path of nirvnØa,21 which is (the means of) saving the
world, was born in Tian-zhu (Siœdhu, the name for India), in the district
of Ji-bin (Kashmir).22 His parents named him “Tuo-lie”.23 He was born
wearing a ka™nya24 (yellow robe), in consequence of his vow made in
his former life.25 In his household, (704b) there was an elephant-king
born on the same day as him. [As elephant was called na (for naga) in
Tian-zhu],26 the parents again named their son “Naxian”.27

5. Nngasena’s Going Forth


Nngasena grew up and reached 14 or 15 years of age. He had a parental
uncle named Louhan28 who was a ‰ramaØa and possessed exceptional
abilities that were unequalled anywhere.29 He had the ability of seeing
distant things 30 and hearing distant sounds, 31 and also knew from
where he came.32 From birth, Louhan could fly, could go out from
where there is no slit and enter where there is no gap33 and could
become whatever he liked freely without any difficulty. Louhan also
knew the mind or the thought of gods in the heaven and that of men on
earth including beings which could fly and which could walk.34

Nngasena came to his uncle on his own and told him, “Uncle, it is my
intention to follow the Buddha’s Path (the teaching) and I wish to shave
my hair and beard, don the ka™nya robe and become a ‰ramaØa. I want
to become your disciple. Uncle, would you accept me as a ‰ramaØa?”35

Louhan knew Nngasena’s good deeds in his previous life36 and his
wisdom, and hence took pity on him and admitted him into the Order as
a novice. Nngasena, at the beginning, became a ‰rnmaØera who
observed the ten precepts, recited sÊtras daily, and also learnt and
meditated on the dharma. As a result, he attained the four dhynnas and
therefore he was able to grasp the essence37 of the (Buddha’s) doctrines.
The only thing he lacked was the high ordination he had yet to obtain.38

Now at that time, there was a Buddhist monastery called Hochan39 on a


mountain in the country, and in this monastery dwelt five hundred
‰ramaØas who all had attained arhathood. Among them, the leading
arhat was called Apoyue40 and knew about things both in heaven and
on earth, as well as the past, present and future. Nngasena was twenty
years of age at the time, and in order to get the higher ordination to
becoming a ‰ramaØa, he went to Hochan monastery where Apoyue
lived. Incidentally, it happened to be the full moon day, and all five
hundred arhats were sitting in the hall to recite the great ‰ramaØa

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precept sÊtra41 (prntimok™a). All great ‰ramaØas entered into the hall,
and Nngasena was also among them. When all the ‰ramaØas had sat
down (in the hall), Apoyue surveyed the whole assembly and noticed
that all ‰ramaØas in the hall were arhats except Nngasena. Thereupon
Apoyue gave a discourse on SÊtra of Parables42 and said, “Just like
people judging rice, it is considered to be bad rice even if there is one
grain of black rice among the white ones.” “Now, all of us are white and
pure, only Nngasena is black and has not attained arhathood yet.”

On hearing these words of Apoyue, Nngasena was greatly worried, got


up (from his seat) and bowed down towards the five hundred ‰ramaØas,
and then went out. He thought to himself, “It is not appropriate for me
to sit among them, I have not crossed over (the stream of sa—snra), but
all others have crossed over. It is like the jackal among the lions. So am
I now. From now on, I will not sit among them unless I have attained
the path (of arhathood).”43

Knowing 44 the thoughts of Nngasena, Apoyue called him to come


forwards and touched his head with his hand saying, “Don’t worry,
before long you will attain arhathood.” (704c) So Apoyue asked
Nngasena to stay (in the hall).45

Again Nngasena had another teacher named Jiaweiyue46 whose age


was over eighty. There was an upnsaka47 in the county who was wise
and good and who used to give alms to Jiaweiyue and his disciples daily.
One day, Nngasena, taking the bowl, went to collect the alms, but his
teacher asked him to fill his mouth with water, then to go to take the
alms from the upnsaka’s house.

The upnsaka saw the young Nngasena who was handsome and whose
behaviour was far above the common people. He had heard of his
reputation (earlier) and knew that he was of sharp intelligence and had a
distinct ambition as well as the ability of expounding the dharma. The
upnsaka upon seeing Nngasena coming into his house, got up and
bowed down (to Nngasena) with crossed hands, saying, “I have been
offering alms to the ‰ramaØas48 for a long time, and they usually come
and preach me the dharma.49 Today I beg you, Venerable Nngasena,
please expound the dharma to me and dispel my doubts.”

Nngasena, thereupon, thought to himself, “My teacher instructed me not


to preach by filling my mouth with water. Now, if I spit out the water to

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preach, it would be against my teacher’s instructions. What should I
do?” Then Nngasena thought again, “The upnsaka is of intelligence and
noble aspiration. If I preach the dharma to him, he might enter the path.
Thereupon, Nngasena spat out the water, sat down and gave a talk on
the dharma.

“If a person takes delights in giving and doing good deeds and also
observes moral precepts, he will live happily now and will be reborn in
the heavens after death. He will be a man of wisdom, intelligence50 and
wealth, and he will be reborn in the human world on descending from
heaven. And thereafter, he will not be reborn in hell, in the kingdom of
hungry ghosts or in the animal kingdom.51 But if a person does not
observe the dharma and precepts, he would suffer now in this world and
in the next life, and will fall into the three evil realms52 without any
opportunity of getting out.”53

Nngasena knew that having heard the dharma, the upnsaka was
delighted in the heart. Therefore he again preached the profound
teaching (of the Buddha).54

“Nothing in the world is permanent (anicca), and all will pass away.
Therefore, there is suffering (dukkha) when everything passes away or
comes to an end. The physical body of man is the same. People in the
world agree and say that ‘My body will pass away, but my Self (soul,
pudgala) is going to (remain or continue).’55 Therefore they could not
attain freedom, the liberated path of nirvnØa. This nirvnØa is the
ultimate happiness without birth, old age, sickness, death, sorrow, grief,
and all evils and sufferings are eliminated.”56

After Nngasena had preached the dharma, the upnsaka attained the first
stage of the Path which is called the stream winner (srotanpanna), and
Nngasena himself too, had attained the Path of srotanpanna. The
upnsaka was overjoyed and served Nngasena with excellent and
delicious food. Nngasena then told the upnsaka that the teacher’s bowl
should be filled with food first. After Nngasena had his meal and
washed his mouth and hands, he took his teacher’s bowl and returned to
the monastery.

His teacher saw the delicious food and said, “Today you have brought
good food, you have violated the agreement 57 of our people, and
therefore you should be expelled (from the saœgha).”58 Nngasena was

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not happy and greatly worried about it. The teacher told Nngasena to
meet all the bhik™us of the temple in the assembly. After all bhik™us had
assembled (in the hall), his teacher said, “Nngasena has violated our
agreement, we should expel him (705a) and ask him not to stay among
us.” Apoyue gave a discourse on the SÊtra of Parables59 and said, “It is
like a person who has shot two targets with one arrow. Such a person
should not be expelled. Nngasena has preached (the dharma) and as a
result, he has attained the Path (of srotanpanna) and the upnsaka has
also attained the Path (of srotanpanna). Therefore such a person should
not be expelled.” Then Nngasena’s teacher, Jiaweiyue said, “Even if
Nngasena has shot a hundred targets with one arrow, he has still
violated our agreement, we should not allow him to stay in the Order. If
all others cannot attain the Path like Nngasena, then there is no future. If
Nngasena is not expelled (as a punishment), we cannot stop others who
would imitate him in the future.”60

The monks in the assembly were silent and Nngasena was expelled
according to his teacher’s instruction. Then Nngasena prostrated before
his teacher’s feet and worshipped him, then paid respect to the Order.

6. Nngasena’s Attainment of Arhathood


After paid his respects, Nngasena departed (from the monastery) and
went into a mountain. He sat down at the foot of a tree and exerted
himself by meditating on the path day and night diligently without
slackening. Soon he attained the Path of arhathood. Thereafter, he could
fly (in the air), gained clairaudience, clairvoyance, and also could read
the thoughts of others and knew his own former lives.

After Nngasena had attained arhathood, he returned to Hochan


monastery, came before the saœgha, confessed his offence61 and asked
for rehabilitation. The bhik™u-saœgha in the monastery accepted his
request. Then Nngasena paid respects to the Order and departed.

7. Nngasena’s Preaching Activities


Nngasena went on a preaching tour from village to village, from town
to town exhorting people to perform meritorious deeds. Among them
some people received the five precepts, some attained the stage of
stream winner, some attained the stage of once returner, some attained
the stage of non-returner and some became monks and attained
arhathood. The four heavenly kings of the first heaven,62 Indra (or
Ìakra) of the second tu™ita heaven and brahman of the seventh heaven

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all came before Nngasena and paid him respects with their hands
touching his feet, then sat down beside him. Nngasena preached the
dharma to them all. So Nngasena’s name became well known in the
four heavens. Wherever Nngasena went, deities, human beings, spirits,
serpents, etc welcomed him. They were happy to see him and also
obtained merits.

Nngasena then came to the country of Sejian63 in Tian-zhu (India) and


stayed in Xian-di-jia64 monastery.

8. King Menander’s Learning


There, Nngasena had an acquaintance from his former life called Milan
(Menander) who was a prince in a country near the sea. Ever since he
was a child, Milan delighted in reading sÊtras and learning the heretic
teachings. Therefore he knew all the heretic teachings. He liked to
discuss them with heretical teachers and no one could beat him in
argument. When the father of Milan died of a natural death, Milan was
crowned king. Milan asked his ministers: “Are there any religious
men65 who are able to hold discussions with me on religious matters in
the country?” The ministers replied, “Yes, there is a person who has
learnt the doctrines of the Buddha. People called him a ‰ramaØa. This
person is wise and erudite and he would be able to discuss religious
doctrines with the king.”

9. Description of Se-jian (Sngala)


[In the North of Da-qin66 country, (705b) there was a kingdom called
Se-jian, a citadel of ancient kings. The country enjoyed peace within its
border and in relation with its neighhours67 and its people were good
and honest. The city was surrounded on all four sides by roads. The
gates of the citadel were adorned with sculptures and engravings. The
ladies in the palace each had a special apartment. The streets and
markets were aligned in rows. Roads and thoroughfares were large,
with shops on both sides. The place was prosperous and crowded with
elephants, horses, chariots, infantry, gentlemen and ladies and wealthy
people;68 brahmans, religious people, workers, teachers, and ordinary
people.69 People in all the smaller kingdoms were all wise and noble.
People were dressed in dazzling colours. The women and girls wore
white clothes and they adorned themselves with jewels.70 The land was
high, dry and rich in precious stones. Traders from all four directions
came to trade and paid in golden coins; five kinds of crops were
plentiful and even the modest families had savings. Stalls near the

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markets were selling pastries and food to satisfy the hungry and grape
juice and various sorts of wine quenched all kinds of thirst.71 (All) were
enjoying happiness beyond description.72

The king of this country was called Menander who ruled the country in
accordance with righteousness (dharma). King Menander was learned
and wise and knew the teachings of all religions in the world. Therefore
he was capable of discussing puzzling questions concerning the past,
future and present.73 He was an expert in administrative works and arts
of warfare.74 As far as strategies were concerned, he had mastered them
all.75]76

10. Discussion Between Ye-he-luo and King Menander


At that time, the king was playing games outside the capital, and his
fourfold army was camping outside. The king was proud and thought to
himself, “I am the king77 and know the heretical doctrines of ninety-six
varieties, whomsoever asks whatsoever questions, I could guess the
meaning of the words scarcely uttered.” The king said to his minister
beside him, “The day is yet young, it would be no use getting back so
early.78 Is there any learned religious teacher or ‰ramaØa, who would
be able to discuss doctrines with me?” The ministers named Zhan-mi-li
and Wang-qun,79 who were beside the king, said, “There is a ‰ramaØa
called Ye-he-luo80 with profound learning in the doctrines, he would be
able to discuss the religious doctrines with Your Excellence.” So the
king asked the ministers Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun to invite him.
Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun went to invite the monk and said to him,
“The king wishes to meet you.” Ye-he-luo said, “Very good, if the king
wants to meet me, he should come himself. I will not go.”

Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun went back and told the king what happened.
The king, attended by the five hundred cavalrymen, mounted his royal
chariot and proceeded to the monastery81 where Ye-he-luo (Ðyupala)
lived. He exchanged greetings and compliments of friendship and
courtesy with Ye-he-luo, and took his seat. The five hundred
cavalrymen also took their seats. The king asked Ye-he-luo, “For what
purpose, Venerable Ye-he-luo, have you renounced the world, after
abandoning your wife and children, shaving your hair and beard,
donning the ka™nya robe and becoming a ‰ramaØa? What kind of path
are you seeking?”

Ye-he-luo replied the king, “We study the Buddha’s teaching and
practise righteousness82 so (we) obtain happiness in this life as well as

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in the next life. Thus, we have shaved our hair and beard and become
‰ramaØas by donning the ka™nya robes.”

“Is there any layman” the king asked Ye-he-luo, “who has wife and
children, lives in accordance with righteousness, who could obtain
happiness now here (705c) and hereafter?”

“Yes, any layman who has a wife and children and lives in accordance
with righteousness, could also obtain happiness now here and
hereafter.”

Then the king said, “If a layman who has a wife and children and lives
in accordance with righteousness can also obtain happiness now here
and hereafter, then what is the use of renouncing the world, Venerable
Ye-he-luo, having to abandon your wife and children, shave your hair
and beard to become a ‰ramaØa by donning the ka™nya robe?”
Venerable Ye-he-luo was silent and had not a word to say in reply to the
king. Some ministers said, “This ‰ramaØa is of great learning and
wisdom, it is because of lack of time that he could not make rejoinder.”
Therefore the king’s men raised their hands and cried, “The king is the
winner, the king is the winner.” Ye-he-luo admitted defeat by remaining
silent.83

The king looked around the upnsakas and saw that there was no
expression of shame on the faces of upnsakas. It occurred to the king
himself, “These upnsakas have no expression of shame on their faces.
Is there another learned ‰ramaØa who would be able to discuss the
doctrine with me?” So the king asked Zhan-mi-li, “Is there any ‰ramaØa
who would be able to discuss the doctrine and the path with me?”

11. Nngasena’s Learning in the Dharma


At that time, Nngasena was the teacher of a group of ‰ramaØas, and
always travelled together with them and preached to them on their
request.

Nngasena knew the essence and difficulties of sÊtras and was clever in
explaining the twelve divisions84 of the scripture. He was an expert in
resolving the difficulties (in the scriptures) by making out chapters and
sentences85 and knew the path to nirvnØa. No one could refute what he
said and no one excelled him. He could expel all doubts and enlighten
the speculators.86 His wisdom was like that of an ocean, and he could

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defeat the heretics of ninety-six varieties; he was well respected by the
fourfold disciples (brethren, sisters, laymen and laywomen) of the
Buddha; a place of refuge and object of respect for the wise men.87
Nngasena often preached the doctrines and instructed people.

12. Menander’s Invitation to Nngasena


Nngasena came to the country of Se-jian with a great company of
disciples who were also learned and wise. Nngasena was like a fierce
lion (among his followers). Zhan-mi-li told the king, “There is an
extraordinary ‰ramaØa, named Nngasena, who has a profound wisdom
and knows the essence of all the sÊtras, and is also able to remove all
doubts, nothing is not known to him. He will be able to discuss the
doctrine with the king.”

The king said to Zhan-mi-li, “Examine whether he could discuss the


doctrine with me?” “Yes, of course, he could discuss the doctrine with
the king” said Zhan-mi-li, “He could even discuss the dharma with the
great brahmn of the seventh heaven, how much more than with a king
of human beings.”

(The king) sent Zhan-mi-li to invite Nngasena. Zhan-mi-li went to


where Nngasena dwelled and said, “The king, His Majesty, wants to
meet you.” Nngasena accepted the invitation, and accompanied by his
disciples,88 went to the palace of the king.

Though the king had never seen Nngasena, yet when Nngasena came on
foot with the other ‰ramaØas, his manner was quite different from the
others, and the king knew he was Nngasena. The king said to himself, “I
have seen so many people in the past, and I have been to assemblies of
high ranking people many times, and I had never felt (706a) fear. Today
I see Nngasena, (I feel fear). Nngasena will certainly defeat me, because
I am not as great as Nngasena,89 my mind is filled with trepidation and
perplexity and I feel uneasy.”

Then Zhan-mi-li told the king, “Nngasena has already arrived. Now he
is waiting outside.” The king asked Zhan-mi-li which one was
Nngasena. Zhan-mi-li pointed out Nngasena to the king. The king
greatly rejoiced saying, “It is exactly as I thought that person is
Nngasena.”
The king saw Nngasena wearing a robe, on foot, but with an
extraordinary manner. Nngasena came forward and exchanged greetings

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and complements of friendship (with the king). 90 The king was
delighted and sat down opposite Nngasena.

Nngasena told the king, “The Buddha’s doctrine proclaims: ‘Peace and
security are the highest benefit, contentment is the highest wealth, faith
is the highest blessing and nirvnØa is the highest happiness.’”91

II Dialogues
1. The Person and His Name
Then the king asked Nngasena, “Revered Sir, what is your name?”
Nngasena replied, “My parents gave me the name Naxian (P: Nngasena)
and called me Naxian. Sometimes they called me Wixian (P: Sihasena),
sometimes they called me Shou-luo-xian92 (P: Surasena), sometimes
they called me Wi-jia-xian (P: V–rasena). It is by all these names that
people come to recognise me. People in the world are concerned with
names only.”

The king asked, “Who is Nngasena?” He asked further: “Is the


head Nngasena?”
“No,” answered Nngasena,” the head is not Nngasena.”
“Is the eye, the ear, the nose, or the tongue Nngasena?” asked the
king.
“No,” answered Nngasena, “the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue,
all of them are not Nngasena.”
“Is the neck, the nape, the shoulder, the arm, the leg or the hand
Nngasena?” asked the king.
“No, none of them is Nngasena,” answered Nngasena.
“Is the thigh or the foot Nngasena?” asked the king.
“No, neither of them is Nngasena.”
“Is the form93 Nngasena?”
“No, it is not Nngasena.”
“Is feeling94 Nngasena?”
“No, it is not Nngasena.”
“Is apperception95 Nngasena?”
“No, it is not Nngasena.”
“Is volition96 Nngasena?”
“No, it is not Nngasena.”
“Is the liver, the lungs, the heart, the spleen, the arteries, the
intestines or the stomach Nngasena?”

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“No, none of them is Nngasena.”
“Is the combination of the five, the form, the feeling, the
apperception, the volition and the consciousness Nngasena?”97
“No, the combination of the five is not Nngasena either.”
“But is the non-coming together of the five things, the form, the
feeling, the apperception, the volition and the consciousness
Nngasena?”
“No, Great King.”
“Then, is the sound or the breath, Nngasena? “
And he still answered No.
“But then what is Nngasena?” asked the king.

Then Nngasena asked about the name of carriage, “What is a carriage?


Is it the axle the carriage?”
“The axle is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the rim the carriage?” (706b) Nngasena asked.
“The rim is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the spoke the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The spoke is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the hub the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The hub is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the shaft the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The shaft is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the yoke the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The yoke is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the framework the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The framework is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the pole the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The pole is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Is the canopy the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“The canopy is not the carriage.” The king said.
“Then are all these parts of the wood assembled and left aside the
carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“No, Sir, all these parts put together and left aside is also not the
carriage.” The king said.
“Is all these parts of the wood not assembled the carriage?”
Nngasena asked.
“If all these parts of the wood are not assembled it is the carriage.”
The king said.
“Then is sound the carriage?” Nngasena asked.
“No, Sir, sound is not the carriage.” The king said.

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“What is the carriage?” asked Nngasena.

The king became silent and had nothing to say. Nngasena told the king,
“In the Buddhist scriptures, it says, ‘On account of all those pieces of
wood coming together, it comes under the generally understood term,
the designation ‘carriage’. So is a man.’98 It is on account of the
coming together of all of those things: the head, the face, the ears, the
mouth, the neck, the nape, the shoulder, the arms, the bones, the flesh,
the hands, the feet, the livers, the lungs, the heart, the spleen, the kidney,
the intestines, the stomach, the complexion, the voice, the breath, the
feeling (lit: happiness and suffering), the inclination (lit: good and evil),
that the general term is understood. The designation in common usage
is ‘person’.”
“Excellent, excellent, Nngasena.”99

2. Methods of Discussion
The king asked, “Venerable Nngasena, will you discuss the
doctrine with me?”
Nngasena said, “If your majesty would discuss with me as a wise
man,100 yes, I can. But if your majesty would discuss with me as a
king,101 no, I cannot.”
“What does it mean to ‘discuss as a wise man’?”
“When the wise converses, they question one another, solve
problems together, agree on and turn down a point together. Winners or
losers, they know right and wrong, and they themselves know what is
right and what is wrong. That is the highest wisdom.102 The wise would
never have anger or hate. Thus do wise men discuss.”
“And how do kings debate?” asked the king.
“When a king, your majesty, discusses a matter, he speaks in an
unbridled fashion. He advances a point and if anyone disagrees with
him and is unwilling to do as the king wishes, then the king will punish
or even kill that person. Thus your majesty, do kings discuss.”103

Then the king said, “I would like to talk as a wise man (pandit),
not as a king. You should not talk to me as you would talk to a king, you
should talk to me as if you are talking to those ‰ramaØas, your disciples,
those upnsakas, or even the attendants of those ‰ramaØas. You should
also not have fear and be calm in your mind. (Our talk should aim at)
enlightening each other.”
“Excellent, your majesty.” said Nngasena.

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3. Nngasena’s Wit in Answering Questions
“Revered sir, I have a question to ask you.” said the king.
“Please ask it, Sire.” Said Nngasena.
“I have asked it already, your reverence.”
“I have already answered it.”
“What was your answer?” (706c)
“O King, what was your question?”
“I have asked nothing.”
“I made no reply.”

Then the king thought to himself, “This ‰ramaØa is of great wisdom


and intelligence. I have just started, and have a number of points on
which to question him.” Again the king thought to himself, “However,
(before I can ask them all) the sun will set. It would be better to carry
on the discussion tomorrow. I shall invite Nngasena to the palace104 in
order to have a thorough discussion.” Then the king said to Zhan-mi-li,
“Let the Reverence know that the sun is setting and I invite him to come
to my palace tomorrow and have a good discussion.” Zhan-mi-li told
Nngasena accordingly, “It is time for the king to go back to the palace,
and the king wants to invite Your Reverence, Nngasena (to the palace)
tomorrow.” Nngasena said, “Very good.” And so saying, the king
mounted his horse and returned to the palace. Whilst riding home he
muttered Nngasena, Nngasena. Thus he had Nngasena in his mind until
the next morning.

The next day, Zhan-mi-li and other ministers asked the king, “Should
we invite His Reverence Nngasena to come today?”
“Yes, invite him.” said the king.
Then Zhan-mi-li asked, “How many ‰ramaØas should we invite
Nngasena to bring along with?”
“With as many ‰ramaØas as he likes.” replied the king.

The treasurer of the king named Qian said, “Invite him to bring ten
‰ramaØas.” But the king repeated, “Let him come with as many as he
likes.” Qian said once again, “Let him come with ten ‰ramaØas.” The
king repeated, “Let him come with as many as he likes.” But Qian also
repeated again, “Let him come with ten ‰ramaØas.” When the king
heard Qian’s words for the third time, the king scolded (him) severely
with anger and said, “You are really stingy. Your name is Qian (lit:
stingy),105 and it is not inappropriate. If you even stint on the imperial
goods, how much more would you value your own goods? Is it not

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known to you that anyone who is against my wish will be punished or
even killed?” said the king, “But I pity you and remit your punishment.
Do you suppose that I am not capable of feeding so many ‰ramaØa?”
Then Qian was ashamed and dared not speak another word.106

Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun went to Nngasena’s place, worshipped him


and said, “The king invites Revered Nngasena to come to the palace.”
“How many ‰ramaØas does the king allow me to bring along?”
asked Nngasena.
“With as many ‰ramaØas as you like”, said Zhan-mi-li. Then
Nngasena went with Ye-he-luo and other ‰ramaØas about eighty in
number. Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun all went together to accompany
Nngasena.

4. Dialogue between Zhan-mi-li, Wang-qun and Nngasena


In the morning of that day, (they were) just about to enter the city,
Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun asked Nngasena, “Yesterday Your Reverence
told the king that there is nothing which can be called Nngasena.”

Nngasena asked, “Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun, what do you think


Nngasena is?” (707a)
“The inner breath which comes in and goes out, that we suppose
is Nngasena.”
“But if that breath having gone forth should not return, or having
returned and would not go forth, would the man be alive?”
“If the breath goes out and does not come back, the man would
certainly die.”
“It is just like a man who blows the trumpet, once when the breath
goes out, it does not return or just like a man that uses the goldsmith’s
pipes to blow the fire, does his breath return to him again?”
“No, Sir, it does not.”
“Again it is like a man who blows the ground with a horn, does
the breath return to him again?”107
“No Sir.”
“The same breath goes out and does not return, then why does he
not die?” asked Nngasena.
“We are not capable of understanding such a matter as the breath
going in and out, please Sir, explain this matter to us.” said Zhan-mi-li
and Wang-qun.
“These inhalations and exhalations are merely constituent powers
of the bodily frame.108 It is just like when a man thinks over some

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matter and puts the thoughts into words, it becomes verbal matter or
language. (In the same way), when a man has some doubts in his mind
and thinks it over, then it becomes mind object or mind matter.109 So
each part of the body has its own function. But when we analyze or
examine them separately, they are all changing (from moment to
moment), any one of them cannot be considered Nngasena.”

(On hearing these words), Zhan-mi-li and Wang-qun became


enlightened and took the five precepts and became upnsaka.

Nngasena then went to the king in the palace and the king came forward,
worshipped Nngasena who with his eighty ‰ramaØas, sat down (on the
prepared seats). The king had delicious food prepared and he himself
with his own hands served Nngasena and other ‰ramaØas. After eating,
they washed their mouths and hands. The king presented each ‰ramaØa
with a suit of cotton garments and a pair of sandals, and to Nngasena
and Ye-he-luo three robes and a pair of sandals each. Then the king said
to Nngasena and Ye-he-luo, “Please remain seated here together with
ten brethren. Let the rest of the ‰ramaØas depart.”

After Nngasena asked the other ‰ramaØas to depart and only ten were
left, the king ordered, “Let all the honourable and noble women and
female performers in the palace come to this hall, sit behind a curtain
and listen to Nngasena and me discuss dharma and the path.” At that
time all the noble women and the female performers sat behind a
curtain, listening to Nngasena’s preaching. The king took a seat and sat
down in front of Nngasena.

5. The Aim of Spiritual Life


The king asked, “What should we discuss?” Nngasena said, “Your
majesty the king, if you want to listen to the truth or the summon bonum
(of Buddhism), we should discuss that.”

So the king asked, “What is the object, Sir, of your renunciation, what is
the summon bonum at which you aim?”
“The aim of our renunciation is that this sorrow (dukkha) may
pass away, and that no future sorrow (dukkha) may arise hereafter. That
is why we become ‰ramaØas. This is our highest aim.”
“Sir, is this the reason that all the members of the saœgha have
joined the Order?”

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“Certainly not Sire, Not all the members of the saœgha have
joined the Order for the same reason. There are four categories of
‰ramaØas.”
“What are the four?” (707b) asked the king.110
Nngasena said, “Some joined the Order because of the tyranny of
a county magistrate;111 some have joined the Order due to poverty;
some are harassed by debt; and some have genuinely renounced the
world for the sole purpose of abandoning and eliminating sorrow and
suffering here and hereafter.”112 Nngasena continued, “What I refer to
are those who sincerely search for the path and become ‰ramaØas.”
The king asked, “Is it because of searching for the path, Revered
Sir, that you have become a ‰ramaØa?”
“I was received into the Order when I was merely a boy. There are
buddha-dharma and the Buddha’s disciples who are all wise ‰ramaØas.
I have learnt from them the Buddhist doctrines and discipline, and it
became deeply rooted in my heart. As a result, I understand that the
reason for renunciation is to eradicate sorrow here and hereafter.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

6. Spiritual Qualities Necessary for Transcending Rebirth


The king asked, “Is there anyone who after death is not to be
reborn again?”
“Some are to be reborn again, and some are not.” said Nngasena.
“Who will be reborn? Who will not be reborn?”113
“Those who have lustful desire or craving (taØhn) will be reborn
again hereafter, and those who do not have lustful desire (taØhn) will
not be reborn.”

A. Spiritual qualities of mindfulness and wisdom


“Revered Sir, those who escape re-individualization, is it by
consideration of saddharma and virtue whole-heartedly that they escape
it?”114
“Your Majesty, by consideration of saddharma, virtue, wisdom115
and other good qualities, a man escapes from re-individualization.”
“Consideration of saddharma and wisdom (paxxn), are the
meanings of the two terms the same?”
“Certainly not, Sire, their meanings are quite different.”
The king said, “Revered, do the oxen, horses and others, the six
kinds of domestic animals have wisdom or not?”
“Oxen and horses, the six kinds of domestic animals have wisdom,
but their minds are different.116 Have you, your majesty, ever seen the

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reaper? With their left hands, they grasp the barley into a bunch, and
taking the sickles into their right hands, they cut the barley with it. Even
so, O king, the wise men cut off their lustful craving, just like cutting
off the barley.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

B. Other spiritual qualities


The king asked Nngasena again, “When you said just now, ‘by other
good qualities,’ to what did you refer?”
“O great king, faith (saddhn), filial obedience,117 perseverance
(viriya), reflection on good, meditation (samndhi), and wisdom
(paxxn)118 are the other good qualities.” said Nngasena.

(1) Faith (saddhn)


(a) Sampasadana
“What is faith?” asked the king.
“Faith means belief without doubt, faith in the existence of the
Buddha, of the buddha-dharma and of the Order of the monks; faith in
the existence of arhats, of the present world, of the next world and of
filial piety towards parents; faith in good remuneration for good action,
bad remuneration for bad actions. If one has such faith, his mind is
serene and clear and the five hindrances are eradicated. What are the
five? The first is lustful craving, the second is hatred, the third is mental
sloth, the fourth is sports and enjoyment, the fifth is doubt.119 If a man
has not removed these five hindrances, his mind is not calm and
tranquil.”

Nngasena continued, “O king, the Zhejiayue king, (cakkavattin) with


his chariots, horses and men, may cross over a small stream called Li,120
(707c) and make the water fouled, turbid and muddy. When he is on the
other side, the monarch is thirsty and wants to get some water for
drinking. Now suppose, the monarch has a water-purifying-gem and
had it thrown into the water, then at once, the water becomes clear and
pure. So the monarch has pure water to drink.”

Continued Nngasena, “(In the same way), if there is an evil thought in


the mind of people, it is just like the turbid water. All the disciples of
the Buddha have gained the path for crossing over the stream of birth
and death (sa—snra), because their mind is clear and pure, just as the
water-purifying-gem purifies the turbid water. If people can remove all
the mental evil and be faithful, clear, calm in the mind, it is just like the
brilliant moon.”

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“Excellent, Nngasena.”

(b) Aspiration of faith


The king asked, “What is aspiration121 the mark of faith?”
Nngasena said, “Having seen those among their colleagues who have
already eliminated the evil state of the mind, 122 some who have
attained srotanpanna, others sakŠdngnmi, anngnmin and arhathood, the
disciples of the Buddha aspire to pursue their way with faith. As a result,
some have also crossed over the sa—snra.

Then Nngasena gave a simile, “O king, this is as if a mighty storm takes


place on a mountain top and the rain water flows down in great quantity.
The people on both sides do not know the depth and breadth of the
water and are fearful, and dare not cross it. And suppose a certain man
comes from far away and having observed the water, knows exactly the
depth and breadth and also knows exactly his own strength and power.
He crosses over the water and reached the other shore. The people on
both sides follow him by imitating (his way) and also cross over the
stream. So do the disciples of the Buddha, they have seen that those
whose mind is pure have attained the path of srotanpanna, some the
path of sakŠdngnmin, some the path of anngnmin and some the path of
arhathood. All these are due to their wholesome state of mind and their
perseverance. Therefore the Buddha said, ‘He who has faith, can save
himself. If people of the world can control and overcome the five sense
desires by themselves, and also know that the body is suffering, they can
save themselves. People all obtain the path by wisdom.”123
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

(2) Filial piety


The king asked, “What is filial piety?”124
Nngasena answered, “All good qualities are filial piety. The thirty-seven
conditions125 leading to Bodhi or enlightenment have filial piety as
their basis.”
“What are the thirty seven-conditions?”
“They are: the four abodes of mindfulness or subjects of reflection,126
the four modes of spiritual exertion, the four bases of extraordinary
powers, the five spiritual faculties of moral sense (paxxn indriynni), the
five mental powers, the seven factors of enlightenment127 and the noble
eightfold path.”128

(a) “What are the four abodes of mindfulness?” asked the king.
“The first is to observe the body with consideration of the body, the

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second is to observe pain and itching with consideration of pain and
itching, the third is to observe the mind with consideration of the mind,
the fourth is to observe the dharma with consideration of the
dharma.”129

(b) “What are the four modes of spiritual exertion?”


“The Buddha said, ‘Having analyzed the four states of mindfulness, one
would not think further. These are the four modes of spiritual
exertion.130 When one has gained the four modes of spiritual exertion,
one has also gained the four psychic powers.”

(c) “What are the four psychic powers?”


“They are: (1) the divine eye, (2) the divine ear, (708a) (3) the ability to
know other’s mind and (4) being able to fly with the physical body.”131

(d) “What are the five spiritual faculties of moral sense?”


“(1) the eyes see good or bad material shapes, but there is no attachment
of the mind to them, (2) the ears hear good, bad or abusive sounds, but
there is no attachment of the mind to them, (3) the nose smells good or
bad odours, but there is no attachment of the mind to them, (4) the
mouth receives delicious, bitter or astringent tastes, but there is no
attachment of the mind to them, (5) when the body receives soft or
smooth touch, there is no attachment of the mind to them, when the
body receives harsh and rough touch, there is no dislike. These are the
five spiritual faculties of moral sense.”132

(e) “What are the five mental powers?”


“They are (1) to control the eyes, (2) to control the ears, (3) to control
the nose, (4) to control the mouth and (5) to control the body, so that the
mind does not (fall into the evil states).133

(f) “What are the seven factors of enlightenment?”


“They are: mind, discrimination, exertion, joy, serenity, concentration
and protection.”134

(g) “What is the noble eightfold path?


“They are: straight view, straight thought, straight speech, straight
livelihood, straight action, straight means, straight mind and straight
concentration.135 Thus the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment are
based on filial piety (s–la).” Nngasena continued, “Just as a person
carrying a heavy load 136 reaches a faraway (place) and makes his
business successful. All these are due to the earth. In the world, the five

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kinds of grain, trees and other grass all grow up due to the earth.”

Then Nngasena went on to give a simile, “It is just like an architect who
constructs a large city. First he should measure (the ground) and lay the
foundations, then he will be able to build a city. Again it is like a
performer137 who wants to give a performance. First he should clear the
ground and make it even. (In the same way), the Buddha’s disciples, in
search of the path, should first act according to the dharma and perform
good deeds. 138 They understand suffering (dukkha) and so they
eliminate lustful craving (taØhn) by following the noble eightfold path.”

“How do they eliminate lustful cravings?” asked the king.


“When they completely absorb their mind into the path, the lustful
cravings naturally disappear.”139
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

(3) Exertion
The king said, “Revered Sir, Nngasena, what is (the characteristic) mark
of perseverance?”
“To hold fast to good qualities.140 To support good qualities is the
characteristic mark of perseverance.”

Then Nngasena gave some similes, “It is just like the support given by a
post to a wall that is going to collapse, or to a house that is going to fall.
This is called perseverance.”

Nngasena continued with other similes, “It is as if a king who sends out
his army to fight (with the opposing army), but finds his army too weak
to fulfill his wishes. So the king sends out his reinforcements to help
(the weak army). As a result, the king wins the battle. If a person has
bad qualities, he or she is just like the small and weak army. People
eliminate all bad qualities by the support of the good qualities, just as
the king wins the battle by the help of the reinforcements. With the help
of the five good qualities, one destroys the five bad qualities.141 It is
just like the king who sends reinforcements to the weak army. (708b)
This is called supporting good qualities by exertion.”

Thus Nngasena quoted from a sÊtra: “With the help of exertion, people
attain the meritorious path and go beyond the worldly path without
falling back again.”142
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

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(4) Reflecting on the good
The king asked again, “Why should the mind think of meritorious
deeds?”

Nngasena replied, “It is like a person who takes different kinds of


flowers and strings them by the thread so that they cannot be scattered
by the wind.” Nngasena again gave a simile, “It is like a treasurer of the
king, he knows how much gold, silver, gem, jade, coloured glaze and
other treasures are in the state treasury. If the trainee wishes to obtain
nirvnØa, he should be mindful of the thirty-seven qualities leading to
enlightenment. (Our simile is thus), this is just what we called crossing
over the stream of sa—snra by way of consideration. With mindfulness,
a person knows the meritorious and demeritorious, what should be
practiced, what should not be practiced, and also distinguishes between
the black ones and the white ones.143 Having pondered, he then gives
up the demeritorious and cultivates the meritorious.”

Nngasena gave more similes saying, “It is like the king’s guard. He
knows the people to whom the king respects and the people to whom
the king does not, those who are beneficial to the king and those who
are not. He allows those who are beneficial to and respected by the king
to come in and does not allow those who are not beneficial to and not
respected by the king to come in. So is mindfulness, it lets all the
wholesome (thoughts) come in and stops all the unwholesome
(thoughts). In such a way, one should be able to guide his mind and
control his thought.” Then Nngasena quoted from a sÊtra, “One should
protect and check one’s mind and the six cravings in one’s own mind.144
By strictly checking the mind and holding fast on to it, one can
transcend the world.”145
“Excellent, Nngasena.

(5) Concentration
The king asked Nngasena, “What is (the characteristic mark of)
concentration?”146

Nngasena replied, “All meritorious deeds have concentration as their


chief. All meritorious actions will follow if a person can concentrate his
mind.” Nngasena gave some similes, “Like the staircase which is
supported by a main structure, all meritorious deeds depend on
concentration.” “It is like a king. The whole army, elephants, horses,
war chariots and infantry would incline to follow his lead when he goes

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down to battle with his fourfold army in array. All the Buddha’s
teachings and other good qualities follow concentration, it is just as the
army (follows the king).”

Nngasena quoted from Buddhist scriptures, “It is said, ‘Concentration is


the foundation of all good qualities. The trainee in the dharma should
first take refuge in concentration. The life of a man is just like the water
flowing down the current in constant succession without
interruption.”147
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

(6) Wisdom
The king asked, “What is (the characteristic mark of) wisdom?”148
Nngasena said, “I have already told you before, if a person has wisdom,
he can cut off all the doubts, and can distinguish what is meritorious.
This is wisdom.”

Nngasena gave a simile, “It is like a person entering a dark room with
light in hand, as soon as the light enters the room, the darkness
disappears. So a person is endowed with wisdom, it is like a bright light.
The person who is endowed with wisdom can cut off all evils, just like a
person who cuts down the trees with a sharp knife (708c). For
worldlings, wisdom is of prime importance. A man endowed with
wisdom is able to transcend the suffering of birth and death.”149
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

The king asked, “Nngasena, all the qualities you have mentioned above
are so different, are they all for the same purpose of eradicating all
defilements?”

Nngasena said, “Yes, they are. Various kinds of good qualities are
described in Buddhist scriptures, but they are all for the same purpose
of eradicating but defilements. It is like the king who, although he sends
his fourfold army to the battlefield, has one aim of defeating the
opposing army. In the same way, the Buddha preached various kinds of
good qualities in different sÊtras, but they serve the same purpose of
eradicating different kinds of defilement.”
“Excellent, Nngasena, you quote the sÊtra readily.”

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7. On Soul
The king asked, “When a person dies, and he is reborn in a good or in a
bad realm, does the soul150 remain the same as the old one or become
another?”

Nngasena replied, “It is neither the same old soul, nor is it apart from
the old one.”

Then Nngasena asked the king, “O great king, when you were a baby
you were fed by your mother’s milk, now when you are a grown man,
are you both (young and old) the same or different?”

“The child is one, I am another.” said the king.


Then Nngasena said, “When a man is in the womb of his mother, is the
embryo which is just formed, the same as the embryo which becomes a
form?151 Is it the same as the one that assumes skin and flesh, or when
it is newly born, or when it is a few years old, (is it the same at all these
stages of life)? Just as a man learns from a book, can another man do
the work for him?”
“No, another man cannot do the work for him.”
Again Nngasena asked, “If a man violates the law and is to be
punished, can an innocent one replace him?”152
“It cannot be.” said the king.
Nngasena spoke to the king by way of soul and crime. The king
could not understand it and said to Nngasena, “How would Your
Reverence explain it if asked to do so?”
Then Nngasena explained, “I would say that I am the same person
as when I was a baby. The body of the grown man is a continuity of the
original embryo and the baby. Therefore the life principle of the
grown-up man and the baby is fed within this same continuity — the
body.”
“Suppose a man, O king, were to light a lamp, would it burn
throughout the night?” asked Nngasena.
“It might do so.” replied the king.
“Now is it the same flame that burns in the first watch of the night,
at midnight and at dawn?”
“No, it is not the same flame.”
“Then, is one lamp lit in the first watch of the night, and another
lit at midnight and again another lit at dawn?”
“No, it is not. But the light continues burning from the same lamp
(from first watch through) to midnight till dawn.”153

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“Just so, O great king, is the continuity of a person from life to life.
One passes away and another comes into being, and thus from the
continuity, one is reborn, becomes old and dies. From the last phase of
his self-consciousness, one is reborn into a new life and (709a) goes on
continuously. In this flux, it is neither the same personality nor one
different from the old. After death, the personality goes on to be reborn
again.”154
Then Nngasena gave a simile, “It is like the milk that turns into
curds, and from curds to butter, then from butter to ghee.155 Can the
butter and ghee be called milk?”
“No, it cannot be called milk.”
“The consciousness of a man is like the milk, milk can turn into
curds, then from curds to butter, from butter to ghee. The spirit of a man
is the same, from the spirit, a man is reborn, grows up, and becomes old.
From old age comes death, and after death, the consciousness is again
reborn. When this body comes to an end, it takes another body. It is like
the interchange of two wicks (of a lamp).”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

8. Knowledge of One Who Has Spiritual Attainments


The king asked Nngasena, “Is the (enlightened) man aware of the
fact that he is not to be reborn again hereafter?”
Nngasena replied, “Yes, O king, he knows.”
“When he knows that he has no craving, no sense desire, no
defilement (in his mind), then he knows that he will not be born again
hereafter. It is just like the farmer who has ploughed and sown rice and
fills his granary with much grain. Then for a period, the farmer would
neither plough nor sow, but live on the stored-up grain. Is there any
hope of getting new grain in this farming family?”
“There should be none.”
“How does the farming family know that there is no hope of
getting new grain again?” asked Nngasena.
“Because the farming family knows that they have neither
ploughed (the field) nor sown (the rice), therefore there is no hope.”156
“Just so, the man who obtains the path is the same. When he
knows for himself that he has already eradicated craving and suffering,
and his mind is devoid of desire, then he knows that he will not be born
again hereafter.”
(“Excellent, Nngasena.”)

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9. Wisdom of an Arhat and that of Ordinary People
The king asked, “Is the wisdom possessed by the man who is not to be
born again different from that of the ordinary man?”
“Yes, “ Nngasena said, “It is different from the ordinary man.”
“Has the the ordinary man intelligence?”157
“Yes, he has.”158
“What is the difference between wisdom and intelligence?”
“They are both the same.”
“Would he, with his intelligence and wisdom, know
everything?159 Is there anything he does not know?”
“In regard to some things, he knows, in regard to others, he does
not know.”
“With his intelligence, what does he know and what does he not
know?”
“He knows the things that he has learnt, and he does not know the
things that he has not learnt. The man endowed with wisdom knows that
men and phenomena are impermanent and not independent, and that all
will finally pass away. Craving is the source of all suffering and it will
lead to suffering. The man endowed with wisdom knows impermanence,
the rise and fall of all matters. This is the difference between the man
who is wise and those who are not.”160

(a) “If a man is endowed with wisdom could he still have ignorance?”
(709b)
“If a man is endowed with wisdom, all his delusions will disappear.”
Then Nngasena gave a simile, “It is like a person entering a dark room
while holding a lamp, (the moment he enters the dark room), the room
will be lit and the darkness will disappear. Wisdom is like this. If a man
has wisdom, all his delusions will disappear.”

(b) “Then what has his wisdom become?” asked the king.
“When (reasoning) wisdom has done its work, then this reasoning
wisdom disappears, but its work, its effect161 remains.”

Then Nngasena gave a simile, “It is just as a man writes during the
night under a lamp. When the lamp has been extinguished, the writing
will still be there. It is the same with regard to the wise. When the wise
has accomplished the work, his wisdom ceases, but his work still
remains there.”

“What do you, Revered Sir, mean by ‘when the wise has accomplished
his work, the wisdom ceases to be?”

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Nngasena again gave a simile, “It is just like a person who
prepares five pots of water in case that there might be a fire. If a fire
breaks out the man could take the five pots of water to extinguish the
fire. After the fire has been extinguished, does the man still wish to take
the pots (of water) back home to use them?”
“The man would not wish to take back the pots, because the pots
are broken, the fire has been extinguished, what would be the use of
getting them back again?”
“A trainee in the dharma, with the five kinds of virtues, 162
eliminates all the evils. It is also like putting out the fire using the pots
of water.”

“What are the five kinds of virtues?” asked the king.


“(1) Faith in goodness and in the existence of evil,163 (2) not infringing
the precepts, (3) energy, (4) being endowed with wisdom, mindful of
good, and (5) concentration on the dharma. These are the five virtues
and good qualities. If a person acts according to these five good
qualities, then he gains wisdom, and knows that the body and all other
things in the world are impermanent, and he also knows suffering, that
everything is not in his command, and also knows that everything is
without self.
It is just like a physician who goes to a sick man’s home with the
five kinds of drugs164 and gives them to the sick man to drink, thereby
curing the sick man of his illness. Would the physician in that case think
of using the same medicine on the sick man again?”
“No, certainly he would not use the same medicine on the sick
man again.”
“The five kinds of medicines are like the five good qualities or
virtues, the physician is like the trainee in the dharma. The sickness is
like evil (kle‰a), the ignorant (pŠthagjana) are like the sick man and the
one who has crossed over to the other shore is like the sick man who
has recovered from illness. By the wisdom of reasoning, one crosses to
the other shore, when one has crossed to the other shore, this wisdom
ceases to be.”
Then Nngasena gave more similes, “It is like a warrior who takes
his bow and arrows and goes to battle to fight the foe. With five arrows,
he defeats the foe. Does the warrior want to get back his arrows?”
“No, he does not want them back.”
“The five arrows are like the five wisdoms, and the wise who
attain the path with this wisdom are like the warrior who (with his
arrows) defeats the foe. Evil is like (the foe), and a trainee on the path
eliminates all evils with five good qualities. When all evils are removed,

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pure wisdom arises. A person, by this wisdom, has crossed out of this
world, and his attainment will last forever.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

10. The Bodily Pain of an Emancipated One


The king asked, “If a person has crossed over (to the other shore), (709c)
and will not be reborn hereafter, Revered Nngasena, does he still feel
any painful sensation?”
Nngasena replied, “Some he feels and some not.”
“Which painful sensation does he feel and which not?”
“He may feel bodily pain, O king, but not mental pain.”165
“What do you mean by the expression that he feels bodily pain but
not mental pain?”
“He is liable to suffer bodily pain, because the body still exists,166
he is not liable to mental pain, because the mind has got rid of
unmeritorious dharma, and is without any desire.”
The king said, “If a person who has crossed over to the other
shore still cannot get rid of the bodily pain, then he has not attained the
Path of nirvnØa.” Again the king said, “If a person who has attained the
Path has no sense desire, and while his mind is in peace, yet bodily pain
still exists, then what is the use of attaining nirvnØa? If a person has
attained nirvnØa, why does he not die?”
“It is like the unripe fruit, (we need not) force it to ripen, but when
it is ripe, we need not wait again.”
Nngasena continued, “There is a thera by the name of She-li (P:
Sariputra) who has attained the path. The following was said by She-li
when he was alive.
I do not seek for death, I do not seek for birth;
I abide my time, when my time comes, I shall go.”167
“Excellent, Nngasena.”
(Here is the end of the first chapter)

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Chapter II
11. Different Kinds of Feelings
The king asked, “If a man is happy, is it wholesome or unwholesome? If
a man is unhappy, is it wholesome or unwholesome?”
Nngasena replied,168 “As the Buddha has attained non-activity,169
he does not speak of suffering or happiness.”
“If so,” the king asked, “Is it as if there is no suffering in
conditioned dharma?”170
Nngasena asked the king, “Now, what do you think, O great king,
Suppose a man were to hold in one hand a red-hot ball of iron, and in
the other hand, a lump of ice. Would they both burn him?”
“Yes, both hands get hurt.”
“But, O great king, are the iron and the lump both hot in his two
hands?”
“Certainly not, not both are hot.”
“But, are they both cold?”
“No, not both are cold.”
“But, are both hands burnt? O great king, I ask you again, if the
heat hurts, both hands should be hot, if the cold hurts, both hands should
be cold. How then O king, can they both be burnt, since they are not
both hot, nor both cold?”
“I am not intelligent enough to argue with you. Be so good, Sir
Nngasena, (710a) as to explain how the matter stands?”
Nngasena said, “In the Buddhist scriptures,171 it is said, ‘There are
six things arousing internal joyful 172 feelings in men, six things
arousing internal sorrowful feelings 173 in men, six things arousing
neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings in men, and six external things
arousing sorrowful feelings in men.’”174
1) The king asked, “What Sir are the six things arousing internal
joyful feelings in men ?”
“They are: 1) the eyes see (pleasant) forms and there causes hope
to see them again, thus it arouses internal joyful feelings in men, 2) the
ears hear pleasant sounds and there causes hope to hear them again, thus
it arouses internal joyful feelings in men, 3) the nose smells pleasant
odours and there causes hope to smell them again, thus it arouses
internal joyful feelings in men, 4) the tongue tastes nice flavours and
there causes hope to taste them again, thus it arouses internal joyful
feelings in men, 5) the body touches smoothness, softness and there
causes hope to touch them again, thus it arouses internal joyful feelings
in men, 6) the mind obtains pleasant thoughts175 and there causes hope

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to obtain them again, thus it arouses internal joyful feelings in men.
These six things arouse internal pleasant feelings.”176

2) “What are, Sir, the six external things arousing joyful feelings in
men?”
“They are: 1) when eyes see pleasant material forms, one thinks of them
as not easily to be obtained and (therefore) they should be discarded.
Thus having pondered and analyzed impermanence, there arouses
external joyful feelings; 2) when ears hear good sounds, one thinks of
them as not easily to be obtained and (therefore) they should be
discarded, thus there arouses external joyful feelings; 3) when nose
smells good odours, one thinks of them as not easily to be obtained and
(therefore) they should be discarded, there arouses external joyful
feelings; 4) when tongue tastes nice flavours, one thinks of them as not
easily to be obtained and (therefore) they should be discarded, there
arouses external joyful feelings; 5) when body touches smoothness and
softness, one thinks of them as not easily to be obtained and (therefore)
they should be discarded, there arouses external joyful feelings; 6) when
the mind indulges in lustful craving, one ponders it over that all things
are impermanent and (therefore) they should be discarded, thinking thus,
there arouses external joyful feelings. These are the six external things
arousing pleasant feelings.”177

3) “What, Sir, are the six internal things arousing internal sorrowful
feelings in men?” asked again the king.
“They are: (when we) 1) see what our eyes dislike to see, there arises
internal sorrowful feelings; 2) hear what our ears dislike to hear, there
arises internal sorrowful feelings; 3) smell what our nose dislikes to
smell, there arises internal sorrowful feelings; 4) taste what our tongue
dislikes to taste, there arises internal sorrowful feelings; 5) touch what
our body dislikes to touch, there arises internal sorrowful feelings; 6)
think what the mind dislikes to think, there arises internal sorrowful
feelings.”178

4) “What, Sir, are the six external things arousing sad feelings in men?”
“They are: 1) when eyes see evil material forms, this arouses sad
feelings in men; 2) when ears hear unpleasant sounds, this arouses sad
feelings in men; 3) when nose smells bad odours, this arouses sad
feelings in men; 4) when tongue tastes bitter taste, this arouses (710b)
sad feelings in men; 5) when body touches the roughness and hardness,
this arouses sad feelings in men; 6) when mind hates something, this

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arouses sad feelings in men. These are the six external things arousing
sad feelings in men.”

5) The king asked, “What, Sir, are the six things arousing neither
sorrowful nor joyful feelings in man?”
“They are: 1) when eyes see things, this arouses neither pleasant nor
unpleasant feelings; 2) when ears hear sounds, this arouses neither
pleasant nor unpleasant feelings; 3) when nose smells odours, this
arouses neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings; 4) when tongue tastes
something, this arouses neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings; 5)
when body touches something, this arouses neither pleasant feelings nor
unpleasant feelings; 6) when mind thinks over something, this arouses
neither pleasant feelings nor unpleasant feelings. These are the six
internal things that arouse neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings.”

6) “What, Sir, are the six external things which arouse sorrowful
feelings in man?”
“They are: 1) when eyes see a dead body and one ponders over the
impermanence of the body and of all external matters, then he thinks
himself, ‘Having pondered over this, why have I not attained
emancipation?’ Thus there arise external sorrowful feelings in him. 2)
When one does not like to hear the good sounds, he thinks himself, ‘I
have such a thought, why have I not attained emancipation?’ Thus there
arise external sorrowful feelings. 3) When nose dislikes to smell both
good and bad odours, he thinks himself, ‘I have such a thought, “why
have I not attained emancipation?”‘ Thus there arise external sorrowful
feelings. 4) When tongue tastes bitterness and sweetness indifferently,
he thinks himself, ‘I have thus thought, “why have I not attained
emancipation?”‘ Thus there arise external sorrowful feelings. 5) When
body touches neither smoothness and softness nor roughness and
hardness, then he thinks himself, ‘I have such a thought, “why have I
not attained emancipation?”‘ Thus there arise external sorrowful
feelings. 6) When the mind dislikes craving, he thinks himself, ‘I have
such a thought, why I have not attained emancipation.’ Thus there arise
external sorrowful feelings. These are the six things arousing external
sorrowful feelings.”179
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

12. What is Reborn?


The king asked Nngasena, “Sir, what is reborn after death?”
Nngasena replied, “Name-and-form (nnmarÊpa) is reborn in the
next life.”

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“Is it the former name-and-form that is reborn?”
“No, it is neither the former name, nor the former form, but by this
name-and-form, good and evil deeds are done in this life and (from
these deeds), another name-and-form is reborn in the next life.”
“If that be so, by this name-and-form, good and evil deeds are
done in this life and this (name and) form is not to be reborn in the next
life. Can one be released from the results of his good or bad deeds done
(in this life) so that one does not suffer hereafter?”
“If one does good deeds in this life, and is not to be reborn in the
next life, then he is released. But people perform good and bad karma
continuously without stopping, surely they will reconnect again and
therefore they are not released (from their deeds).”

(1) Then Nngasena gave a simile, “Suppose, O king, someone were to


steal a fruit180 from another man’s (garden), and the owner of the fruit
were to seize the man and bring him before the king, saying, ‘This man
has stolen my fruit.’ Then if the thief were to say, ‘Your Majesty, I have
not taken away this man’s fruit. (710c) This man has only planted the
small fruit tree but not the fruit. I take the fruit to be mine, why do I
need to steal? So I have not stolen this man’s fruit, I am not guilty.’”
Nngasena said to the king: “Thus the two persons argue with each other
as to who is right who is wrong.”

The king said, “The person who has planted the fruit tree is correct,
because the fruit comes from that plant. The thief’s argument does not
stand up, he is guilty.”
“Why is the thief guilty?” asked Nngasena.
“The thief is guilty because it was the owner of the fruit tree who
had planted it, allowed the tree to grow roots and thus bear fruits.”
Then Nngasena said, “So it is in the life of a man. If a man, by this
name-and-form, does good and evil deeds in this life and then is reborn
in the next life, the good and evil deeds done in this life are the causes
and conditions (for birth).”

(2) Nngasena gave another simile, “Suppose a man were to steal another
man’s crop and ripened grains181 and the owner were to seize the thief
and says, ‘You have stolen my crops.’ The thief argues, ‘I have not
stolen your crops, you have sown the cereal grass, but I take the crops,
so how can you say that I commit theft?’ The two persons argued with
each other and went before the king to tell the king about their dispute.
Who is right and who is wrong?”

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“The man who has sown the crops is correct, the thief is wrong.”
said the king.
“How, Sire, can you know that the one who steals the crops is
wrong?’
“Sowing the paddy is the root cause. If there is no sowing of
cereal grass, there is no root cause, thus how can there be crops?”
“So it is in the life of a man. A man, by this name-and-form, does
good and evil deeds in this life, then he is reborn in the next life. The
good and evil deeds done in this life are the root causes and conditions.”

(3) Nngasena gave a simile, “It is like a man who feels cold in the
winter and therefore he lights a fire in the house to warm himself up.
Then (after that man has warmed himself up,) he leaves the fire still
burning and goes away. After sometime, the fire burns the walls, rooms
and the house.182 Then if the owner of the house were to seize that man
and take him before the king, saying, “This man, O great king, lit a fire
and that fire has burned my house.’ Then the man who lights the fire
says, ‘I lit a small fire in order to warm myself, I did not intend to burn
the house.’ Who is right, who is wrong?”

The king said, “The person who lit the fire is wrong, because the fire
serves as a cause or condition (for the burning of the house).”

Nngasena said, “So it is in the life of a man. It is like a man who, by this
name-and-form, does good and evil deeds in this life, then he is to be
reborn in the next life. The good and evil deeds done in this life serve as
causes and conditions.”

(4) Nngasena gave another simile, “Suppose a man were to light a


candle183 and put it on the wall, and by that light he takes his meal.
After some time, if the flame of the candle were to set the wall on fire,
then the bamboo and other wood until at last all the houses were on fire.
The fire spreads and at last burns the whole city. Then the people of the
whole city were to ask the man, ‘You fellow, what have you set the
whole of our city on fire for?’ And then the man would say, ‘I just lit a
small candle in order to take my meal by the light. Therefore this big
fire is different from that small flame which I lit.’ Now, if they, thus
disputing, (711a) should go before you, O great king, who is right who
is wrong?”
“The person who lit the fire is wrong and guilty.”
“But why?”

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“Because, Sir, the cause comes from the fire (that he lit). After he
has had his meal, he did not put out the fire and therefore the whole city
caught fire.”
Nngasena said, “Just so, Sire, is the life of a man. A man, by this
name-and-form, does good and evil deeds in this life, and is reborn in
the next life. The good and evil deeds done in this life are the causes and
conditions. Because of ignorance (avidyƗ), man does good and evil
deeds, therefore he is not released (from suffering).”

(5) Nngasena again gave a simile, “Suppose, a man were to choose a


young girl in marriage and give a price for her. After some years, she, in
due course, grows up to mature age and another man paid a price to
marry her. Then the first man would come and say, ‘You fellow, why
have you married my wife?’ Then if the other were to say, ‘You have
chosen the young girl for marriage and paid a price for her, but I have
chosen the grown up girl for marriage and paid a price for her. (These
two are different), how can you say that I have married your wife?’ Thus
disputing, should the two men go before the king, who is right, who is
wrong?”
“The first one is right.”
“But why?”
“Because, Sir, the grown up girl would have been derived from the
young girl. Therefore she is the wife of the first one. So the first one is
right.”
“Just so, O great king, is the life of a man. If a man, by this
name-and-form, does good and evil deeds in this life, and then should
he be reborn in the next life, the good and evil deeds done in this life are
the causes and conditions of the next life.”

(6) Nngasena gave another simile, “Suppose a man, O king, were to take
a bottle and buy milk from a herdsman. Then he leaves the bottle in the
herdsman’s charge and says, ‘I will come back for it later.’ After some
time, the man comes back to take his bottle of milk, but that bottle of
milk has turned into curds already. Then the man, the buyer, says to the
herdsman, ‘I have bought milk not curds. But now you give me curds.’
And then if the other were to reply, ‘It is your milk that has turned into
curds.’ If they thus disputing with each other, should go before you, O
king, who is right and who is wrong?”
“The herdsman is right.”
“But why?”
“Because, the man bought milk and left it at the herdsman’s house.
The milk itself turned into curds, where is the guilt of the herdsman?”

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Nngasena said, “Just so, O great king, is the life of a man. If a man,
by this name-and-form, does good and evil deeds in this life, and then is

reborn in the next life, the good and evil deeds done in this life are the
causes and conditions of that.”184

13. Will Nngasena be Reborn?


The king asked, “Will you, Nngasena, be reborn in the next life?”
Nngasena replied, “Great king, what is the use of asking that question
again? Have I not already told you that if I have craving in my heart
when I die, I shall be reborn. If I have no craving, I shall not be reborn.
It is like a man who renders his service to the king exhaustively. The
king knows that the man is good and so bestows on him money and
(711b) materials. Having got the money and materials, the man, having
used them to buy clothes and food and drinks for himself, enjoys all the
pleasures of the senses, should then publicly declare, “I have done great
service to the king, but the king pays me naught.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “If a man has received rewards,
but says that he has received none. Are the man’s words reliable?”
“No, not reliable.” replied the king.
“Thus I have told you, O king, if I have craving in my heart, I will
be reborn in the next life. If I have no craving in my heart, I will not be
reborn in the next life.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

14. On the Rebirth of Name and Form


The king asked, “You were talking just now of name-and-form, what
does name mean, what does form mean?”
Nngasena replied, “What is currently existing is the form (the
body), what the mind thinks is name.”185
“Why is it, Nngasena, that name is not reborn separately from its
form?”
“The name and form of a man are connected one with another and
spring into being together. It is like an egg that consists of yoke and
egg-shell. Just so, the name is not separate from its form.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

15. Question on Time


The king asked, “Venerable Nngasena, what is meant by
‘time’?”186

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Nngasena replied, “Concerning the past things (we speak in
reference to) time, concerning the future things (we also speak in
reference to) time, concerning the present things (we speak) without
referring to time.”187
“Very good Nngasena.”
The king said, “Revered Sir, consider, is there time which exists?”
Nngasena replied, “There is time which exists, there is time which
does not exist.”
“Which time exists, which does not?”
“Regarding the person who has attained nirvnØa, time does not
exist, but regarding the person who has not attained the Path and is still
subject to birth and death, time exists. [If a person in this life delights in
giving and is filial to his parents, then, he will get happiness in the next
life.]”188
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

16. The Essence of Past, Present and Future Dharmas


The king asked, “What is the root189 cause, Nngasena, of past things, of
present things and of future things?” Nngasena replied, “Ignorance is the
root cause of past, future and present things. Because of ignorance, the
spirit190 comes into being; conditioned by spirit, [the body191 comes
into being; conditioned by body,] 192 name comes into being;
conditioned by name, form comes into being; conditioned by form, the
six sense knowledges193 come into being: 1) the eye knowledge, 2) the
ear knowledge, 3) the nose knowledge, 4) the tongue knowledge, 5) the
body knowledge, 6) the mind knowledge. These are the six sense
knowledges. These six sense organs all open to the outside (world).
How do they open to the outside world? The eyes see forms, the ears
listen to the sounds, the nose smells odours, the tongue tastes savours,
the body feels touches of smoothness, the mind inclines towards craving.
These are the six outside things. Going towards the object is called
flowing. When these (flowings) are joined together, one is able to know
suffering and happiness. From suffering and happiness, there comes
craving,194 from craving, comes lustful desire;195 from lustful desire,
comes becoming;196 from becoming, comes birth; from birth, comes old
age; from old age, comes disease or sickness; from disease or sickness,
comes death; from death, comes (711c) lamentation; from lamentation,
comes grief; from grief, comes inner despair.197 All these sufferings of
life coming together is called a man. Because of all these (worries and
sufferings), the man is subject to birth and death without an end.
Therefore, the same old body of a man cannot be obtained.”198

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Then Nngasena gave a simile, “It is just like sowing grain. A man sows
the five kinds of grains,199 from the grains come the roots, then comes

stalks, leaves and fruits. After all these comes grains. Then the next year,
he sows grain again and also gets much grain.”

Then Nngasena asked the king, “It is like a man who sows grain every
year. Is there an end or a stop to the production of grain?”
“(If he) sows grain every year, there will be no end to its
production.”
“Just so, Sire, is the life of a man. There is no end to this cycle of
birth and death.” Then Nngasena gave a simile, “Just like a hen that lays
an egg. From the egg comes a hen, from the hen comes another egg.
(There is no end to this series). So it is in a man. The cycle of birth and
death continues without end.” Then the Elder Nngasena drew a cycle of
the wheel on the ground and asked the king, “Are there angles200 to this
wheel?”
“This is a complete cycle. There is no angle to it.” said the king.
Then Nngasena said, “In the scriptures, the Buddha says, “The
cycle of birth and death of a man is like the wheel of a chariot rolling on
continuously without an end.”201

Nngasena continued,
(1) When eyes make contact with various forms, then the eye
consciousness arises. When these three (the eye, the form and the
eye-consciousness) come together, happiness or suffering arise; from
happiness and suffering, craving or attachment arises; from craving,
lustful desire arises; from lustful desire, becoming arises; from
becoming, there arises birth; from birth, there arise good and bad
activities; then there again arises birth.202

(2) When ears hear good sounds, ear-consciousness arises, then these
three come together. With the contact of these three, happiness and
suffering arise; from happiness and suffering, craving arises; from
craving, lustful desire arises; from lustful desire, becoming arises; from
becoming, birth arises; from birth, good and bad activities arise; from
these good and bad activities, birth again arises.

(3) When the nose smells good odours, nose-consciousness arises; from
the contact of these three, happiness and suffering arise; from happiness
and suffering, craving arises; from craving, lustful desire arises; from
lustful desire, becoming arises; from becoming, birth arises; from birth,

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good and bad activities arise; from good and bad activities, birth again
arises.

(4) When the tongue tastes a flavour, then tongue-consciousness arises;


from the contact of these three, happiness and suffering arise; from
happiness and suffering, craving arises; from craving, lustful desire
arises; from lustful desire, becoming arises; from becoming, birth arises;
from birth, good and bad activities arise; from good and bad activities,
birth again arises.

(5) When the body touches smoothness and softness, then


body-consciousness arises; from the contact of these three, happiness
and suffering arise; from happiness and suffering, craving arises; from
craving, lustful desire arises; from lustful desire, becoming arises; from
becoming, birth arises; from birth, good and bad activities arise; from
good and bad activities, birth again arises.

(6) When the mind thinks over something (mind objects),


mind-consciousness arises; from the contact of these three, happiness
and suffering arise; from happiness and suffering, craving arises; from
craving, lustful desire arises; from lustful desire, becoming arises; from
becoming, birth arises; from birth, good and bad activities arise; from
good and bad activities, birth again arises.” (712a) Nngasena continued,
“Thus, O great king, a man is subject to birth and death like a wheel
without an end.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

17. The Endlessness of Birth and Death


The king asked Nngasena, “Revered Sir, you said that the birth and
death of a man are empty, the root cause203 of it is also empty. Here
what is the root cause?”204
Nngasena replied, “When there is no205 root-cause, one will not
be born again. But when there is a root-cause, once more one will pass
onto (another existence) on account of this root-cause.”
“If there is no root-cause, one will not be born again. When there
is root-cause, once more one will pass onto (another existence). Thus
there is no end to this root cause.” said the king.
“Yes, all have to pass on.”

(1) Are there other factors in the rebirth of a man?


The king asked Nngasena again, “Venerable Sir, are there other

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factors206 which would help to continue one’s birth and death?”
“O Great king,” Nngasena said, “Are there other factors which
help increase the birth and death of all birds and animals207 in the
world?”208
“I did not ask you, Sir, the question with regard to birds209 and
animals in the world. I just ask you, Sir, the root cause of the birth and
death of a man.”

Then Nngasena replied, “With reference to trees, they can grow and the
seedling is their root cause. With reference to the five kinds of grain,
they can grow and the grain is their root cause. Everything on the earth
grows or rises, owing to its root cause. With regard to man, the six
passions210 and craving (taØhn) are the root causes.”
“With regard to a man, there are eyes and also forms, there is
eye-consciousness; there are ears and sounds, there is also
ear-consciousness; there is the nose and smell, there is also
nose-consciousness; there is the tongue and flavour, there is also
tongue-consciousness; there is the body and softness and smoothness,
then there is also body-consciousness; there is the mind and mind
objects (dharma), then there is mind-consciousness also.211

[Then from all these things, happiness and suffering arise; from
happiness and suffering, craving arises; from craving, lustful desire
arises; from lustful desire, arise the aggregates of suffering which
constitute a human being. The eyes, the ears, the nose, the tongue, the
body, the mind, the consciousness and the mindfulness cause becoming
to arise.]212 The coming together of all those things is called touch;
from touch, painful or pleasant feelings arise; from painful and pleasant
feelings, craving arises; from craving, lustful desire arises; from lustful
desire, becoming arises; from becoming, birth arises; from birth, old age
and sickness arise; from sickness, comes death; from death, arises grief;
from grief, arises lamentation; from lamentation, arises pain in the heart.
Thus is human life.”213

(2) NirvnØa
Then Nngasena continued, “Where there are no eyes, no material forms
to be seen, there is also no consciousness.214 Due to non-consciousness,
there is no coming together, due to non-coming together, there are no
painful, or pleasant feelings; due to no painful or pleasant feelings, there
is no craving; due to no craving, there is no lustful desire; due to no
lustful desire, there is no becoming; due to no becoming, there is no
birth, no old age; due to no birth, there is no old age, due to no old age,

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there is no sickness and death; due to no sickness and death, there is no
grief and lamentation; due to no grief and lamentation, there is no
suffering in the inner heart; due to no such sufferings, one is
emancipated and obtains the path of nirvnØa.

If there is no ear, there is also no hearing (of sounds); if there is no nose,


there is also no smelling (of odours); if there is no tongue, there is also
no tasting of flavour; If there is no body, there is also no touch of
softness and smoothness; if there is no mind, there is also no thinking of
mind objects. Due to no thinking of mind objects, there is no contact or
touch; due to no contact, there is no painful or pleasant feelings; due to
no painful or pleasant feelings, there is no craving; due to no craving,
there is no lustful desire; due to no lustful desire, there is no embryo;
due to no embryo, there is no birth; due to no birth, there is no old age;
due to no old age, there is no sickness; due to no sickness, there is no
death; due to no death, there is no grief; (712b) due to no grief, there is
no lamentation; due to no lamentation, there is no suffering in the inner
heart. So abandoning all such sufferings, one obtains the path of
nirvnØa.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

18. The Origin of Things


The king asked Nngasena, “Is there anything in the world arising
spontaneously?”215
Then Nngasena replied, “There is nothing in this world that arises
spontaneously. All things originate through causes and conditions.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “What do you think, O great king, did
this great Hall in which you are sitting come spontaneously into being
or come into being owing to the endeavour of men?”
“It is due to the moil and toil of men. The woods come from forest,
the clay and mud come from earth.”
Nngasena said, “It is the same with regard to a man. The
combination of eighteen dhntus or twelve nyatanas is called a person or
a man. Therefore there is nothing that arises spontaneously. There must
be causes and conditions for a thing to arise.”

(1) Then Nngasena gave a simile, “It is just like a potter who makes
earthen-wares. He takes water and earth, makes them into mud, shapes
them into various forms and burns them into various earthen-wares. The
mud itself cannot become earthen-ware. There must be man’s effort and

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the burning of wood before it becomes earthen-ware. There is nothing
that arises spontaneously in this world.”

(2) Nngasena again gave a simile and said to the king, “It is like a lute
(v–Øn). If there is no string, no frame, no one to play it, can it produce
any sounds?”
“Certainly not Sir.” said the king.
“Then, if there is a lute with string, frame and there is also a man
to play it, can it produce sounds?”
“Yes, it can.”
“Thus, there is nothing that arises spontaneously in this world.
There must be causes and conditions for a thing to arise.”

(3) Nngasena said to the king, “It is like making fire by robbing two
sticks together. If there are no sticks, no human effort or exertion, could
there be fire?”
“Certainly not.”
“If there are two sticks and also human effort or exertion, could
there be fire?”
“Yes, there could be fire.”
“Thus there is nothing that arises spontaneously in this world.
There must be causes and conditions for a thing to arise.”

(4) Nngasena asked the king, “It is like a speculum216 without a person
holding it, without the sun, without the (clear) sky. Can it produce fire?”
“Certainly not.”
“Then if there is a person holding the speculum, there is the sun
and also the (clear) sky, can it produce fire?”
“Yes, it can produce fire.”
“Thus, there is nothing in this world that arises spontaneously.
There must be causes and conditions for a thing to arise.”

(5) Nngasena asked the king again, “Suppose, O king, a man has no
mirror, and there is also no light, but he wants to see himself in the
mirror. Can he see his own image (in the mirror)?
“No, he cannot see his own image.”
“But, if there is a mirror, light and also a person looking at the
mirror, can he see his own image (in the mirror)?”
“Yes, he can see his own image (in the mirror).
“Thus, there is nothing in this world that arises spontaneously.
There must be causes and conditions for a thing to arise.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

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19. Is There a Soul?
The king further asked Thera Nngasena saying, “Is there a soul in a man
of this world?”217
Nngasena replied, “By analysis and examination, there is no soul
in a man of this world. What can we call a soul?”
“Is the life or living principle218 in the body of a man called a
soul?” asked the king.
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Can the living principle in a man
see the material forms through eyes, hear sounds through the ears, (712c)
smell odours through nose, taste flavour through tongue, feel
smoothness and softness through body, think over some objects with
mind?”
“Yes it could.”
Then Nngasena said, “Now you and I are sitting in this palace with
windows open to the four directions. Is it possible for us to see what we
want to see through any window we like?”
“Yes, we can.”
Nngasena said, (1) “Suppose, the living principle in the body of a
man can see through any orifice219 of the body freely, can it see the
material forms through the eyes? Can it see the material forms through
the ears? Can it see the material forms through the nose? Can it see the
material forms through the mouth? Can it see the material forms through
the body? Can it see the material forms through the mind?”
“No, it cannot.”

(2) “Suppose, the living principle is in the ear, then can it hear sounds
through the ears? Can it see material forms through the ears? Can it
smell odours both good and bad through the ears? Can it taste flavours
with the ears? Can it feel softness and smoothness with the ears? Can it
think over something using the ears?”

(3) “Suppose, the living principle is in the nose, then can it smell both
good and bad odours through the nose? Can it see material forms
through the nose?220 Can it hear sounds through the nose? Can it taste
flavours with the nose? Can it feel smoothness and softness with the
nose? Can it think over something with the nose?”

(4) “Suppose, the living principle is in the mouth, then can it taste
flavours through the mouth? Can it see the material forms through the
mouth? Can it hear sounds with the mouth? Can it smell good and bad

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odours with the mouth? Can it feel smoothness and softness through the
mouth? Can it think over something with the mouth?”

(5) “Suppose, the living principle is in the body, then can it feel
smoothness and softness through the body? Can it see the material
forms through the body? Can it hear sounds through the body? Can it
smell both good and bad odours through the body? Can it taste flavours
through the body? Can it think over something with the body?”

(6) “Suppose the living principle is in the mind, then can it think over
something with the mind? Can it see material forms through the mind?
Can it hear sounds with the mind? Can it smell good and bad odours
with the mind? Can it taste flavours with the mind? Can it feel
smoothness and softness with the mind?”
“No, it cannot.” replied the king.
Then Nngasena said, “O king, what you have said now and
previous do not agree. Now, O great king, you and I are sitting here in
the palace. If the windows of the four directions are to be removed, then
can our eyesight reach far and wide?”
“Yes, it can reach far and wide.”
“Suppose, the living principle is in the body, can it see far and
wide when the doors (dvnra) of eye are removed? Can it hear distant
sounds when the doors of ear are cut off and enlarged? Can it smell
distant odours when the nose is cut off and enlarged? Can it taste more
flavours when the mouth is removed and enlarged? Can it feel softness
and smoothness when the skin of the body is cut off? Is it able to (know
the dharma) more extensively when the mind is removed?”
“No, it cannot.” replied the king.
“O great king, what you have said now and previous do not
agree.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “If, O king, your treasurer or
storekeeper comes and stands (713a) in front of you, can you know that
he stands in front of you?”
“Yes, I know.”
“If the treasurer comes into the king’s palace, (does he) know that
he has entered the king’s palace?”
“Yes, of course, he knows.”
“Then, suppose, the living principle is in the body of a man, can it
know sweetness, or sourness, or acidity, or saltiness, or pungency, or
astringency when anything possessing flavour is laid upon the tongue?”
“Yes, it would know it.”

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“O great king, what you have said now and previous do not
agree.”
Then Nngasena gave a simile, “It is like a man drinking wine, if
the man were to be put upside down into a big jar full of wine to taste
the flavour of the wine, could the man know the flavour of the wine?”
“No, he could not.”
“But why does he not know the flavour?”
“Because the wine could not get into his mouth, to the tongue, so
he could not know the flavour of the wine.”
“O great king, your speeches before and after do not agree with
each other.”
Then the king said, “I am not capable of discussing such reasoning.
Please, Sir, explain to me how the matter stands.”
Nngasena said, “When a man sees the material forms with his own
eyes, then the eye-consciousness 221 arises. Due to the arising of
eye-consciousness, there arise painful or pleasant feelings.222 Then the
mind223 and thoughts224 come into contact. It is the same with regard to
ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind. When the mind comes in contact
with mind-objects, then mind-consciousness arises; then due to the
arising of mind-consciousness, there arise painful and pleasant feelings.
From painful and pleasant feelings, there arise thoughts; from thoughts,
there arises mindfulness. Thus it continues without a soul.”225
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

20. Visual-consciousness and Mental-consciousness


The king said, “When visual-consciousness arises, does
mental-consciousness226 also arise at the same time?”
“Yes, they arise together.”
“Which consciousness arises first?”
“The visual-consciousness arises first, the mental-consciousness
second.”
“If so, does the visual-consciousness speak to the
mental-consciousness: ‘Where I arise, you likewise arise,’ or does the
mental-consciousness speak to the eye-consciousness: ‘Where you arise,
I will likewise arise?
“No, they do not thus speak to each other.”
“Venerable Sir, you have said that they arise at the same time,
why is there no communication between the one and the other?”
“There are four circumstances under which there is not
communication. What are the four circumstances? They are (1)
following on,227 (2) the existence of a door, (3) walking along the rut,

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(4) arithmetic. There is no communication under these four
circumstances.”

(1) Then the king asked, “What is ‘the following on’?”


Nngasena said to the king, “When it rains at the top of a mountain,
where will the rain water flow?”
“It will flow downwards.”
“After that if it were to rain again (at the top of the same
mountain), where will this rain water flow?”
“It will flow in the same way as the first water had gone.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Would the first rain water speak
to the second, ‘You should follow me,’ and the second then speak to the
first, ‘I will follow wherever you go.’”
The king replied, “The two waters each goes their own way, the
former does not speak to the latter (and the latter also does not speak to
the former).”
“The visual-consciousness is just like the water. The
visual-consciousness does not speak to the mental-consciousness, ‘You
should follow (713b) me to arise.’ The mental-consciousness also does
not speak to the visual-consciousness, ‘I will follow you to arise.’ The
visual-consciousness and mental-consciousness do not speak to each
other. This is called sloping down. It is the same with regard to ears,
nose, tongue, body and mind.”

(2) “What is ‘the existence of a door’?”228 the king asked again.


“It is like a great city229 with only one gate and a person in the
city wants to go out. From where can he go out?”
“He can go out through the only gate.”
“And if another man also wants to go out, how could he go out?”
“Certainly he should go out from the only gate by which the first
man has gone out.”
Then Nngasena said, “O great king, would the first man say to the
second man, ‘You should follow me,’ or would the second man speak to
the first man, ‘I will go out from the gate by which you go out.’ Would
the two men speak to one another thus?”
“They would not speak to each other thus.”
“The consciousness is like the door. The visual-consciousness
does not speak to the mental-consciousness, ‘You should follow me to
arise,’ and the mental-consciousness also does not speak to the
visual-consciousness, ‘I will follow you to arise.’ The
visual-consciousness and mental-consciousness do not speak to one

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another. This is called the existence of a door. It is the same with regard
to ear, nose, tongue, body and mind.”

(3) The king asked Nngasena, ‘What is ‘walking along the rut’?”230
Then Nngasena again asked the king, “Suppose, the first cart
would go and leave a rut, then how should the second cart go?”
“The second cart should follow the rut left by the first cart,”
“Would the first cart tell the second, ‘You should follow my rut, or
would the second cart tell the first, ‘I will follow your rut.’ Do the two
carts speak to one another thus?”
“No, they do not speak to one another thus.” said the king.
“It is the same with regard to man. The visual-consciousness does
not speak to the mental-consciousness, ‘Where I arise, you likewise
arise,’ and the mental-consciousness also does not speak to the
visual-consciousness, ‘Where you arise, I will likewise arise.’ It is the
same with regard to ear, nose, tongue, body and mind. They do not
speak to one another thus.”

(4) The king said to Nngasena, “What is ‘arithmetic’?”


Nngasena replied, “Here arithmetic means valuation. The sciences,
writing, etc. are included in arithmetic.231 When the eyes, the ears, the
nose, the mouth, the body and the mind work little by little, one knows.
So due to the coming together of the six things, there arises knowledge.
Knowledge cannot arise from only one of the six things.”
“Excellent Nngasena.”

21. Contact
The king said to Nngasena, “does feeling: painful or pleasant arise
together with visual apperception ?”232

Thera Nngasena replied, “The eyes and the feeling: painful or pleasant
feelings arise together due to contact.”233
“What is contact?” the king asked.
“When two things touch each other, that is called contact.” “It is
like two rams butting together, one ram is like the eye, the other is like
the material form. So contact is called ‘union’. Suppose one hand is the
eye, the other is the material form, (713c) the contact or coming
together of the two hands 234 is called ‘union’. It is also like two
stones,235 one is like the eye, the other is like the material form, the
contact or coming together of the two stones is called union. It is the
same with regard to eyes, ears, nose, tongue,236 body and mind, the

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contact or coming together is called union. It is also like two237 stones,
one is like the mind, the other is like the mind-object,238 the coming
together of the two stones is called union. It is the same with regard to
the coming together of mind and mind-object. This is called union or
coming together.
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

22. Feeling
The king said to Nngasena again, “What is the characteristic of feeling
(lit: happiness)?”239
Elder Nngasena replied, “To experience it by oneself is feeling (lit:
happiness). It is like a man who renders a service to the king. The man
is intelligent and good, so the king bestows money and material things
on him. Then the man, having obtained such things, uses them for his
own happiness and does whatever he pleases to do. The man thinks to
himself, ‘I have rendered a service to the king and received a reward.
Now, I have obtained happiness and happiness is such.”
Nngasena again gave a simile, “It is just like in the case of a man
who does meritorious deeds by mind, by word of mouth and by bodily
action. Thus having done good deeds, the man is reborn into the heaven
of bliss on the dissolution of the body after death. While living in
heaven in full possession and enjoyment of all the pleasures of sense, he
will think to himself, ‘Formerly in the world, I have done good deeds
by mind, by word of mouth and by bodily action, as a result, now I have
been reborn here experiencing pleasures and enjoyment to the utmost.’
This is called being experienced.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

23. Apperception
The king asked Nngasena, “What is ‘apperception’?”240
Nngasena replied, “Knowing is apperception. 241 It is like the
storekeeper or the treasurer of the king. When he enters into the
storehouse, he sees and knows himself how much there is in the
store — coins, gold, silver, gems, silken fabrics, cotton, mixed scents,
mixed colours.242 He also knows where the things are put. This is
called ‘apperception’.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

24. Volition
The king asked Nngasena, “What is thought?”243

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Nngasena replied, “When a thought occurs to a person, that is
because he has done something.244 It is like a person who prepares
poison and also drinks it himself, and then makes others drink it. He
himself would suffer bodily pain and others also would. It is also like a
person who does evil deeds and after the dissolution of the body, he will
be reborn in niraya hell. And also, those who follow his advice or
teaching would be reborn in niraya hell. The evil person thus thinks and
speaks.245
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

25. Initial Investigation


The king asked Nngasena again, “What is reflection (lit:
inner-move)?”246
Nngasena replied, “When the mind gives rise to thought,247 then there
is a reflection (lit: inner-move).”
“How does the reflection (lit: inner-move) give rise to
investigation?”
“It is like a copper vessel or bronze plate when beaten248 by a
man, it makes a sound. When it is raised up, it still gives out lingering
sound.249 The man is also the same, when the mind is active, then
thought arises. When the plate is beaten, it is called reflection, when it
gives sound, it is called investigation.”250
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

26. Inseparability of Dharmas


The king asked Nngasena, “When those conditions come together, can
they be separated again, as this is union,251 this is wisdom,252 this is
thought,253 this is mind,254 this is motion?”255
Then Nngasena said, “If they come together, they cannot be
separated again. Suppose, the king were to ask his cook to make
delicious soup in which there are water, meat, onion, garlic, ginger, salt
and glutinous rice.256 Then the king were to ask his cook, ‘Pick out for
me as before cooking, the flavours of water and then of the meat,257 of
the onion, of the ginger, (714a) of the salt and of the glutinous rice from
the delicious soup that you have made’. But the soup has already been
made, could the cook pick out the flavours one by one and give them to
the king?”
“No, once the soup has been made with all these flavours, they
could not be separated one from the other.”258
Then Nngasena said to the king, “All these things (as discussed
above) are also the same. Once they have been united together, they

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cannot be separated, as this is painful and pleasant feelings, this is
wisdom, this is motion and this is thought.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

27. Taste of Salt Known by the Tongue


The king again asked Nngasena, “Can a man know the taste of salt with
his eyes?”
Nngasena said, “O great king, you know whether one can know
the taste of the salt with his eyes.”
Then the king said, “The eyes do not know the taste of the salt.”
Nngasena said, “A man knows the taste of salt by his tongue, not
by his eyes.”
“Do all people know the taste by their tongue?”
“People all distinguish different tastes by their tongues”
The king asked, “Is the taste of all salt to be known and
distinguished only by the tongue?”
“Yes, the taste of all salt is to be known and distinguished by the
tongue.”
“There is salt brought by chariots and there is also salt brought by
cows, can the chariots and cows know the taste of salt?”
“The chariot and the cow cannot know the taste of the salt.”
“Can the taste of salt be weighed?” asked the king.
“Is it the king’s knowledge to weigh the taste of salt?”
Then the king replied, “The taste of salt cannot be weighed, but
the weight of salt can be weighed.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”259

28. Spheres of Apperception


The king again asked Nngasena, “Are the five nyatanas (lit:
knowledges)260 of a man produced by261 various actions or by one
action?
Nngasena replied, “They are produced by various actions, not by
one action. It is just like when five kinds of seeds have been sown in a
field, they would grow each according to its own kind. So are the five
knowledges of a man, they are produced by various actions.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

29. Difference of Men due to Karmas


The king asked Nngasena, “In this world, all men are complete with
head, beard, hair, skin, face, eyes, ears, mouth, nose, body, and the four
limbs of arms and legs, but why among them, some are of long life,

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others of short life; some have many diseases, others have few diseases;
some are poor, others are rich, some are noble, others are mean; some
are from large families, others are from small families;262 some are
handsome, others are ugly; some enjoy the confidence of others, others
are suspected; some are intelligent and filial, others are stupid; why are
they not the same?”
Nngasena replied, “It is just like the fruits of the same kind of
trees, some are acid, astringent; some are bitter, some are pungent, some
are sweet, some are really sour.”263
“Why are they different since all are produced from the same kind
of trees?” asked Nngasena.
The king replied, “They are different, because their seedlings are
different.”(714b)
“It is just the same with regard to man. Because each person
thinks differently in his mind264 so people in this world have various
differences. Some have a short life, others have a long life; some have
many diseases, others have few diseases; some are rich, others are poor;
some are noble, others are mean; some are from large families, others
are from small families; some are handsome, others are ugly; some
speak words of confidence, others speak useless words; some are
intelligent, others are stupid.”
Then Nngasena said, “That is why the Buddha said: ‘In
accordance with one’s own good and bad actions, one will reap the
results. Among them, some are rich, others are poor; all are due to their
actions, good and bad done in the past. They will reap the results
respectively according to their virtue.”265
“Excellent, Excellent, Nngasena.”

30. Doing Good to Obtain Subsequent Benefits


The king asked Nngasena again, “Suppose a man were to do good deeds,
should he do it before (death) or should he do it after (death)?”
“He should have done it before, because the good deeds done after
(death) are not so beneficial to him, but the good deeds done before are
beneficial to him.”266
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Suppose, O great king, when you
were thirsty and want to drink, and you ask your men to have a well dug
out, could that meet the king’s thirst?”
“Certainly not, it cannot meet the immediate thirst of the king.
The well should be dug beforehand.”
“It is the same with regard to a man, if a man were to do (good

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deeds), he should have done it early. If he does it late, it is not beneficial
to him.”
Nngasena again asked the king, “Suppose, when the king feels
hungry, then he asks his men to plough the field, to manure it and to
sow crops.267 Could his belly be filled by doing so?”
“Certainly not, there should be saving of grains.”
“It is the same with regard to a man, he should have done good
deeds in advance. If he does good deeds only when he is in danger, it is
not beneficial to him.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Suppose, the king has an
opponent and when he suddenly confronts a battle without preparation,
could the king order people to train horses, elephants and men in
warfare and also to make weapons?”268
The king replied, “No, those things should have been prepared in
advance. Then the king could go out to the battle at any moment. If the
war has broken out already, it is useless for the king to ask his people to
train horses, elephants and men.”269
Nngasena said, “Thus the Buddha has said in the scriptures,
‘People should strive to perform bodily good actions before (disaster
strikes), as good actions performed afterwards are not useful or
beneficial.’ “[O great king,]270 you should not give up the right path
and adopt the wrong path, do not follow the ignorant ones who discard
good and performs evil and who have to lament and wail afterwards, it
is of no use. People who discard righteousness and adopt
crookedness271 are going to repent on their death-bed.”272
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

31. Hell Fire and Ordinary Fire


The king asked Nngasena again, “Revered Sir, your ‰ramaØas say that
the worldly fire is not as hot as the fire in the hell of niraya. Your
‰ramaØas also say if a small stone is put into ordinary fire, even it there
until the evening, it cannot be melted away. But even if a large stone put
into the fire of niraya hell, can be melted immediately. This is a
statement that I cannot believe. (714c) Your ‰ramaØas also say if a man
has done (great) demeritorious deeds, and is reborn in the hell of niraya,
for thousands of years, he cannot be burnt to death. This, too, is a
statement that I cannot believe.”

(1) Nngasena then asked the king, “Have you heard, O great king, in the
sea when the female-serpents, female dragons, female tortoises, female
crabs273 are pregnant, they eat sand and stones as food?”

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“Yes, they take (sand and stone as) food.”
“Can the sand and stones be consumed in their stomach?”
“Yes, they can be consumed.”
“But can the embryos in the womb, too, be consumed?”
“No, they cannot be consumed.”
“Why can’t they be consumed?”
“It is due to the superior potency274 of their former deeds that
they are not consumed.”
Nngasena said, “So does the man in niraya hell, he is not to be
melted to death for thousands of years, because the demeritorious deeds
he has done are not exhausted.”275

(2) Nngasena again asked the king, “Lionesses, tigresses, female dogs,
female cats,276 who all eat meat and swallow bones in their stomach,
are the bones consumed?”
“Yes, they are all consumed.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Are the embryos in their belly to
be consumed also?”
“No, they cannot be consumed.”
“Why can they not be consumed?”
“It is due to the superior potency of their former deeds that they
are not consumed.”
Nngasena said, “People in niraya hell are the same. They are not
to be burnt to death for hundreds and thousands of years, because the
demeritorious deeds done by them are not exhausted.”277

(3) Nngasena asked the king again, “When cows, mares, she-donkeys,
tailed deer, doe278 are pregnant, do they all eat grass, hay as food?”
“Yes, they eat grass and hay as food.”
“Are the grass and hay all consumed in their belly?”
“Yes, they all are consumed.”
“Are the embryos in their belly all consumed?”
“No, they cannot be consumed.”
“Why can’t they be consumed?”
“It is due to the superior potency of their former deeds that they
are not consumed.”
Then Nngasena said, “People in the niraya hell are the same.
Because their demeritorious karmas are not exhausted, so they are not
to be destroyed to death.”

(4) Nngasena asked the king again, “Women of high rank and ladies of
rich families279 all eat delicious and nice food, is the food all digested

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in their belly?”
“Yes, it is all digested.”
“But when they are pregnant, are the embryos in their belly
consumed also?”
“No, they cannot be.”
“Why can they not be consumed?”
“It is due to the superior potency of their former deeds that they
are not consumed.”
Nngasena said, “People in niraya hell are the same. They are not
to be consumed for thousands of years, because the demeritorious deeds
done by them in previous births have not been exhausted.” Nngasena
continued, “If a man is born in niraya hell, there does he grow up, there
he grows old, and he does not die until that evil karma is exhausted.”280
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

32. Wind Element Supporting Water Element


The king asked Nngasena again, “Your people say that the earth rests on
water, water (715a) rests on air, and air rests on space.281 These words,
I cannot believe.”
Then the elder Nngasena took the writing ink(?)282 of the king
and held the pot of writing ink upside down with three fingers and
asked the king, “Is the water in this pot supported by atmosphere?”
The king said, “Yes, it is supported by the atmosphere.”283
“So is the water (on earth) supported by air.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

33. On NirvnØa
The king asked Nngasena, “What is nirvnØa? Is it that all having gone
past, there will be no more becoming?”
Nngasena replied, “nirvnØa is that in which there is no more
becoming.284 Ignorant people come yearning for, craving for (sense
pleasures of) the inner and outer bodies.285 Therefore they are not set
free from old age, sickness and death.”286 Nngasena continued, “Wise
men, those who have learnt the dharma, do not cling to the internal and
external pleasures of the body, and also have no craving. Having no
craving, they have no sense desire. Having no sense desire, they have
no pregnancy. Having no pregnancy, there is no birth and no old age.
Having no birth and no old age, there is no sickness and no death.
Having no sickness and (no death), they have no grief, no lamentation;
having no grief and no lamentation, they have no inner pain, they thus

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obtain nirvnØa.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

34. Spiritual Practitioners’ Attainment of NirvnØa


The king asked Nngasena again, “Can all the learners of the dharma
attain nirvnØa?”
Nngasena replied, “Not all the learners of the dharma can attain
nirvnØa. Those who rightly endeavour to the meritorious path, learn and
know the right thing, practise what should be practised and give up
what should not be practised, think what should be thought, eradicate
what should not be thought, will attain nirvnØa.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

35. On NirvnØa as Happiness


The king asked Nngasena, “Venerable Sir, does he who has not attained
the path of nirvnØa know that nirvnØa is the ultimate happiness?”
Nngasena replied, “Yes, he knows it, though he has not attained
nirvnØa, but he still knows that nirvnØa is happiness.”
“But how can he know that nirvnØa is happiness without attaining
it?”
“Now what do you think, O Sire? Do those whose hands and feet
have not been cut off, know how painful it would be to have them cut
off?”287
“Yes, though they have not had their hands and feet cut off, they
still know the painfulness of cutting off their hands and feet.”
“But how do they know it is painful?”
“Well, they know it by hearing the sounds of the lamentation of
those whose hands and feet have been cut off.”
“Just so, O great king, (with regard to nirvnØa), it is by hearing
the glad words of those who have attained nirvnØa, that they who have
not attained nirvnØa, know that nirvnØa is the ultimate happiness.
Because of this they believe it.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

36. Existence of the Buddha


The king asked Nngasena again, “Have you, Venerable sir, seen the
Buddha?”
Nngasena replied, “No, Sire, I have not seen the Buddha.”
“Then have your teachers seen the Buddha?”
“No, Sire, my teachers also have not seen the Buddha.”

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“Then Venerable Nngasena, since you and your teachers all have
not seen the Buddha, there is certainly no Buddha.”
“But great king, have you seen the place where the five hundred
waters come joining together?”
“No, I have not seen it.”
“Then have your father and grandfather seen the water?” (715b)
“No, none of them have seen it.”
“Then, since you, your father and grand father all have not seen
the place where the five hundred waters come joining together, there is
certainly no such a place in the world where five hundred waters come
joining together.”
“Though, my father, grandfather and I have not seen such waters,
there are definitely such waters.”
“(In the same way), though my teachers and I have not seen the
Buddha, definitely the Buddha existed.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”
(Here ends the second chapter)

Chapter III
37. Incomparability of the Buddha
The king asked, “Is the Buddha incomparable?”
Nngnsena replied, “Yes, the Buddha is incomparable.”
“But how do you know that the Buddha is incomparable?”
“Now what do you think, O great king? Would those who have
never seen the great ocean, know that the ocean is great? There are five
great rivers, and to each of them, there are also five hundred small
tributaries. The five great rivers are: 1) the Heng, 2) the Xinta, 3) the
Sita, 4) the Pocha and 5) the Shipii.288 The waters of these five great
rivers flow to the ocean day and night, but the water in the ocean
neither increases nor decreases.”
Then Nngnsena asked the king, “O great king do you know about
this?”
“Certainly, I know.” said the king.
“Because those who have attained enlightenment have spoken of
the incomparability of the Buddha. So I believe it.” said Nngnsena.
“Excellent, Nngnsena.”

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38. On How to Know the Buddha’s Incomparability
The king asked Nngasena, “How do you know, Venerable Nngasena,
that the Buddha is incomparable?”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Who is the master in writing
books?”
“The master who wrote books is called Zhi.”289
“Have you, O king, ever seen the master Zhi?”
“Zhi died long, long ago. I have never seen him.”
“O king, you have never seen Zhi, then how do you know that Zhi
is the master in writing books?”
“Because the ancient books and writings are handed down to us.
By that I know he is called Zhi.”
Then Nngnsena said, “In the same way, he who sees the scriptures
and disciplines, 290 sees the Buddha. The scriptures and the path
preached by the Buddha are very profound and would lead to happiness.
Those who have learned the Buddha’s scriptures and discipline, in turn,
teach others. Therefore I know that the Buddha is incomparable.”
The king asked Nngasena, “Have you seen for yourself the
Buddha’s teachings which should be practised for a long time?”
Nngasena replied, “The teachings and the discipline explained by
the Buddha are so excellent291 that (715c) I should practise it up to my
old age.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

39. Difference Between Rebirth and Reincarnation


The king asked Nngasena, “Is the old body not reborn when a man
dies?”
Nngasena replied, “When a man dies, he receives a new body, the old
body is not reborn.” Then the Thera Nngasena gave a simile, “It is just
like the interchange of two wicks of a lamp, the old wick still remains,
the new one is lit. It is the same with regard to the body of a man. The
old body does not transmigrate, but he receives a new body.” Then
Nngasena asked the king, “Have you, O king, learnt the ancient
scriptures from a teacher when you were a boy?”
“Yes.” said the king.
“O king, when you learnt the scriptures from your teacher, did
your teacher still have the knowledge of these scriptures when he comes
across these scriptures?”292
“Yes, my teacher still has the knowledge of these scriptures.”

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“So is the body of a human being. It gives up the old body and
takes the new one.”
“Excellent, Nngnsena.”

40. On Good and Bad Actions


The king asked Nngasena again, “Is there a soul?”293
Nngasena replied, “There is no soul.” Then Nngasena gave a simile,
“Suppose a man were to steal another man’s fruit. Is the thief guilty?”
“Yes, he is guilty.” said the king.
“When the fruit tree is planted, there is no fruit on it. Then how
can you say that the thief is guilty?”
“Suppose, if the trees were not planted, then how can there be
fruit? Therefore the thief is guilty.”294
“So it is for men. By performing good and bad deeds with this
body in the present life, he will be born in the next life and obtain a new
body.”
“Where are the good and bad deeds done by this old body295
when he is reborn with a new body?” asked the king.
Then Nngasena said, “The good and bad deeds done by a man
always follow him, just like the shadow follows the body. When a man
dies, only his body is dissolved, but his deeds remain. It is just as when
a man writes under a lamp at night, when the fire is extinguished, the
writing still remains. When the fire is lit again, the writing can be seen
again. Thus, the deeds done in this life lead to the formation in the next
life and then the doer receives the result accordingly.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

41. On Whereabouts of Good and Bad Deeds


The king asked Nngasena, “Could anyone point out where these good
and bad deeds are?”
Nngasena replied, “No one can point out where these good and
bad deeds are.” Then Nngasena asked the king, “Is it possible to point
out which branch will bear fruit when the fruit tree has not yet borne
fruit? Could anyone foretell it?”
“Certainly not, Sir.” the king said.
“So, a man who has not yet attained the path cannot foretell where
the good and bad deeds are.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

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42. Knowledge of Rebirth
The king asked, “Does he who is about to be reborn know that he
will be reborn?”
Nngasena replied, “Yes, he who is to be reborn knows it.”
“But how can he know it?”
“It is like the farming family which sows the seeds, and also it
rains in time. Does the farming family know that there will be plenty of
grain?”
“Yes, they know that there will be plenty of grain.”
Then Nngasena said, “So does a man, O king, he who is about to
be reborn knows that he will be reborn.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

43. The Buddha’s Whereabouts after ParinirvnØa


The king asked Nngasena again, “Is there nirvnØa?”(716a)
Nngasena replied, “Yes, there is nirvnØa.”
“Can you, Nngasena, point out where the Buddha is?”
“No, I cannot point out where the Buddha is since the Buddha has
already attained parinirvnØa.296 It is impossible to show where the
Buddha is.” Then Nngasena gave a simile, ‘Suppose, a man has lit a fire.
When the fire has been extinguished, can anyone point out where the
fire has gone?”
“No one can.” said the king.
Nngasena said, “The Buddha has attained parinirvnØa and it
cannot be pointed out where the Buddha has gone.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

44. The Function of a ÌramaØa’s Body


The king asked Nngasena again, “Is the body dear to ‰ramaØas?”
Nngasena replied, “No, the body is not dear to the recluses.”
“If the recluses love not their bodies, then why do they, when
taking rest, sleeping, want to be comfortable; when eating, want
palatable and delicious food. They take good care of themselves?”
“But O great king, have you ever been to the middle of a
battlefield?”
“Yes, I have been to the battlefield.”
“Have you, O king, ever been wounded by knife, spear or arrow?”
“Yes, I have been wounded by knife.”
“Then, how did you, O king, treat the wound which was caused
by knife, by spear, or by arrow?”

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“I treated the wound by anointing it with balm and bandaging it
with cotton and wool.”
“Then, O great king, it is because the wound is dear to you that
you treat it by anointing it with balm and bandaging it with cotton and
wool?”
“No, it is not dear to me.”
“If the wound is not dear to you, then why do you treat it so
carefully by anointing it with balm and bandaging it with cotton and
wool?”
“I only want the wound to get cured quickly. I do not love the
wound.”
Then Nngasena said, “So are the recluses. They do not love their
body. Although they have to eat, have to drink, yet their mind does not
cling to it, they do not want their food to be delicious, to be well
prepared or for the beauty of the skin. They just want to keep the body
going, so as to follow the Buddha’s teachings and precepts. In the
BuddhasÊtra, it says, ‘There are nine apertures on man’s body, and they
are like nine wounds caused by a spear. The nine apertures are
ill-smelling and impure.”297
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

45. The Thirty-two Marks of the Blessed One


The king again asked Nngasena, “Is it true that the Buddha was
endowed with the thirty-two bodily marks and graced with the eighty
subsidiary characteristics?298 Was his body golden in colour with a
glorious halo?”
Nngasena replied, ‘Yes, it is true that the Buddha was endowed
with the thirty-two bodily marks and graced with the eighty subsidiary
characteristics. His body was golden in colour with a glorious halo.”
“But were his parents also endowed with the thirty-two bodily
marks and the eighty subsidiary characteristics. Were their bodies
golden in colour with a glorious halo?”
“No, the parents of the Buddha had not such characteristics.”
“If the parents of the Buddha had no such characteristics, the
Buddha had also no such characteristics.” The king continued, “People
give birth to children who have similar features to their parents. If the
parents of the Buddha had no such characteristics, the Buddha surely
had no such characteristics.”
Then Nngasena said, “Although the parents of the Buddha had not
the thirty-two bodily marks and the eighty subsidiary characteristics,
with golden colour and a glorious halo, yet the Buddha surely had such

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characteristics.”
Nngasena asked the king, “Have you, O king, seen the lotus
flower?” (716b)
“Yes, I have seen.”
“The lotus flower is born of the earth, grows up in mud and water,
it is beautiful and fragrant. But does the lotus flower resemble the mud
and the water of the lake, either in colour or in smell?”
“No, it does not resemble the earth, the mud and the water (of the
lake), either in colour or in smell.”
Nngasena then said, “Although the parents of the Buddha had no
such characteristics, the Buddha had all such marks and characteristics.
The Buddha was born in the world, grew up in the world, but not
similar to the worldly people.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

46. Relation between the Buddha and Brahman


The king asked Nngasena again, “Is the Buddha’s conduct similar to the
brahmn, the king of the seventh heaven, having no intercourse with
women (brahmacariya)?”
Nngasena replied, “Yes, the Buddha keeps away from women, so
he is pure without any defilement.”
“If the Buddha’s conduct is the same as that of the conduct of the
brahmn, the king of the seventh heaven, then the Buddha is a follower
of the brahmn, the king of the seventh heaven.”
“But, O king, has the brahmn, the king of the seventh heaven,
thought [buddhi]?”
“Yes the brahmn, the king of the seventh heaven, has thought.”
“Then, the brahmn, the king of the seventh heaven and the higher
heavens all should be the followers of the Buddha.” Nngasena asked the
king, “What is the cry of a bird299 like?”
“A bird’s cry is like the cry of a wild goose.”
Then Nngasena said, “If so, birds are the disciples of wild geese.
But in fact, they are of two different kinds. It is the same with regard to
the Buddha, he is not the disciple of the brahmn of the brahmn world.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

47. The Buddha’s Teacher


The king asked Nngasena again, “Did the Buddha learn, know and
practise the dharma and precepts?”300
Nngasena replied, “The Buddha did learn, know and practise the
dharma and precepts.”

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“Then from what teacher did the Buddha receive the dharma and
precepts?”
“The Buddha had no teacher. When the Buddha attained
enlightenment, he knew by himself the dharma, the path, unlike the
disciples who had to learn and know the teaching from the Buddha.
They needed to practise it till old age.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

48. Two Kinds of Tears


The king asked Nngasena, “A man cries and sheds tears on the death of
his parents, another man also laments and sheds tears while listening to
the teachings of the Buddha.301 In these two cases, are they different?”
Nngasena replied, “He who weeps for his parents is due to his
attachment, his thinking of his grief, sorrow and suffering. This kind of
sorrow is the sorrow of the ignorant people. He who weeps while
listening to the sermon of the Buddha is full of compassion. As he
thinks of the sufferings in the world, so his tears come out. He would
obtain the great merit.
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

49. The Emancipated Versus the Non-emancipated


The king asked Nngasena again, “What is the difference between one
who is emancipated and one who is not emancipated?”302
Nngasena replied, “He who is not emancipated has attachment and
desire in his heart. He who is emancipated is without attachment and
desire in his heart and he eats food only for the sake of keeping alive.”
“I see people in the world craving for bodily pleasure, delicious
food, and never being satisfied.”
“He who is not emancipated wants to take delicious food for his
fame, his happiness and good taste. But he who is emancipated takes
food (716c) not for his pleasure, not for its delicious taste, but only for
the sake of keeping the body alive.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”303

50. Memory and Mind


The king again asked Nngasena, “Why does one recollect, what is past
and done long ago?”
Nngasena replied, “When a man is sorrowful, he recollects the
things that took place in the distant past.”304
“How does he recollect it, by the mind305 or by the memory?”306
“Do you, O king, recollect business that you have done in the

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past?”
“Yes, I learnt something, but later I forgot it.”
“At that time, O king, were you without a mind307 and therefore
you have forgotten?”
“At that time, I was without mindfulness.”
“So then, great king, you have mindfulness.”308 said Nngasena.
The king again asked Nngasena, “Is there mindfulness when a
man does something, be it in the past or present? Are all things known
by mindfulness?”
“The past things are remembered by memory, and the present
things are also remembered by memory.”309
“Thus people only remember past things, but can’t they remember
new things?”
“If things newly done cannot be remembered, then there is no
mindfulness.”
“Do people who newly learn books and crafts remember?”310
“People who newly learn books and arts have memory. So the
disciples who have learnt would know. Therefore there is memory.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.” 311

51. The Sixteen Ways of Memory


The king asked Nngasena again, “In how many ways does memory
arise?”
Nngasena replied, “Memory arises in sixteen ways:
1) From things done in the distant past, memory arises;
2) From newly learnt things, memory arises;
3) From great events, memory arises;
4) From thinking of good, memory arises;
5) From thinking of what one suffered, memory arises;
6) From thinking personal (things), memory arises;
7) From diverse acts committed in the past, memory arises;
8) From teaching somebody, memory arises;
9) From the specific mark, memory arises;
10) From remembering, memory arises;
11) From consciousness,312 memory arises;
12) From calculating, memory arises;
13) From incurring debt,313 memory arises;
14) From concentration, memory arises;
15) From reading books,314 memory arises;
16) From seeing again something entrusted to others, memory
arises.

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These are the sixteen ways that memory arises.
1) The king asked Nngnsena, “How does memory arise from
things that had taken place in the distant past?”
“The Buddha’s disciple Ðnanda and lay woman devotee,
Jiu-chou-dan-ba 315 have the power to remember the things that
happened in their previous births. Other disciples have the power to
remember the things that happened in their former birth. Venerable
Ðnanda has so many women devotees. By remembering this, memory
arises.”316
2) “How does memory arise from newly learnt things?”317
“Just as a man who has learnt accountancy but later forgets it.
When he sees another person doing accounts, memory arises.”
3) “How does (717a) memory arise from great events?”
“Suppose, a prince is crowned as king, he remembers the
greatness and the magnificence (of the ceremony). This is memory
arising from great events.”
4) “How does memory arise from thinking of good things?”
“Suppose, a man has been received heartily as a guest and he
thinks to himself thus, ‘I was once received warmly and heartily’. This
memory arises from thinking of good things.”
5) “How does memory arise from thinking of what one has
suffered?”
“When one remembers that one was beaten or was thrown into a
prison, memory arises.”
6) “How does memory arise from thinking personal (things)?”
“If one sees a similar person or animal, he remembers his parents,
family, relatives, or domestic animals. This is memory arising from
thinking.”318
7) “How does memory arise from diverse acts committed in the
past?”
“When one remembers the names of people, various things in the
world, different kinds of letters, material forms, good or bad smell,
sweetness, bitterness (that he has seen, or heard, or smelled or tasted),
memory arises.”
8) “How does memory arise from teaching somebody?”
“When a person is happy, he forgets people living in fringe areas,
or he remembers some and forgets others. When he remembers the
people he has forgotten, memory arises.”
9) “How does memory arise from a specific mark?
“People remember men, cows, horses by their specific marks.319
This is memory arising from a specific mark.”
10) “How does memory arise from remembering?”

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“Just like people who suddenly forget what they have done, then
by recalling it again and again, memory arises.”
11) “How does memory arise from consciousness?”
“Those who have learnt books by heart, know and remember
words. This is memory arising from consciousness.”
12) “How does memory arise from accounting?”
“One who is trained in accountancy knows the method very well.
This is memory arising from accounting.”
13) “How does memory arise from incurring debt?”
“As when one has seen goods deposited nearby as a security, one
remembers one’s indebtedness. 320 This is memory arising from
incurring debt.”
14) “How does memory arise from concentration?”
“A monk with concentration of the mind can recall the things
experienced by himself in the past thousands of lives. This is memory
arising from concentration of the mind.”
15) “How does memory arise from reading books?”
“The kings have very old books, when reading those books, he
would refer to such a king of such a period. This is memory arising
from reading books.”321
16) “How does memory arise from seeing again something
entrusted to others?” (717b)
“If one has entrusted something to somebody, when he sees it
again, his memory arises. This is memory arises from seeing something
again after it has been entrusted to others.”322
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

52. The Buddha’s Omniscience


The king asked Nngasena again, “Does the Buddha know the things in
the past, present and future?”
“Yes, the Buddha knows all.”
“If the Buddha knows everything, then why does he not teach all
(he knows) to his disciples? Why does he teach them little by little?”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Are there physicians in the
country?”
“Yes, there are.”
“Do they know all medicines in the world?”
“Yes, they know all the medicines in the world.”
“But when they treat a patient, do they give him the medicine all
at once or little by little?”
“If a man is not sick, the physician cannot give him the medicine
in advance. It is only when there is sickness, then the physician gives

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him the appropriate medicine.”
Nngasena said, “Although the Buddha knows things in the past,
present and future, he cannot teach all (that he knows) to people in the
world. So he taught (his disciples) the dharma and vinaya323 little by
little and asked them to follow and practise accordingly.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

53. Power of Single Mindfulness of the Buddha


The king asked Nngasena again, “Your monks say, ‘If anyone who does
evil deeds in the world for a hundred years, at the time of dying, he will
be reborn in heaven after death if he has even one thought of the
Buddha.324 These words I cannot believe. (Again they say), ‘He who
should takes the life of a living being would fall into the hell of Niraya.
These words I cannot believe either.”
Nngasena asked the king, “Suppose, a man were to put a small
stone into the water. Would the small stone float on the surface of the
water or sink into the water?”
“The small stone would sink.”
“If a hundred large stones were put into a boat, would the boat
(stones) sink?”
“No, they would not sink.”
Then Nngasena said, “As a hundred large stones in a boat would
not sink, a man with one thought of the Buddha325 will not fall into the
hell of niraya, but be born in heaven even though he had done evil
deeds in the past. The small stone that sinks is like people who do evil,
but do not know the dharma of the Buddha. When they die they will fall
into the hell of niraya.”326
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

54. Aim of ÌramaØahood


The king asked Nngasena again. “For what purpose do your people
learn the dharma and become monks?”
Nngasena replied, “For the purpose of eradicating past suffering,
present suffering, and not wanting to experience it again in the future, I
learn the dharma and become a monk.”
“Future suffering has not yet happened, so why do you prepare to
learn the dharma and become a monk?”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Are there, O great king, rival
countries and opponents who might rise up against you?”
“Yes, there are rival countries and opponents who frequently rise
up to fight with me.”

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“Then, is it when the enemies are coming, that you, O king, set to
work, to have weapons prepared, watch towers erected, moats dug, or
are they all prepared earlier?”
“All these had been prepared already.”
“But why had they been prepared beforehand?”
“Because the enemies might come at any time.” (717c)
“The enemy has not come yet, why do you prepare it?”
Nngasena again asked the king, “Is it when you are hungry, then
you sow, when you are thirsty, then you dig a well?”
The king said, “It should be done beforehand.”
Then Nngasena said, “For a man who is not thirsty, why should he
prepare it beforehand?”327
“Excellent, Nngnsena.”

55. An Arhat’s Ability to Travel


The king asked Nngasena again, “How far is it from here to the brahmn
world?”
Nngasena said, “It is very far. Suppose a rock as large as the
palace of the king were to fall from the brahmn world, it would take six
months328 to reach the earth.”
“Your ‰ramaØas say that a man who has attained arhathood flies
to the brahmn world, as quickly as (a strong man) could stretch forth his
bent up arm or have it bend again. These words I could not believe.
How could he go thousands and thousands of li329 so fast.”
“O great king, in which country were you born?”
“I was born in the country of Da-qing330 named A-li-san.”331
“How many li is it from here to A-li-san?”
“It is about two thousand yojana,332 equal to eight thousand li.”
“Do you, O great king, think of your country which is far away
from here?”
“Yes, I always think of things in my country.”
“O king, try to recollect any business you once did in your country.
Have you done so?”
“Yes, I have done so.”
“So quick it is, O great king, you have gone and returned, a
distance of about eighty thousand li.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

56. Duration of Taking Rebirth


The king asked Nngasena again, “Suppose, two men were to die here
simultaneously, one were to be born in the brahmn world, another were

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to be born in Kashmir, about seven hundred and twenty li from here.
Which of the two arrive first?”333
Then Nngasena asked, “Both would arrive at their own place
simultaneously.”
“How can they arrive simultaneously, since the two distances are
so different?”334
“Then, O king, try to think of A-li-san country again.”
“Yes, I have done so.”
“Then, O king, try to think of Kashmir again.”
“Yes, I have done so.”
“Well which one of the two countries did you think of quicker?”
“The two are equal.”
“Just so, O great king, if two men were to die simultaneously, one
were to be born in the brahmn world, and the other were to be born in
Kashmir, the two men would arrive simultaneously.”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Suppose, two birds were flying,
one were to alight on a tall tree, the other on a small shrub. If they were
to settle down simultaneously, whose shadow would first fall on the
ground?”
“The two shadows would fall on the ground simultaneously.”
“Just so, O king, if two men were to die simultaneously, one were
to be born in the brahmn world, another were to be born in Kashmir,
they would also arrive simultaneously.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

57. Seven Kinds of Wisdom


The king asked Nngasena again, “By how many ways does one need to
learn the path?”
Nngasena replied, “one needs to learn the path in seven ways.
What are the seven? They are: 1) thinking of good and evil things, 2)
exertion or energy, 3) taking delight in the dharma, 4) to subdue (718a)
the mind to do good, 5) thinking of the path, 6) concentration of the
mind, 7) to take things without attachment or hatred.”335
“Is it to know the path that all these seven ways are practised?”
“No, not by all these seven ways does one learn. The wise who
can distinguish good and evil learn the path only by wisdom.”
“Then if one can know the path by just one way, why are the
seven ways all preached?”
Nngasena asked the king, “Suppose, a man were to put a sword in
its sheath and place it against a wall, could it cut off anything by itself?”
“No, it could not cut anything by itself.”

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“Even so, Sire, a man, though intelligent, can achieve wisdom
only with the help of the other six ways.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

58. Merit and Demerit


The king asked Nngasena again, “Does a man who performs good deeds
obtain more merit, or does a man who performs evil deeds obtain more
demerit?”336
Nngasena replied, “The man who does good deeds obtains more
merit, the man who does evil deeds obtains less demerit. Because when
a man does evil, he repents it himself daily, therefore his offence
diminishes daily. But when a man does good, he rejoices it day and
night, so he obtains merit more.”

Then Nngasena said, “Formerly in the country where the Buddha


was living, there was a man without hands and feet. He took some
lotuses and offered them to the Buddha. The Buddha then told the
monks thus, ‘This man without hands and feet will not fall into the hell
of niraya, the animal kingdom, nor the kingdom of hungry ghosts in
ninety-one kalpas.337 He will be born in heaven, then after his merit is
exhausted in the heaven, he will be reborn as a man again,’ That is why
I know that if people do little good deeds, they will obtain great merit, if
they do evil, they will repent and their (offence) will diminish and be
extinguished. Thus I know that when people do evil, their demerit is
small.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

59. Doing Evil Knowingly and Unknowingly


The king asked Nngasena again, “Who gets greater demerit, a wise man
who does evil, or an ignorant man who does evil?”
Nngasena said, “The wise who does evil obtains less demerit, but
the ignorant who does evil obtains more demerit.”338
“I do not think so.” said the king, “In my country, according to the
law, if a minister commits offence, he will be punished gravely, but if
an ignorant man commits an offence, he will be punished lightly. So
(according to this), the wise who do evil get greater demerit, and the
ignorant who do evil get less demerit.”
Nngasena gave a simile, “Suppose, a very hot metal were lying on
the ground, one man knows that it is a hot metal, but the other man does
not know. If the two men were both to take hold of the hot metal, whose
hands would be burnt more?”

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“The hands of the man who does not know it, would be burnt
more.”
“Like this, ignorant people who do evils without knowing it will
not repent it. Therefore their demerit is greater. But the wise people who
do evil know that it should not be done, so they repent their offence
daily. Therefore their demerit becomes less.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

60. The Supernormal Power of Arhats


The king asked Nngasena again, “Is there anyone who, with his
physical body, could go to the brahmn world or to Yu-dan-yue339 or any
other place as he wishes to go?”
“Yes.” said Nngasena.
“Then, Sire, how (718b) could a person with his physical body go
to the brahmn world or to Yu-dan-yue or any other place as he wishes to
go?”
Then Nngasena asked the king, “Do you remember, O great king,
that you have ever jumped one zhang in playing when you were small?”
“Yes when I was young, if I wished to jump, I could jump more
than a zhang.”340
“In the same way, he who has attained the path could go to the
brahmn world or to Yu-dan-yue with his physical body if he wishes.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

61. On the Very Long Bone


The king asked Nngasena again, “Your ‰ramaØas, Sir, say that there are
bones as long as 4000 li.341 What kind of animal would have bones
4000 li long?”
Nngasena said, “Have you, O great king, heard that in the sea,
there is a kind of large fish called a ‘zhi’,342 whose body is 28000 li
long?” 343
“Yes, I have heard of such fish.”
“Yes, if there is a kind of fish whose body is about 28000 li long,
its ribs are 4000 li long, are you, O great king, still surprised?”
(“Excellent, Nngasena.”)344

62. On Stopping to Breathe


The king asked Nngasena again, “Your ‰ramaØas say, ‘I can stop my
breathing’. How can he stop his breathing?”
“Then have you ever heard of ‘zhi’ — life principle?”345
“Yes, I have heard of it.”

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“Is the life principle inside the body frame of a person?”
“Yes, I consider that the life principle is inside the body frame of a
person.”
Then Nngasena said, “O king, the ignorant man cannot control his
body and speech, cannot follow the dharma and precepts. Such a man
does not love his own body.”346 Nngasena continued, “People who
learn the dharma can control their body and speech, follow the dharma
and precepts, and can obtain one-pointedness of the mind. Thus they
attain the 4th dhynna state. So can they stop their breathing?”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

63. On the Ocean


The king asked Nngasena again, “There is the expression the ocean. Is it
because of the water or other reasons that it is called the ocean?”
Nngasena replied, “It is so called the ocean by men, because there
is just as much salt as water and just as much water as salt.”
“Why is the ocean all of one taste, the taste of salt?”
“The water in the ocean is so salty because it has been so for a
very long time, and because fishes, turtles and other insects make it
dirty.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

64. Power of Wisdom


The king asked Nngasena again, “Could one who has attained the path,
ponder over all subtle, deep and complicated matters?”
Nngasena replied, “Yes, one who has attained the path can ponder
over all subtle, abstruse and profound matters. The buddhadharma is
the most abstruse and profound teaching which contains all aspects of
knowledge. All those things can be divided (or analyzed) by wisdom.”
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

65. No Soul in the Physical Body


The king asked Nngasena again, “Are the soul347 of a man, wisdom348
and life principle349 the same or different?”
Nngasena said, “The soul of a man knows,350 wisdom realises the
351
Path, and life principle is without a permanent entity.”352
“If there is no life principle, then who (718c) sees material forms
with eyes; hears sounds with ears; smells odours with nose; tastes
flavour with mouth; feels coarseness and smoothness with body and
knows good and evil with the mind?”

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Then Nngasena asked, “If the life principle can see with eyes, then
when pupils are plucked out, can it see farther and wider? When ears
are torn open and enlarged, can it hear farther and wider? When the
nose is dug out to make it bigger, can it smell odour farther and wider?
When the mouth is widely open, can it know the taste farther and wider?
When the skin is cut and peeled off, can it feel coarseness and
smoothness? When the mind is removed, can thought become
numerous?”
“No.” said the king.

66. The Infinity of the Buddha’s Knowledge


Nngasena said to the king, “What is difficult to do, sire, was done by the
Buddha. What the Buddha knew is very subtle.”
The king asked Nngasena again, “What was done by the Buddha
that is difficult to do, what are the things that the Buddha knew that are
subtle?”
“The Buddha said that he knew and could explain what is inside
the body of a man, which cannot be seen by (human) eyes. He
understood things concerning the eyes, things concerning the ears,
things concerning the nose, things concerning the mouth, things
concerning the body; he understood destruction, doubts, things
concerning the mind353 and things concerning the spirit.”354
“Suppose a man were to take some water from the ocean into his
mouth, would he know that such portion of it is the water from such a
spring, such portion is the water from such a stream, such portion is the
water from such a river?”
The king said, “All the waters have mingled into one, it is very
difficult to distinguish them.”
“What the Buddha has done is very difficult. He knew the taste of
different waters. Now of the ocean water which is before the eye, the
king still could not know, (how much less so when it comes to) the
spirit which cannot be seen and the six things which are inside the
body.”
“That is why the Buddha understood all things from the matter of
mind355 to what is seen by the eyes, heard by the ears, smelt by the
nose, tasted by the mouth, felt by the body, pleasant, unpleasant, cold,
hot, course, smooth. From the mind to physical factors to everything
that is alike, the Buddha knows and analyses them all.”356
“Excellent, Nngasena.”

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67. Concluding Section
Nngasena said, “It is past midnight, I have to go back.”
Then the king ordered his attendants to have four rolls of cloths357
dipped in oil to serve as torch and sent Nngasena to his temple saying,
“You all should respect and attend to Nngasena as if attending me.” The
attendants replied, “Yes, Sire.” The king said, ‘To have such a teacher
as Nngasena and such a pupil like me, the realization of dharma will be
quick.’
As all the king’s questions were given suitable answers by
Nngasena, the king rejoiced. So the king ordered clothes worth 10,000
(coins) to be offered to Nngasena from the treasury. The king said to
Nngasena, ‘From now on, you, together with 800 ‰ramaØas will be
daily invited to my palace for meals and also provided with whatever
you desire.”
Nngasena then told the king, “I am a recluse who has no desire.”

“Venerable Nngasena, you should protect yourself and also protect


me.”
“What do you mean, by protecting myself and you?”
“Because I am afraid (719a) that people would blame me of being
miserly by saying, ‘Nngasena has solved the king’s doubts, but has not
received anything from the king’. People might also blame you saying,
‘Nngasena was unable to solve the king’s doubts, so the king has not
offered him anything.’” The king continued, “If you, Venerable
Nngasena, accept my present, I would earn great merit, and you would
protect your fame as well. Just as a lion which is kept in a golden cage
will always want to go out. Now, I am a king in the palace, but my mind
is not happy. So I want to leave the country and learn the dharma.”
After the king had finished his speech, Nngasena got up and
returned to the temple. When Nngasena had just left, the king pondered
by himself over what questions he had asked Nngasena and what
answers had been given by Nngasena. Then the king thought, ‘The
questions put by me were well replied to and explained by Nngasena.’
And Nngasena likewise, when he returned to the temple, thought the
matter over to himself, ‘Whatever questions put to me by the king, I
have replied them all.’ He thought to himself, ‘I explained all the
questions put by the king.’ Nngasena thought over these matters until
morning. The next day, Nngasena robed himself, took his begging bowl,
entered the palace and sat in the royal Hall. The king first paid homage
to Nngasena, then sat down and said, ‘Venerable Nngasena, as soon as
you had left, I thought to myself about what I had asked Nngasena and

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what Nngasena had replied. Then it occurred to me that whatever I
asked, Nngasena explained them well. These thoughts kept me happy up
to the morning. Nngasena also said (to the king), ‘After I had returned to
the temple, I also thought over what the king had asked me, and what I
explained. I had explained all. These thoughts kept me happy up to the
morning.’ Having said that, Nngasena wanted to depart, and the king
paid homage to Nngasena.
(Here ends the whole of Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra)

Acknowledgement
Here I express my special thanks to Dorothy Ho and Jan Nicola who
have tirelessly proofread my translation several times and made
numerous corrections.

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Notes
1
There are two versions of the text found in T32, No. 1670 (a), (b), pp. 694-719. I have
selected the version (b) of the Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra as the basis of my translation since
it is the complete one. Whatever the differences in version (a) are noted in footnotes.
Although the text clearly states that it is a series of discussions held between King
Menander and the Sage Nngasena, it is still called ‘sÊtra’. This shows that the
transmitters regarded it as an authoritative text equal to the words of the Buddha.
2
This remark was first appeared in Fei Zhangfang’s Lidai Sanbaojin ᖵ‫ז‬Կᣪધ
(Catalogue of Triratana through Dynasties) compiled in A.D. 597.
3
All dialogues in the original Chinese translation are without heading or subheading.
For the purpose of easy reference, the present translator has added all the headings with
numbers.
4
Note that this text, though it is called a ‘sÊtra’, does not begin with ‘Thus I have heard’,
‘Eva— mayn ‰rutam’, instead, it starts with ‘the Buddha (once) dwelt in Ìrnvast–’.
5
At the time of the Buddha, there were various religions and philosophies. In the Pnli
tradition, they are referred to as the sixty-two views while in Mahnynna scriptures, the
number becomes ninety-six. For more information see the Brahmajnla Sutta of Pnli
D–ghaniknya, ත೯ᆖ and քԼԲߠᆖ in D–rghngama of the Chinese Tripi‚aka T1,
no.01, 88b13-94a13.
6
In NBS-A, it states merely, “In the deep forest” and “Jiao-luo” (ீᢅ) is omitted. Mr.
Takakusu, in his Chinese translation of Milindapaxha, uses “Kiao-lo”. In his footnote, he
explains “kosala, ‘black pepper’? Or do the three characters stand for a name something,
pongamla glabra.” JRAS, 1896, p.5. But in another place, it mentions “Tao Luo” (ᙰᢅ)
in NBS-A. So according to R. Higata, it probably is ‘thÊla’ in Pnli, ‘sthÊla’ in Sanskrit.
According to Prof. Demieville, ‘ீᢅ’, or ‘ᙰᢅ’ probably is a transliteration from the
Sanskrit word ‘snla’. He quotes much evidence to prove his point. In Madhyamngama,
bhadrasnla is translated as ၐॲധᢅ ; in Mah–‰nsakavinaya, bhadrasnla is translated
as ၐॲധᢅ; in SÊtrnla—knra, snla is translated as ധᢅ. BEFEO XXIV. 1924, p.76.
7
Demieville gives it as vŠk™adevatn, BEFEO XXIV. 1925, p.76.
8
NBS-A does not contain not these words “among them, there were males and females,
long-toothed, midium-toothed and small-toothed.” In his footnote of the Chinese
translation of Milindapaxha, (JRAS, 1896, p.6) Takakusu says: these may be “advanced
in age, middle-aged and young.”
9
This is the page number of the Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra in Taisho Edition, volume 36.
Here the author of NBS perhaps refers to the Kosambi incident when the Buddha left the
monks and went into forest alone.
10
Here the Chinese word is xin (֨) literally heart (hŠdaya), but it sometimes means
mind (citta), sometimes heart.
11
Yi Jing, a Chinese traveller to India (A.D. 671-695), mentions “cankrama” (meaning
“act of walking”) of the Nalanda monastery in his Record of Buddhist Practises in India
and the Island of the Southern Sea.
12
Here NBS-B: the Chinese word is “ֲ” which means “day”, but NBS-A: it is “ֳ”
which means “speak”. According to the context, it should be day, not speak.
13
The Chinese phrase “ྤ੡ࣽ੘ሐ” literally means “actionless nirvnØa path”. NBS-A:
bo ni huan ౳ࣽ੘ which means parinivnØa.
14
૫ᢅ੘ , Demieville says: “Sans doute Kalavana.” BEFEO XXIV. p.77.
15
Here in NBS-A, it gives the six fast-days as 8th, 14th, 15th, 23rd, 29th, 30th. I
translate jing (ᆖ) as sÊtra, but in many passages in our text, this term corresponds to

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dharma. That is why this word sometimes is translated as ‘sÊtra’ and sometime as
dharma as the context demands. In this case it is not a method of reading prntimok™a but
of recitation of Vinaya rules. According to Mahnvagga, the prntimok™a was not recited on
the 8th, 14th, 23rd and 29th days of every month. On the contrary, it was recited on the
days of upavasatha. The recitation was authorised (as Kern, Histoire du bouddhisme en
Inde II, pp. 205-206 shows). In a passage, concerned with the days of upavasatha, (A i.
p.142; p.170.) the Chinese text of Ekottarngama, (T1, 64b) specifies the 8th and 14th
days of each half of a Month, as being the days of fasting. The 15th is the day for
recitation of the Vinaya. According to the Vinaya of Mah–‰nsaka, the Buddha, on the
suggestion of King Bimbisara, fixed the days of upavasatha as follows: “It is permitted
on the 8th and 14th days of a month to preach the Law, on the 15th days to celebrate the
upavasatha, that is to say to recite the prntimok™a. The bhik™us did not know what law
was to be preached, so the Buddha says, ‘the triple gem should be praised, then
smŠtyupasthnna, then sa—yakpradhnna, then Šddhipnda, then indriyabala, then the path
to enlightenment. For all the dnnapatis, the devas should be praised.” Another series of
20 days was recognised by the Dharmaguptaka (؄։৳ TT. XV. 5. 31a): the Buddha,
on the suggestion of Bimbisara, fixed the 8th, the 14th and 15th days for the meetings in
imitation of those of Brahmacnrins (ත‫)ݳ‬: ‘the bhik™us, who came to these meetings,
observed silence. Then the master told the bhik™u: ‘we wish to live by listening to the
law.’ The Buddha gave permission to preach the law. They did not know which law was
to be preached. The Buddha said: ‘From now on it is permitted to preach these sÊtras.’
Then the bhik™u wanted to meet at night in order to preach the law, the Buddha permitted
this, but the bhik™u did not know which days they should meet. The Buddha said: ‘it is
permitted to hold meetings on 15th, 14th, 13th, 10th, 9th, 8th, 5th, 3rd, 2nd, and 1st days
in order to preach the law. Then the Buddha instituted the recitation of prntimok™a on the
days of upavasatha, the 14th and 15th days of each fortnight. So following the royal
instructions of the king, changes were made on the days. See also BEFEO, Vol. XXIV,
1924, p.78.
16
NBS-B: २࣍‫ڝ‬ᢰ, near the monastery; NBS-A:ַ࣍‫ڝ‬խ living in the monastery.
17
NBS-B: ᗼࡴ, the district magistrate, NBS-A: ᣬ, according to Takakusu, it should
be ᣬ़ ‘lodged in mid-air’ as an adjective referring to the “human life.”
18
In NBS-A, It is “seek after the path of arhat for nirvnØa”. There is no “saving the
world”.
19
NBS-A omits “His parents”.
20
ᚦᥞ, Pnli: Milinda, Greek: Menandre. See QKM i, p.xviii.
21
NBS-A: here has “who wished to become a ‰ramaØa to seek the quiet path of nirvnØa
for arahatship”.
22
NBS-A omits “in the district of Kashmir.”
23
Dharma or dharin which means keeping, here it probably means Nngasena kept his
skin robe with him when he was born.
24
NBS-A: it says “ۚ๮ᇓ” which means “skin robe”. This means that Nngasena was
born with a skin robe.
25
NBS-A omits “in consequence of his vow made in his former life.”
26
This is added by the translator as an explanation.
27
߷٣, Sanskrit: Nngasena. The passage of introduction of the former lives of
Menander and Nngasena is totally different from that in the Pnli text.
28
ᑔዧ the corresponding Pnli word is Rohana who is Nngasena’s mother’s brother, but
in Pnli version, Rohana is not Nngasena’s uncle, he is sent by God Assagutta to ordain
Nngasena in order to defeat King Menander.

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29
NBS-A adds “He had already attained arahathood”. According to the Pnli text, Rohana
is also an arahat.
30
NBS-A: divyacak™u, Demieville, p.83.
31
NBS-B: divya‰rotra, ibid.
32
That means he knew his former life.
33
Thich Minh Chau understood the Chinese word ‘ྤၴ’ as ‘Never ceasing Hell’, which
is, in fact, not the correct meaning of the word here in this context. Demieville renders it
as ‘interstice’ (slit), see BEFEO. Vol. XXIV, p.83.
34
NBS-B only mentions five of the six higher knowedges (Skt: abhijxn, Pnli: abhixxn),
which possessed by Louhan except the last one. They are (1) supernatural power (Skt:
Šddhi-viddhi, Pnli: iddhi-vidhn), (2) the divine ear (Skt: divya‰rotra, Pnli: dibba-sota), (3)
penetration of the minds of others (Skt: paracittajxnna, Pnli: ceto-pariya-xnØa), (4)
memory of former existences (Skt: pÊrvanivnsnnusmŠti, Pnli: pubbe-nivnsnnussati), (5)
the divine eye (Skt: divyacak™us, Pnli: dibba-cakkhu), and (6) extinction of all cankers
(Skt: n‰ravak™aya, Pnli: nsavakkhaya). This means that Louhan is not an arhat yet.
NBS-A mentions also ‘knowing others’ previous births’, but it misses the first two higher
knowedges of seeing distant things and hearing distant sounds. So NBS-A is corrupted.
35
Here Nngasena loved the Buddha’s teaching and wanted to become a ‰rnmaØera, but
in the Pnli version, it is said that Nngasena wanted to learn the best hymn, so he became a
‰ramaØa under Rohana.
36
Nngasena, when he was an elephant, had done good deeds by serving the Buddha and
listening to the recitation of the sÊtra.
37
Here the Chinese word is ‘૞’ which means essence, gist etc in this context. This word
is not found in NBS-B, but in NBS-A.
38
Nngasena had not become a bhik™u yet. This sentence is not found in NBS-A.
39
NBS-A: it is Ho-zhan (ࡉᖏ), NBS-B: Ho-chan (ࡉ᛽), in Song edition of the Chinese
tripiaka, it is Ho-dan (ࡉⵟ). Pnli: vattaniya.
40
⶛ॶֳ, ‘Anboyue’ Aspayutta, Skt: A‰vagupta = Pnli: Assagutta? See Demieville,
p.84.
41
Here both NBS-A and NBS-B are the same, “precept sÊtra” which means the bhik™u
precepts. According to the Buddhist tradition, monks should recite their precepts,
prntimok™a, every fortnight. Anyone who has violated the rules should confess before the
assembly of bhik™us. In accordance with his offence, he is to be punished. He will be
expelled from the saœgha if he has violated the four main rules, which are not to take life,
not to steal, not to have sex and not to lie. He is temporarily expelled from the saœgha if
he has violated any of the 13 saœghndisesas, and he should confess his offence before the
assembly as a punishment if he has violated the other minor rules. See Vinaya VI.
42
‘SÊtra of Parables’ is not found in NBS-A. But in the Tripi‚aka of the Northern
tradition, there is a sÊtra called SÊtra of the Parables in which parables were collected
from the Tripi‚aka and then was compiled into a single book.
43
According to the Buddhist tradition, novices (‰rnmaØera) are not allowed to attend the
fortnight prntimok™a recitation. Therefore Nngasena had such a thought. But here we are
not sure whether Nngasena had obtained the higher ordination yet. In the text, it just says
that Nngasena came for higher ordination, so it is not clear.
44
Anboyue was an arahat and so he had the ability to read other’s mind. Therefore he
knew Nngasena’s thoughts.
45
In the text, it is “Anboyue wanted to ask Nngasena to stay...”
46
NBS-A: ‫ף‬ፂֳ, NBS-B: ૫൫ֳ , Kavigupta?

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47
In the Pnli text, it is not a upnsaka, but a upnsikn who gave alms to Jawiyue for thirty
years.
48
Here “‰ramaØa” probably means the Buddhist monk.
49
In NBS-A, it says, “no one preaches the dharma to me”. Here it is in contrast with
NBS-B. But according to the tradition, after a meal, monks should give some short talks
on dharma to those who offered the meal.
50
Here NBS-A omits ‘of wisdom and of intelligence’.
51
Here NBS-A adds ‘in a poor family’.
52
They are the hell, hungry ghosts and animals.
53
Here NBS-A omits the passage “But if a person does not observe the dharma and
moral precepts, he suffers in the present world and in the next life, and will fall into the
three realms for an indefinite period.” Here the NBS-A is in accordance with the
Buddhist teaching because after the bad karma is exhausted, the person can be reborn
somewhere else.
54
Here the Chinese word is “෡ᆖ”, which means the philosophy of the Buddha’s
teaching. But the Pnli text states that Nngasena taught the devotee on the Abhidhamma.
55
This sentence is not found in NBS-A.
56
Here Nngasena preached to the upnsaka by means of a gradual method of talking,
anuppubbekathn, starting from the topic of giving, and gradually to the philosophy of the
Buddha’s teaching. This is a usual method of preaching of the Buddha. See Mahnvagga, I,
7, 5 (Vin., Vol.I, p.15)
57
Here the agreement of the monks in Hochan monastery is perhaps that of taking alms
from the upnsaka’s house without preaching, because we saw earlier that Nngasena’s
teacher asked him to go to the upnsaka’s house to take alms with his mouth filled with
water. It means that Nngasena should not speak. And also in NBS-A, the upnsaka told
Nngasena, “I have been offering alms to monks for a long time, but no one preaches the
dharma to me.” (see also note 49)
58
Here Nngasena should not be expelled from the saœgha, because according to the
Vinaya rules, only the one who violated the four main precepts (not to kill any form of
life, not to take what is not given, not to commit sexual act with any woman and not to
tell a lie about being an arahat when he actually is not an arahat) is to be expelled from
the saœgha, not otherwise. If one has violated the 13 saœghndisesa, he is temporarily
suspended from the saœgha.
59
Here in the text, the Chinese word ‘ᤝ໧ᆖ’ can be translated in two ways: one is
‘SÊtra of Parables’ (in the present translation. About this sÊtra, see also note No.42),
another is ‘simile’. But NBS-A here has no ᆖ ‘sÊtra’.
60
Here in the Pnli version, Venerable Assagutta ‘burst forth into applause’ when he knew
that both Nngasena and the laywoman devotee had obtained the fruit of stream-winner by
his dhamma vision.
61
According to Mahnvagga, a monk should confesses himself before the assembly
publicly when he has violated the precepts.
62
Here the four kings of the first heaven (P: tnvatimsa, Skt: trnyastri—‰a) are: East
DhŠtarn™ra who keeps his kingdom, colour white; South Virʘhaka, the god of increase
and growth, blue; West VirnjpƗk™a, red; North Vai‰ravaØa, the god who hears much and
is well-versed, yellow, but the king of all gods is Ìakra. Then there follows the second,
the third, the fourth, the fifth, the sixth, the seventh heavens, and Mahnbrahma is at the
top.
63
ॐጣ, Pnli: sngala.
64
इ, Pnli: sankheyya. Miln, p.22.

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65
This includes wandering teachers, Brahmins, the heads of some schools or Order or
the master of some bands of pupils.
66
Օ఻, Yonaka, or Bactria.
67
It literally means “internal and external”.
68
NBS-B: the Chinese word is Chen-men (ଊ॰), which means weathy people who have
vehicles, but in the Gun edition, it is Po-men (ॶ॰). Demieville misunderstood it as a
transliteration of ‰ramaØa. Here the author of NBS tried to list all classes of Indian
people.
69
Here NBS-A omits “In the palace... ordinary people”.
70
This sentence is omitted in NBS-A.
71
This sentence is also omtted in NBS-A.
72
Here the Pnli text far excels the Chinese text in its description of Sngala although all
the details in the Chinese text are found more or less in the same form in the Pnli text.
The description of the city of Sngala in the Pnli text is far better than the Chinese
counterpart in richness, details, romantic background and in dazzling style.
73
This reference to the past, present and future might suggest the inclination of the
Chinese text toward Sarvnstivnda theory “sarvam asti.”
74
“Arts of warfare” is omitted in NBS-A.
75
The description of Menander’s outstanding virtues in the Chinese version is far less
impressive than the Pnli version which says that Menander was learned in nineteen arts
and sciences which is not found in both Chinese versions.
76
According to a Japanese scholar R. Kiyohara who translates NBS into Japanese, the
portion in brackets is added later. KIK. Vol. 76. p.329. But Fang Guangchang thinks that
it is a transposition as he informed me personally. It should be placed before section 8
King Menander’s learning. We will see it in the right place. Before this portion, it is a
description of King Menander’s learning, and Manander asked his minister if anyone
could converse with him on religious matters. And after the description of Sngala, this
dialogue continues on again, and the minister directed Menander to Ðyupala.
77
Here NBS-A omits this portion, “at that time.... I am the king.”
78
This sentence is omitted in NBS-A.
79
Zhan-mi-li, Pnli: Devamantiya, Greek: Demetrios? Wang-qun, Pnli: Mankura, Greek:
Pakor? GBI, p.422.
80
ມࡉᢅ, Pnli: nyupala.
81
The Pnli version gives the name of the monastery as “sankheyya” where Ðyupala
lived.
82
NBS-B has ࢘ਙ, loyal government, or loyal; but NBS-A has խ‫ إ‬meaning
righteousness or justice, which is in accordance with Miln, p. 19: dhammncariya.
83
According to the Subha Sutta of the Majjhimaniknya, a similar question was put to the
Buddha by a Brahmin named Subha: Is it the monk or the layman who can succeed in
attaining what is right, just and good, the Buddha says that in this particular context
(ettha), it is necessary to give an analytical answer. For what determines the answer is not
whether the person is a monk or a layman but the practice of good conduct (sammn
patipanna). M ii 197. The same is also found in the Chinese translation of the
Madhyamngama:πխॳܶᆖρร 152 ᆖπᨽᣘᆖρ ΚϘᐰ౏Δૉ‫ڇڶ‬୮֗‫נ‬୮ᖂሐ
۩‫ृ۩إ‬Δ‫ݺ‬ጠᎅ࢖Ζࢬ‫ृא‬۶Λૉ‫ڇڶ‬୮֗‫נ‬୮ᖂሐ۩‫ृ۩إ‬Δ‫ؘ‬൓࿳ᇞΔঞव
‫ڕ‬ऄΖਢਚΔᐰ౏Δૉ‫ڇڶ‬୮֗‫נ‬୮ᖂሐ۩‫ृ۩إ‬Δ‫ݺ‬ጠᎅ࢖Ζϙ(CBETA, T01, no.
26, p. 667, a28-b3)
84
These twelve divisions of Buddhist scriptures are recognised by the northern tradition
as against to the nine divisions recognised by the southern tradition. The twelve divisions

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are SÊtra, Geya, VynkaraØa, Gnthn, Udnna, Ityuktaka (P: Itivuttaka, Skt, ItivŠttaka),
Jntaka, Vaipulya, Adbhutadharma, (the above are nine divisions) Nidnna, Avadnna,
Upade‰a.
85
In classical Chinese, there are no paragraphs and punctuations in a passage. Therefore
for a scholar to read classical Chinese, he should be able to make out paragraphs and
sentences by punctuating the given passage. So this part is perhaps added by the Chinese
translators.
86
Here “He could dispel all doubts and could enlighten the speculators” is omitted from
NBS-A.
87
“A place of refuge and an object of respect for the wise men” is omitted from NBS-A.
88
In the Pnli version, the number of monks that followed Nngasena was up to 80,000.
89
“I am not as great as Nngasena” is omitted from NBS-A.
90
In NBS-A, it is the king who came forward and exchanged greetings and compliments
of friendship with Nngasena. This should be the tradition of the elders, no matter
whosoever comes, monks should not go out and exchange greetings first.
91
This paragraph is missing in Miln. In our text, Nngasena started to preach first, but in
the Pnli text, the king asked the name of Nngasena first. This passage is quoted from the
Chinese Dharmapada, chapter thirty-six on nirvnØa, T4, P.573a, but the wording is
slightly different. Also see Dhammapada, verse no. 204.
92
NBS-A: ଈ߷٣, Shou-na-xian; NBS-B: ଈᢅ٣, Shou-luo-xian, Pnli: Surasena.
93
Here the Chinese word is “ᠱ‫ ”ۥ‬which literally means “complexion”. Demeiville
translates as ‘external appearance’. BEFEO. Vol XXIV. 1924. p. 97. Miln, p.26: rÊpa.
94
Here the Chinese word is “ેᑗ” which literally means suffering and happiness. Miln,
p.26: vedann.
95
Here the Chinese word is “࿳༞” which literally means “meritorious deeds and
demeritorious deeds.” Miln, p.26: saxxn.
96
Here the Chinese word is “ߪ” which literally means “body”. But in the text, it is one
of the five aggregates. Miln, P.26: saœkhnra.
97
Here in Buddhist scriptures, a man usually is analyzed into five aggregates as form,
sensation, apperception, volitional formation and consciousness. Due to the combination
of these five, a person comes into being.
98
This passage is quoted from Sa—yuktngama, T2, p.327b. But in the Pnli version, it is
attributed to a nun called Vajira, S i,135.
Just as when the parts are rightly set,
The word ‘chariot’ is spoken,
So when there are the khandhas,
It is the convention to say ‘being’.
99
Here in the Pnli version, there is one more dialogue regarding the years of Nngasena’s
ordination, Miln. p.28. This dialogue seems to be natural and suits the situation. As King
Menander was a layman as well as a foreigner, he would naturally raise a question such
as this, ‘How many years have you been a monk?’ It seems that this section of the
dialogue is missed out in the Chinese version.
100
Here the Chinese has “ཕृ” which literally means “wise ones”. That means the wise
men.
101
Here the Chinese has “ᧀ၆” which literally means “an arrogant and high rank
person.” Here it means ‘the king’. In NBS-A, it adds one more, “a foolish man”. This is
not found in either NBS-B or the Pnli text.
102
Here the meaning in the text is not clear. Thich Minh Chau renders it as “The wise
men speak words of contention, words of explanation, words that are high, words that are

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low, words that bring in victory, words that bring about defeat, right words, wrong
words.” MNBS, p.49.
103
Here in NBS-A, there is one more, “when a foolish man talks, he does not know
words that are correct, words that are incorrect, and tries to win over by inconsiderate
compulsion.”
104
This is very strange, because earlier, at the beginning of this discussion, it is said that
Nngasena already went to the palace. But here it again says, “to invite Nngasena to the
palace.” These discussions might have been held several times, not once.
105
Here the Chinese word ‘qian’ (⥡) literally means ‘stingy’ or ‘miserly’, probably a
transliteration from the Sanskrit word ‘datta’ or Pnli word ‘dinna’. For instance, tissa is
transliterated into Chinese as ‘zhi’ (⎜), p.97. Pnli: sabbadinna, Miln, p.29; dinna, p.56.
There is much dispute over the name sabbadinna as to whether the person was a Greek
or not and if the person was a Greek, then what is the corresponding Greek word for it.
According to W. W. Tarn, sabbadinna is probably from the Greek word sabbadotos, ‘the
gift of (the goddess) sabba’. ‘Dinna’ is a mere adjustment. GBI p.423.
106
Here sabbadinna said three times: “Let him come with ten.” According to W.W. Tarn,
“This number only has meaning in reference to the ten Alexander-questions, and
presumably comes from the Greek questions of Menander (which no doubt, like the
questions of Ptolemy II, were not confined to ten questions); what sabbadinna in effect
says is ‘you ought to follow the Greek tradition’ and Menander says ‘No’. GBI, p.433.
107
This simile is omitted in NBS-A.
108
According to Demieville, ‘ߪխࠃ’ corresponds to the Pnli knyasa—khnra, Miln,
p.31.
109
Here the Chinese word is “֨ࠃ” which literally means the matter of the heart.
Because the Chinese word “֨” means heart. In the old days, Chinese people, and
perhaps people of other parts of the world also, thought that it is the heart that thinks, not
the mind.
110
This sentence is omitted in NBS-A.
111
The Pnli version has the king, not the county magistrate.
112
Here the Pnli version adds one more, “some go forth for fear of thieves.” In her
translation of Milinda’s Questions, I. B Horner gives a reference in the footnote, ‘As at M
i,463; S.iii.93.’ P.42.
113
This pair of question and answer is not available in NBS-A.
114
NBS-A is ‘ԫ࢚֨‫إ‬ऄ’ which literally means ‘thinking of saddharma whole
heartedly’, but NBS-B is ‘ ԫ ֨ ࢚ ‫ إ‬ऄ ࿳ ’ which literally means ‘thinking of
righteousness and virtue whole heartedly’. Demieville translates it as ‘Si un homme pense
a la Loi correcte et au bien en unifiant sa pensee’. Here he translates ‘‫إ‬ऄ’ as ‘Loi
correcte’. BEFEO 1924, Vol. xxiv, p.104. In Pnli version, it is ‘yoniso manasiknra’,
translated as ‘reasoning’ by Rhys Davids, QKM, p.50; ‘attentive consideration’ by I.B.
Horner, and further, I.B. Horner explains that the Pnli word can be rendered as proper
mind-work, ordered thinking, orderly reasoning, MQ, p.43.
115
NBS-A: ࢚‫إ‬ऄཕᐝ, it literarilly means “consideration of right dharma and
wisdom”, NBS-B: ࢚‫إ‬ऄ࢚࿳ཕᐝ, this literarilly means “considerarion of right
dharma, ku‰ala dharma and wisdom”. The Pnli version speaks of only two factors:
yoniso manasiknra and paxxn. I.B. Horner translates it as “attentive consideration and
wisdom.” MQ. p.43. Rhys Davids translates it as “reasoning and wisdom.” QKM. p.50.
Therefore here right dharma and ku‰ala dharma actually imply the one and same thing.
116
Here it is different from Pnli version which says that animals have reasoning mind,
but not wisdom. Miln, p.32. This is far clearer than NBS-B.

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117
Demieville translated ‘‫ݕ‬ႉ’ as ‘l’obeissance filial’. According to him, it actually
means ‘s–la’. There he quotes from Ekottarngama, (=Aœguttaraniknya, Vol.I, p.61-62),
Fu mu en zhong nan bo Jing (‫ئ׀‬஑ૹᣄ໴ᆖ), Xiao zi Jing (‫ݕ‬՗ᆖ) etc. ‘s–la’ is
translated as ‘‫ݕ‬ႉ’. BEFEO, Vol.XXIV, p.107. 1924. According to H. Nakamura,
“When Buddhism was introduced into China, Buddhism was forced to teach filial piety
to common people. The most important virtue in Confucianism was, of course, filial
piety which expected a one-sided obedience from children, the younger people, in a
family to their parents, who were the venerated ones of the family. This idea, however,
was not excessively emphasized in Indian Buddhism, as can be seen in the original
Sanskrit and Prakrit texts where there is no such term corresponding to the idea of xiao
(‫)ݕ‬, filial piety, although this character is found frequently in Chinese versions of
Buddhist scriptures. Thus the translators must have added this term. This virtue, of course,
which corresponds to the idea of filial piety, is taught in the original Buddhist sÊtra, but
only as one of the virtues and it is not esteemed as the supreme virtue. The Chinese could
not be satisfied with the family moral taught in Buddhism. The concept of the filial piety
in the Chinese sense was not taught in Buddhist sÊtras so that, as a last resort, spurious
sÊtra such as the Fu-mu-en-chung-ching (‫ئ׀‬஑ૹᆖ the “Filial Piety sÊtra”) and the
Tai-pao-fu-mu-en-chung-ching ( Օ ໴ ‫ ئ ׀‬஑ ૹ ᆖ ) which teach filial piety, were
composed.” IB, p.227.
The concept of filial piety is also emphasized in the Ullambana (Yu-lan-pen लᥞ
ઇᆖ in Chinese and Urabon in Japanese) which has acquired great importance among
people of China. The origin of the rites of Ullambana can be traced to scriptures of Early
Buddhism (such as the Tirokuddasutta of the Khuddakapn‚ha). The rite Ullambana was
extolled in the Ullambana SÊtra in which the Buddhist concept of filial piety was
explicitly expressed in the acts of offering for the dead parents. According to C. Iketa,
(Shukyo Kenkyu, published by the Japanese Association for Religious Studies, Tokyo, III,
1, p. 59f.; Prabodh Chandra Bagchi: Le Canon Bouddhique en Chine. Les Traducteurs et
les Traduction. Tome I & II, 1927 & 1938, Paris.), this seems to be a sÊtra, with
additions by Chinese scholars, to the kernel of an original which had been produced in
India.
118
In the Pnli version, the five things are s–la, saddhn, viriya, sati and samndhi, without
thinking of good and wisdom. But in the explanatory passage that followed, paxxn is
there. Here instead of s–la, in the Chinese text, it is “‫ݕ‬ႉ” which literally means “filial
obedience”, but the passage following this explains that “‫ݕ‬ႉ” is the basis for all other
good qualities. So the original Sanskrit of Chinese word “‫ݕ‬ႉ” should be ‰–la, morality
since it is the foundation of all spiritual attainment.
119
Here Wu-e ն༞ also called Wuzhuo նᖼ five hindrances (n–varaØa). In NBS-A
and NBS-B, the five are almost the same with little difference:
1. NBS-A: ⅺ; NBS-B: ຅ⅺ; knmacchanda,
2. NBS-A: ᒑ৷; NBS-B: ᒑὩ; vynpnda,
3. NBS-A: ጕఠ; NBS-B: Ⴐॎ; stynna-middha,
4. NBS-A: ዚᑗ; songs and enjoyment; NBS-B: ᚭᑗ; sports and enjoyment;
auddhatya-kaukŠtya
5. NBS-A: ጊ; NBS-B: ࢬጊ; vicikitsn.
Here the Pnli text just mentions ‘hindrances’ without detail explanation.
120
This name of a river is unidentified. Here the Pnli text does not give a name.
121
According to Demieville, ‘壄ၞᇨॾ’ means ‘the spiritual progress’. BEFEO, 1924,
Vol. XXIV, p.106. Here the Pnli word is ‘sampakkhanda-nalakkhaØa saddhn.’ Rhys

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Davids translates it as ‘aspiration of faith’, I. B. Honer translates it as ‘leaping forward’.
122
NBS-B: ۵壆‫ݬ‬՗۞ઌߠᔘխๅ壆༞֨, “the Buddha’s disciples, having seen
among their colleagues, some have eliminated the evil state of mind,” NBS-A: ۵壆‫ݬ‬՗
۞ઌߠᔘխᎅ壆堚෣, “the Buddha’s disciples, having seen among their colleagues,
some speak of (their) purity.” Here it is ‘ᎅ’, ‘speak’ in NBS-A. Comparing it with Pnli
text, it should be ‘ๅ’ to eliminate.
123
Here R. Higata traces this to the Sa—yuktngama, No.1321, T2, p.365.
124
Here it is ‰–la, which means virtue.
125
ԿԼԮ঴ᆖ is an archaic translation, the new translation being ԿԼԮሐ঴, Pnli:
bodhipakkhiyn dhammn, Miln, p.33.
126
Literally, ؄რַ means “the four resting places of the mind”. This is an archaic
translation.
127
Here the Chinese word is “ᤚრ” which literally means enlightening of the mind.
128
Here NBS-A omits, “the thirty-seven conditions ... the noble eight fold path.”
129
Here in NBS-A: the four states of mindfulness are given in a different way:
1. Contemplation of one’s own body, outwardly and inwardly; 2. the knowledge of
the mind being pleasant or unpleasant; 3. the knowledge of the heart being meritorious or
demeritorious; 4. the knowledge of the right dharma.
The above translation is the archaic translation. According to the new translation,
the four states of mindfulness are: 1. to observe the body which is not pure and which
consists of skin, flesh, blood, perspiration, urine, human waste and other things. 2. To
observe sensation as suffering. Because the five organs come in contact with the five
external objects, one experiences pleasant, unpleasant and neutral feelings. This is the
root of suffering. 3. To observe the mind as impermanent, because the mind changes from
moment to moment and cannot last for two consecutive moments. 4. To observe the
dharma as no-soul or no-self. All dharma are without a self or a soul. So we cannot take
anything as “I” or “the Soul”.
130
Here it is very different from the definition given in the Pnli version. NBS-A
mentions four things which are similar to the Pnli version. The four spiritual exertions are:
to check one’s own mind, to prevent unwholesome dharma from entering the mind, to
remove all unwholesome dharma in the mind and causing wholesome dharma to arise
and to prevent wholesome dharma in the heart from vanishing away. Thus this is closer
to Pnli version.
131
These four psychic powers refer to the four of the six higher knowledges
(callabhixxn). But NBS-A mentions four different qualities: 1. elimination of craving; 2.
exertion; 3. control of one’s mind; 4. reflection or meditation. In his work MNBS, Thich
Minh Chau translates the first one as “wish” instead of elimination of craving.
132
In NBS-A, this is not available.
133
These five mental powers are totally different from the Pnli version. In the Pnli
version, they are: faith, exertion, mindfulness, meditation and wisdom. But NBS-A is
same as the Pnli version.
134
These seven bases of enlightenment are not given in detail in NBS-A. It just says that
again there are seven things which eradicate bad dharma and which are called the seven
wholesome dharmas or the seven factors of wisdom. In Xuanzang’s translation, the last
one is ‘equanimity’, not ‘protection’ as appears in NBS-B.
135
Here this archaic translation uses the word “straight” (ऴ zhi in Chinese) for sammn
in Pnli. But in the later translation, it uses the word “right” (‫ إ‬zheng in Chinese) which is
correct. NBS-A says, “Again there is the noble eightfold path and it is also called A-hou
(ॳᶁ). According to R. Higata, A-hou probably is a transliteration from the Pnli word

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‘aœgika’ or ‘ahaœgika’. KIK. Vol.76, p.339. But according to Demieville, it is probably
from ‘ango’. p.110.
136
NBS-A: ‘८’, gold; NBS-B: ૹ, load.
137
NBS-A: ଠ᪍, NBS-B: ᪍Գ.
138
NBS-A mentions “doing good deeds.”
139
This last pair of question and answer is omitted in NBS-A.
140
This is omitted in NBS-A, only support good qualities is there.
141
These five good qualities and five bad qualities are not given in detail in the text, but
NBS-A mentions clearly that observing the five precepts are the five good qualities.
142
This last sentence is attributed to the Buddha in NBS-A as well as in Pnli version, but
remains untraced in tripi‚aka.
143
Here black means bad, white means good. But in NBS-A, the meaning of this passage
is not clear.
144
Here the Chinese is ‘ߪ’ which means body, but the cravings are in the mind, they
cannot be in the body.
145
The Sa—yuktngama, T2, 56a.
146
Here the Chinese “ԫࠡ֨ “ literally means one-pointedness of the mind.”
147
The Sa—yuktngama, T2, 12b. The quotation in Miln is “Monks develop concentration;
he who is concentrated knows as it really is.” This is a translation given by I.B. Horner,
and she traces this quotation from the Pnli Tipi‚aka, S iii, 13, v, 414; cf. Asl.162.
148
NBS-A: ཕ, NBS-B: ཕᐝ, Miln: p. 39. paxxn.
149
Here this explanation of wisdom is the same as the explanation of wisdom found in
group A.
150
Here the Chinese “壀” literally means ‘spirit’. It can be rendered in several ways as
‘vitality’, ‘the subtle’, ‘recondite’ etc. But in this text, it means the soul, because most
Indian religions believe in a soul. The king would naturally ask about the transmigration
of soul.
151
It literally means turbid (壄ᖼ).
152
This last simile of the guilty man is omitted in NBS-A.
153
According to Demieville, this passage is also found in S ii, p.86.
154
The corresponding Pnli passage is translated by Rhys Davids as: “Just so, O king, is
the continuity of a person or thing maintained. One comes into being as another passes
away; and the rebirth is, as it were, simultaneous. Thus neither as the same nor as another
does a man go on to the last phase of his self-consciousness.” QKM. p.64.
155
Ru-cun (ࠂྞ), milk, Pnli: kh–ra; su (ၥ, ၥሠ), curd, Pnli: dadhi; fei (ॅ), butter, Pnli:
navan–ta; ti-hu (⾗⾕), ghee, Pnli: ghata (Sk: ghŠta). See Demieville, 116.
156
This pair of question and answer is omitted in NBS-A.
157
According to Demieville, ཕ is xnØa, ᐝ is paxxn, or obhnsana. BEFEO. Vol.XXIV,
1924, p.118.
158
The pair of question and answer: “Has the ordinary man intelligence? Yes he has” is
omitted in NBS-A.
159
From here, there is a long passage lost in NBS-A which corresponds from p.709a,
line 23 to p.714a, line 16 in NBS-B.
160
This passage is quite similar to the corresponding Pnli passage, Mlin, p.42. According
to Rhys Davids, this means that an arhat might still be wrong on matters of worldly
knowledge, but would be clear in his mind as to the fundamental truths of religion. QKM.
p. 67.

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161
In his book MNBS, Thich Minh Chau says, “The effects of wisdom are the
understanding of the three characteristics of anicca, impermanence; dukkha, suffering;
anatta, no-soul. The Pnli version also gives the same explanation.
162
According to Demieville, p. 119. ն࿳֨ is the five ‘kusaladhamma’ performed by
the paxca indriya.
163
Here it probably means to have faith in the belief that good brings good effects, and
bad brings bad effects.
164
According to Demieville, BEFEO, vol.XXIV. 1924., p.119, these five kinds of drugs
are given in the Susiddhiknra-sÊtra, a work translated by Subhaknra between 724-730
A.D. We find three versions of the sÊtra in the Taisho Tripi‚aka: 1. KaØtaknr– ॥ಜ૫େ;
2. vŠhati=bŠhat– ֎େျࢍ; 3. saha ଢ଼ျ; 4. sahadeva ଢ଼ࣾ༼ധ; 5. sita-girigairika ࿔
‫ڍ‬ᚵ㠪यେ૫. (CBETA, T18, no. 893b, p. 651, c26-27; no. 893c, p. 689, a24-26) These
five drugs are almost identical as the five drugs found in Vajrasekharayoga translated by
Amoghavajra according to Demieville, but we find these five drugs in the
ParØa‰avar–dhnraؖ(sÊtra) also translated by Amoghavajra: 1. sahacara ധ၅᷒ᦗ; 2.
sahadeva ധ၅ጠᗻ; 3. ka؂knri ৬; 4. girikarØn̓ ⷛେᒾᢅ᷇; 5.vŠhati ֎େ₳၅ࢍ.
(CBETA, T20, no. 1100, p. 449, b13-15)
165
According to Demieville, (BEFEO, Vol.XXIV. 1924, p.121) რ = cetasikn vedann,
Miln. p.44.
166
‘ߪߠ’, the view that there is a real self, is one of the five wrong views. The five
wrong views are: 1) satknyadŠ™‚i, the view that there is a real self, an ego, and a mine and
thine; 2) antagrnha, extreme views e.g. extinction or permanence; 3) mithyn, perverse
views, which, denying causes and effects, destroy the foundations of morality; 4)
dŠ™‚iparnmar‰a, stubborn perverted views, viewing inferior things as superior, or
counting the worse as the better; 5) ‰–la-vrata-parnmar‰a, rigid views in favour of
rigorous ascetic prohibitions, e.g. covering oneself with ashes. DEBT. p.126b. Views are
mental matters, not bodily matters. Demieville translates it as, “Ce qui fait que le corps
eprouve de la douleur, c’est que ce corps existe presentement: voila pourquoi il eprouve
de ladouleur.” BEFEO. vol.XXIV, 1924. The corresponding Pnli passage is ‘tassa
hetussa tassa paccayassa anuparama.’
167
Miln gives the verse as:
I delight not in dying, I delight not in living,
But I wait for the time, as a hireling his wages.
I delight not in dying, I delight not in living,
But I wait for the time, clearly conscious and mindful.
In the footnote, I.B. Horner says, “These verses quoted at DA.810, are attributed to
Sariputta at Theragnthn, 1002, 1003, but these are in reverse order and with one variation.
Cf. also Thag. 20, 196, 606, and Manu, vi.45.” But this has not been traced yet in the
Chinese Tripi‚aka. MQ. p.62.
168
Here in the text, it misses “Nngasena replied”. So it makes the text unclear.
169
According to Prof. Pachow, here in the text it misses a word “ྤ੡” asa—skŠta. The
Pnli text is quite different from the Chinese text. The Pnli text only mentions three
characteristics: “... sukhn vedann kusaln vn akusaln vn abynkatn vn ti”. see Pnli text,
p.45.
170
Here it is difficult to understand. R. Higata says, ‘It has no correspondence in the Pnli
version, so it is probably a mistake of words.’ KIK. Vol. 76, p.344. But he does not say
which word is mistaken.
171
Here in the text, it says, “In the Buddhist scriptures” not as the Pnli version says,
“The subject drawn from Abhidharma.”

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172
໛ joy, ღ sadness; Saœghadeva translates ໛ᐡ; Pnli: somanassa-domanassa.
Vedann feeling is psychological, ે dukkha, ᑗ sukha is in contrast.
173
According to Demieville, BEFEO, Vol. XXIV.1924, p.123, it is religious joy.
174
According to Demieville, BEFEO, Vol.XXIV. 1924, p.123, the text is quoted from
Madhyamngama, translated by Saœghadeva, TT. XII, 7, 7a,b. Here the text mentions four
sets of six things. But according to the passage, there are six sets of six things. The
additional two sets of six things are: The six external things arousing sad feelings in man
and the six things arousing joyful feelings in man.
According to Demieville, BEFEO. Vol, XXIV. 1924, p.123, these six sets of
feelings are, without doubt, interpolated in China. The complete text is found in
Madhyamngama
In the Pnli version, it quotes from the Abhidharma as having six sets of six things
which are different from the Chinese versions. Here I quote the whole passage from I.B.
Horner’s translation, MQ. p.63.
‘Sire, six are these happiness connected with the world, six are the happiness
connected with renunciation, six are the sorrows connected with the world, six are
sorrows connected with renunciation, six are the equanimities connected with the world,
six are the equanimities connected with renunciation — there are these six sets of six.
And there is a thirty-sixfold feeling that is past, and a thirty-sixfold feeling that is future,
and a thirty-sixfold feeling that is present; (so that) assembling them and bringing them
together there are one hundred and eight (modes of) feeling.’ But in the footnote to it, I.B.
Horner traces it as in M I, 397-398; S. iv, 231,232.
175
֨, Pnli: manas; ࠹ Pnli: vedann, Miln, dhamma; Saœghadeva tr. dharma. See
Demieville, p.123.
176
According to Demieville, BEFEO, Vol.XXIV, 1924, p.124, these six are secular joys.
177
According to Demieville, BEFEO. Vol. XXIV, 1924, p.124, these are religious joys.
178
According to Demieville, BEFEO, Vol. XXIV, 1924, p.124, these are secular
sorrowful feelings.
179
According to Demieville, BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, 1924, p.124, these six are religious
feelings.
180
In the Pnli version, it is a mango tree.
181
Here the Pnli version mentions ‘rice and sugarcane.’
182
Here the Pnli version mentions that the fire burns the field of others.
183
Thich Minh Chau translates it as torch, but it should be candle. In Pnli version, it is
lamp.
184
In MNBS. Thich Minh Chau mentions only the first four similes and omits the last
two similes which are present in Pnli version.
185
In Pnli version, Miln. p.44, it is “whatever is gross therein that is form, whatever is
subtle, mental that is name.
186
Նृ = addhnna.
187
The corresponding Pnli passage (Miln. p.49) goes thus: ‘The past is (sa—snric) time,
the future is (sa—snric) time and the present is (sa—snric) time.’ Here the NBS does not
affirm the three existences of time, but just simple definition. According to the
Kathnvatthu, I, 6-8, the Sabbatthivndins maintain that all the dhamma, the past, the
present and the future do exist. The Theravndins deny the existence of past and future,
but admitted the existence of the present. They refer to a sÊtra found in S iii, 71, that the
Buddha teaches that we cannot talk of existence except in the regard to the present
aggregates. On this issue see Abhidharmako‰abhn™ya, V, (translated first by Paramnrtha,
second by Xuanzuang), the discussion between Sarvnstivndins and Sautrnntikas. The

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Sautrnntikas deny the existence of the past and the future, the same as Mahnsn—ghika
(see Vasumitra, translated by Vasilve, Buddhismus, I, p.265-266), the Ko‰a and
Mahnvibhn™n, II, IV, 7 (translated 1st by Buddhavarman and Tao-tai, 40, TT, XXI, 9,
72a-b; 2nd by Xuanzang, 77, TT,XXII, 4, 4b), the doctrines of the four Sarvnstivndin
masters: Dharmatrnta, Gho™aka, Vasumitra and Buddhadeva. But Demieville (BEFEO.
Vol. XXIV. 1924, p.130) thinks that in our passage, the time is presented in the same way
as in the following passage as Madhyamaka-‰nstra: “The present thought and the dharma
of present thought do not have duration... If they had any duration, they would not have
been composed dharma, why? Because all the composed dharmas have the character of
disappearing constantly... The Buddha says, ‘All the composed dharma disappear within
the cause of each and every thought moment. They do not have duration except of one
thought.” Comparing this passage with the following paragraph where it is said, “time
does not exist for those who have attained the Path.” See also the Mahnvibhn™n, in which
there is a discussion concerning the composed and uncomposed dharma.
188
The passage in brackets is probably added later or misplaced here. It is not present in
the Pnli text.
189
‫ء‬, Miln. p. 50, mÊla.
190
R. Higata, KIK. Vol.76, p.350, as well as Demieville, BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, p.131. 1924,
of the opinion that ‘壀’ probably is equal to the Pnli word ‘VixxnØa’ which means
consciousness.
191
‘ߪ’ = samkhnrn.
192
According to the pattern of the Conditioned Genesis, here conditioned by vixxnØa,
name and form rise together, not one after the other. Therefore R. Higata KIK. Vol.76,
p.350, is of the opinion that this passage probably was added later by the hand-copier.
193
քव salnyatana, Miln, p.50.
194
‘஑ფ’ = taØhn, Demieville translates it as love.
195
‘຅඿’ = upndnna.
196
According to R. Higata, ‘‫ڶ‬ી’ is equal to Pnli: bhava. See KIK. Vol.76, p.350. But
Demieville explains that it literally means ‘the arrival of the existence’, so he translates it
as ‘existance’. See BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, 1924, p.131.
197
The Pnli version only mentions 12 nidnnas from avijjn up to jarn-maraØa-soka-
parideva-dukkha -domanassa-upnynsa.
198
Here the text is corrupted. Գਚ‫ߪء‬լ‫ױ‬൓Ո, literally means ‘the origin of the old
body of a man cannot be obtained.” Demieville suggests that it should be ਚԳߪ‫ء‬լ‫ױ‬
൓Ո which means ‘the root of the human body cannot be obtained.’ There Demieville
also gives the Pnli sentence as “etassa kevalassa addnnassa purimn koi na paxxnyati.
See BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, p.132.
199
The Pnli version mentions “a tiny seed”.
200
The Pnli version mentions ‘end’, but here ‘angle’, ‘ߡ’ in Chinese has the same
meaning ‘end’.
201
Sa—yuktngama, tr. by Gunabhadra = Sa—yuttaniknya, Vol. I, p.109: nnccayanti
ahorattnj–vata— nuparujjhati nyu anupariynti macca— nemi va ratha kubbaranti.
202
From ‘from craving, … there again arises birth’ is omitted in the Pnli Version. The
same is omitted in the description of organs, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
203
‫ء‬, Miln, p.51, purimn ko‚i, original cause of sa—snra.
204
In the Pnli version, the king asked about “the ultimate point of time, not the root
cause of birth and death of a man.

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205
There is a mistake here according to Prof. Pachow. The word is ‘‫ ’ڶ‬which means
‘there is’, but actually it should be ‘ྤ’ which means ‘no’.
206
Here the question is, ‘Are there other causes or reasons that would continue the birth
and death of a man besides craving?’
207
Here in the text, it adds ‘man’, but the question is not about man, but about insects. I
omit it.
208
The hint of the king is of no use because he could see in the course of the preceding
conversation that sa—snra exists only for the men of this world in their present existence.
Nngasena refuses to get involved in any of the speculations concerning the root or the
origin or the beginning of existence. Demieville says: Considering from the point of view
of ultimate metaphysics, this root is the faculty of love, the causes of the future of
existence. In suppressing this cause, from a moral and religious view, it is possible to
obtain the deliverance that is important for salvation. The passage is as obscure as it is in
Pnli. In order to support my interpretation of this passage, we can mention the following
texts.
1. The Pnli version adds this sentence: “Formerly, O king, everything in every form,
everything in every mode, was ignorance. It is to us as if it were not. In reference to that
the ultimate beginning is unknown. But that, which has not been, becomes; as soon as it
has begun to become it dissolves away again. In reference to that the ultimate beginning
is known.” (translated by Rhys Davids, p.81). M. Oldenberg (Buddha, 7 ed, 1920, p.271)
quoted this passage of A v, 113: “The previous limit of ignorance, O brothers, cannot be
known, so the ignorance is shown as originating from a cause.” This cause of ignorance
is defined in the same text of the Aœguttaraniknya as ‘food’ (nhnra) that is to say by
series of conditions of which the first is contact with bad human beings and the last is
ignorance. All the Chinese texts replace ignorance by love (ფ, tŠ™Øn, see ۵ᎅ‫ء‬ઌ≞ી
ᆖ, translated by An Shigao, T1, 8, 7b-8a; ۵ᎅᒴ‫ء‬ીᆖ, translated. In the later texts,
purimn ko‚i is translated as “the original limit”; it is worthwhile comparing the
replacement of ignorance by love with the following formula: bhavatŠ™Øn pÊrvakotir na
prajxayate, in La Vallee Poussin, Vasubandhu and Ya‰omitra, p.338.) which is enough to
the interpretation of M. Wallwser, who wants to find in this passage the theory of the
origin of time (Buddhistische Philosophie, I, Heidelberg, 1904, p.127-133).
2. Aœguttaraniknya, Vol. I. 152: “There are three characteristics of the composed.
Which three? They are appearance, disappearance and change in duration (upnda, vaya,
‚hitassa axxathatta). And there are three characteristics of the uncomposed. Which three?
They are appearance... which are not cognisable.”
3. The motto of this whole chapter of Sa—yuttaniknya, (XV) is as follows:
“Incalculable is the beginning, brother, of this faring on (sa—snra). The earliest point
(pubbakoi) is not revealed of the running on, faring on, of beings cloaked in ignorance,
tied to craving”. (See similar Sa—yuktngama, TT. XIII, 3, 97a, and 5, 104b. it is this text
which is quoted under the title of ྤ⋈ᆖ and ྤ‫ء‬Ꮎᆖ, in the Madhyamaka-‰nstra,
TT, XIX, 1, 36a, 8 and 43a, 1). And the commentary of Buddhaghosa: “The first
boundary in not seen, the beginning of which is the first point. Nor is the last extreme
revealed. Just in the middle beings are passing on.” (translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids,
Kindred Sayings, II, p.118; also Aœguttaraniknya, Vol. III, p.149).
4. Among these speculations, to which the Buddha prefers salvation, the most
important ones are concerned with the primary origin (Brahmajnla Sutta, I, 29 and II, 35).
See also BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, p.134.
209
Here the text also adds ‘man’.
210
‘քൣ’ ™a˜indriynni, the six faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind.

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211
Here the Pnli version only mentions eye, form and eye-consciousness. Then it goes to
sensation, longing, grasping and so on.
212
According to Demieville, BEFEO. Vol.XXIV. p.135, 1924, the passage in brackets,
about 41 Chinese characters, is a interpolation.
213
This formula of paiccasamuppnda occurs in many places in the Tipi‚aka such as S ii,
72. See also section 16.
214
Here the Chinese word is “ᤚ” which has many meanings as enlightening, feel,
awareness etc.
215
Here the Chinese word is wu ‘ढ’, Demieville gives the Pnli word sa—khnra for it.
See BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, p.136.
216
ၺᛛራ, Pnli: maØi. For this, see Demieville BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, p.136, footnote 7.
217
Here the Chinese word is “Գ” which literally means “man”, but in this context, the
Chinese word “Գ” is not in the ordinary sense, it means vedagÊ, ntma, pudgala, soul or
self. The corresponding Pnli passage in Miln. p.52, is: vedagÊ, upalabbhati.
218
The Chinese word is ‘ࡎ’ which means ‘life’, ‘soul’, or living principle. Pnli word is
abhantare j–vo, Miln. p.54.
219
Here, orifice means the six organs: eye, ear, nose, mouth, body and mind.
220
Here the text omits “it could not see the material forms through the nose.” But
logically and also according to the context, here the text should have this sentence.
221
Here the chinese word is ‘壀೯’ which actually means vicnra, but here it means
vixxnØa.
222
ેᑗ, vedann.
223
რ, saxxn, Demieville p.139, translates it as notion.
224
࢚, cetann, Demieville bid, translates it as thought.
225
ൄ۰, Mlin, p.56, vedagÊ.
226
ณ, 壀, Miln. p.57: cakkhuvixxnØa, mano vixxnØa.
227
Հ۩, ninnatn.
228
‫ٻ‬॰, dvnratta.
229
The Pnli version gives the simile of a frontier city defended with towers and bulwarks.
Miln. p.58.
230
۩᠐, ciØØattn.
231
ᑇृீૠՈ, ஼งᖂംਢᑇ, Pnli: muddn (omitted in Chinese) gaØann (ீૠ),
sa—khn (ᑇ), lekhn (஼ง), sippa‚‚hnnesu (ᖂം). See Demieville, p.141.
232
The original Chinese can be translated as “When the eyes of a person are developed,
do the painful and pleasant feelings arise together with the eyes?” This is not clear. So I
have translated it according to Demieville, p.142.
233
R. Higata says, ‘Here there must be something missing in the Chinese translation.
The correspondent part of Pnli version is ‘Where mental consciousness arises there
sensory impingement arises and there feeling arises and there perception arises and there
volition arises and there applied thought arises and there sustained thought arises, and all
mental states arise where they are headed by sensory impingement.’
234
In Pnli version, we do not find this simile of the hand, we find only two similes. They
are rams and cymbals and there is no third one. But in NBS-B, we find four similes: ram,
hand, stone and again stone.
235
Here in Miln, p.60, it gives the simile of cymbals, not stones.
236
In the text, tongue is omitted.

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237
In the text, the Chinese word is ‘ॸ’ which means ‘rain’. So it is not in accordance
with the context. But in Song, Yuan, Ming three editions, it is ‘ࠟ’ in Chinese which
literally means ‘two’, this is logical.
238
According to Demieville, p.142, 壀 = manas, ‫ = ݳ‬dharma.
239
R. Higata says that here the word should be vedann, feeling, and according to the
general rule adopted by the translator, whenever he met vedann, he translated as
‘suffering and happiness’. Therefore he must have missed one word ‘suffering’.
240
ᤚ = saxxn.
241
Demieville, p.143, gives it as saxjnnanalakkhaØn saxxn.
242
The Pnli version does not give in detail.
243
Գ‫ = ࢚ࢬڶ‬cetann, Demieville, p.143.
244
For Գ ‫ ࢚ ࢬ ڶ‬, ‫ ܂ ࢬ ڶ ڂ‬, Demieville, p.143, gives the Pnli version:
cetayikalakkhaØn cetann abhisa—khnraØalakkhaØnca. Here cetann is a causative form,
‘the principle cause of thought, the volition’, cf. Compendium of Philosophy, p. 235-236.
245
Here the Pnli version also gives the simile of drinking ghee, butter, oil, honey and
molasses and one who performs good deeds in this life and those who follow him, will
reap the good fruit after death. Miln, 61-2.
246
Here the Chinese word is ‘փ೯’ which literally means inner-move, but it should
mean ‘the activities of the mind.’ In his Intercourse of the ideas between India and
Greece, appendix, p.41, Nakamura gives the corresponding Pnli word as ‘vitakka’ —
initial thought or reflection. But Demieville, p.143. gives the Pnli word as ‘vicnra’ and
also quoted a sentence from Atthasnlin–, p.143, to support his explanation: vicaraniddese
nrammane caranakavasena cara; idam assa sabhavapadam. But here ‘inner-move’
should be reflection or initial thought, not investigation or sustained thought. Because in
the following simile, it clearly shows ‘when the bronze plate is beaten, it is called
reflection, when it gives lingering sound, it is called investigation’. Therefore it is vitakka,
not vicnra.
247
‫࢚ݳ‬, Demieville, p.143, gives the Pnli as anumajjanalakkhaØo vicnro. anumajjana
means considering, threshing out’ (Morris, JPTS, 1886, p.118), or ‘vibration’ (Finot).
248
According to R. Higata, KIK. Vol. 76, p.359, the actual Chinese word ‘㔠’ which
means to beat is mistaken for ‘ᗈ’ which means to burn.
249
Here in this NBS-B, the Chinese word is ‘‫ ’׏‬which is just a particle, it has no
meaning. But in the Song, Yuan, and Gong Editions, it is ‘֫’ which literally means
‘hand’. So this sentence can be translated as ‘when he raises his hands, there is sound.’
However this meaning is not in accordance with the context.
250
Here the Pnli version adds two more dialogues. One is about the distinguishing mark
of consciousness, the other is the dialogue about sustained thought. Besides, what is more
is that this beating of bronze plate is used to explain sustained thought in the Pnli version.
251
According to Demieville, p.144, ‫ = ٽ‬phassa.
252
Ibid; ཕ = vedann?
253
Ibid; ࢚ = saxxn?
254
Ibid; რ = cetann?
255
Ibid; ೯ = vicnra.
256
In Miln. p.63, the ingredients are different ‘curd, salt, ginger, cumin seed, black
paper,’ and it also adds, ‘sourness, saltiness, pungency, acidity, astringency, sweetness.’
257
Here the flavour of meat is missing in NBS-B.
258
Miln, p.63, here adds, ‘But each flavour would nevertheless be distinctly present by
its characteristical sign.’

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259
In Pnli version, there is another sentence, ‘Here ends the question of Nngasena by
Menander.’ T.W. Rhys Davids says, ‘This is again most odd.’ (KMQ, 99) But according
to I. B. Horner, the Siamese script does not have the little colophon and it proceeds
straight to the Fourth Division. (MQ, 88)
260
նव, Miln, p.65, paxca nyatannØi.
261
From here the NBS-A is available, but from here to the end of the text, the contents of
both NBS-A and NBS-B are the exactly the same except for a few words.
262
NBS-A omits ‘some are from great families, others are from small families.’
263
NBS-A omits, ‘some are really sour.’
264
Here NBS-A is ‘because each person has done differently.’ According to the Buddhist
philosophy, this is because of karmic action.
265
NBS-A: the noble, the poor, the beautiful and the ugly, all are due to their actions, as
a result of the good and bad done in the past. The Chinese version is similar to the
passage in Madhyamngama. For the counterpart in Miln, it is reproduced from M iii,
p.203 and 206.
266
NBS-A omits ‘but the good deeds done previously are beneficial to man.’
267
NBS-A has ‘to plough, to sow.’ Pnli version is ‘Asking people to plough the field, to
sow the seeds, to harvest the crops.’
268
NBS-A omits, ‘Could the king order people to train horses, elephants and men in
warfare and also to make weapons?’ Pnli version goes thus, ‘To dig the moat, to build
ramparts, watch-towers, stronghold, to store crops, train yourself in the warfare about
elephants, horses, chariots, bows, swords.’
269
The last two sentences are not found in NBS-A.
270
The words in brackets are not found in NBS-A. The passage after the brackets is said
by Nngasena in NBS-B, but it is said by the Buddha in NBS-A. When we compare the
Chinese versions with Miln, we find that NBS-A corresponds well with Miln.
271
NBS-A: խ‫إ‬, centre and righteous, NBS-B: ࢘‫إ‬, loyal and righteous; NBS-A and
NBS-B: լ‫إ‬, diverse, Demieville, p.148, gives them as dharma and adharma.
272
This quotation is from Sa—yuktngama, T2, 351, No.1276. Pnli I.B. Horner traces it as
S i,57.
273
NBS-A omits ‘female crabs’, but Pnli version mensions ‘female sharks, female
crocodiles, female pigeons, pea-hens and female tortoises.’
274
Here the Chinese word is ‘ઌᆂ’ which literally means merits and virtue, but here it
means meritorious karma. According to Demieville, p.149, the Pnli word in Miln. p.67, is
kammadhitena.
275
In the Pnli version this passage is attributed to the Buddha, “He would not die as long
as his bad karmas have not been exhausted.”
276
NBS-A gives, ‘lionesses, tigresses, female wolves.’ Pnli version mentions, ‘lionesses,
tigresses, leopardesses and female dogs.’
277
This last paragraph is lost in NBS-A.
278
NBS-A omits, ‘she-donkey.’ The Pnli version does not have this simile.
279
NBS-A only mentions ‘woman’. Pnli version has it differently, ‘Delicately nurtured
ladies of the Yanakas, of noble caste, of Brahmin caste, of householders who eat hard
food and meat.’
280
The last phrase in the Pnli version is attributed to the Buddha. Demieville, p.150,
traces it in NBS-A. Vol.I, p.141, and M. Vol.III, p.183.
281
This is a general view of the construction of the world of that time.
282
Here the Pnli word is ‘dhammaknraka’. In QKM. Rhys Davids explains in the
footnote, “the passages show that this was a pot so made that no water could pass from it

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except through a filtering medium when not being actually used the water was no doubt
kept at a certain height in it by the pressure of the atmosphere.”
283
This pair of question and answer is omitted in NBS-A.
284
ࣽ੘ሐྤࢬ༚‫ڶ‬, Miln. p.68: niroddho nibbnnan ti.
285
This passage is corrupted, NBS-A: ჟᡴ֮Գ຅ߪ൦݄, NBS-B: ჟᡴ֮Գஉࠐ౉
փ؆ߪ࠹݄. Demieville, p.150, gives Pnli: sabbe bnln puthujjann ajjhattika bnhinyatane
abhinandanti abhivadanti ajjhosayn to‚‚hanti.
286
In NBS-A, there is birth also. Here it probably omits birth.
287
In our present text, there is only, ‘they have never experienced the painfulness of
having their hands and feet cut off.’ So here the text omits the question part of the
sentence. But in NBS-A, we find this part.
288
These five rivers are identified by Kogen Mizuno (RMP p.47) as Gaœgn, Sindhu, ̖tn,
Oxus and Sarasvat– and the first four are mentioned in many sÊtras in Chinese
translation as the four great rivers. Here we list them as follows:

SÊtras in Chinese Gaœgn Sindhu ̖tn Vak™u or Sarasvat–


Translation Oxus
π៳ู‫ڍ‬ၥେ⾂ඎມᆖρ 㠬ࣾ ॾ৫ า‫ڍ‬ 䨐౴
(CBETA, T01, no. 30, p.
812, a12-13)
πᏺ໸ॳܶᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬‫ۺ‬ ߏᙰ ‫ॲڽ‬ ധՐ
T02, no. 125, p. 736, b5-6)
πᏺ໸ॳܶᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬‫ۺ‬ ᄅᙰ ߏॲ ധՐ
T02, no. 125, p. 658,
b28-29)
πᠧॳܶᆖρ(CBETA, T02, 㠬ࣾ ᄅᙰ ‫ॲ׹‬ ჻Ր
no. 99, p. 222, b20-21)ʳ
π່໏ംဆ៳Լ۰ೈৃឰ 㠬‫ۺ‬ ߏᙰ ߏॲ ധՐ
࿨ᆖρ(CBETA, T10, no.
309, p. 1011, a12-14;
a15-19)
πՕᑔ੥ᆖρ(CBETA, T01, Օੌ ॾॲ ཎᙰ ࡉՐ
no. 23, p. 279, a4-10) ࣾ
πದ‫׈‬ᆖρ(CBETA, T01, 㠬‫ۺ‬ ߬ᙰ ཎॲ ᜳՐ
no. 24, p. 313, a2-7)
πದ‫ءڂ׈‬ᆖρ(CBETA,
T01, no. 25, p. 368, a9-14)
π۵‫۩ء‬ႃᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬ࣾ ߬ᙰ ཎ‫ڍ‬ ໑Ր
T03, no. 190, p. 683, a15)
πՕ౳௳዗ᆖρ(CBETA, ੘ࣾ ߬ᙰ ൜ॲ
T12, no. 374, p. 464, a9-11)

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πՕ౳௳዗ᆖρ(CBETA, ੘ࣾ ߬ᙰ ߏॲ ໑Ր
T12, no. 374, p. 477, a1-2;
p. 511, c11; p. 706, b17-19;
p. 719, c28-29; p. 755, c10)
π۵ᎅ壆ऄট‫׆‬ᆖρ
(CBETA, T17, no. 822, p.
848, a9-10) πՕֱ࿛Օႃ
ᆖρ(CBETA, T13, no. 397,
p. 349, c10-11)
πॳḛሒᗣଟॐᓵρ 㠬‫ۺ‬ ॾ৫ ஈ‫ڍ‬ ᗻ౴
(CBETA, T29, no. 1558, p.
58, a21-22)
πՕֱᐖ۵ဎᣤᆖρ 㠬‫ۺ‬ ॾ৫ ߏॲ ᗻ౴
(CBETA, T10, no. 279, p.
222, a21-23)
πॳḛሒᗣՕḛധ‫ޥ‬ᓵρ ∘‫ۺ‬ ॾ৫ ߏ‫ڍ‬ ᗻ౴
(CBETA, T27, no. 1545, p.
22, a4-5; p. 691, a22)
πॳḛሒᗣႉ‫إ‬෻ᓵρ
(CBETA, T29, no. 1562, p.
516, a15-17)πᅜ‫ۺ‬ஃ‫چ‬ᓵρ
(CBETA, T30, no. 1579, p.
287, b14-15)
πॳḛሒᗣ៲᧩ࡲᓵρ ∘‫ۺ‬ ॾ৫ ൔ‫ڍ‬ ᗻ౴
(CBETA, T29, no. 1563, p.
851, a1-2)πՕା۫഑ಖρ*
(CBETA, T51, no. 2087, p.
869, b12-17)
πॳḛᖣḛധ‫ޥ‬ᓵρ 㠬‫ۺ‬ ߬ᙰ ߏॲ ໑Ր
(CBETA, T28, no. 1546, p.
14, c26-27)
πॳḛሒᗣଟॐᤩᓵρ 㠬‫ۺ‬ ߬ᙰ ߏ‫ڍ‬ ᜳჼ
(CBETA, T29, no. 1559, p.
215, b14-15)
π۵ᎅԫ֊ऄ೏‫׆‬ᆖρ ൎ‫ۺ‬ ߬ᙰ ཎॲ ໑Ր
(CBETA, T17, no. 823, p.
854, b22)
πՕཕ৫ᓵρ(CBETA, T25, 㠬ࣾ ߬ᙰ ߏॲ ധՐ
no. 1509, p. 114, a19-21)
NBS, A. (CBETA, T32, no. 㠬 ॾ‫ה‬ ߏ‫ה‬ ᗻՐ ਜࢶ‫ڎ‬ዿ
1670A, p. 699, c21-23)
NBS, B. (CBETA, T32, no. 㠬 ॾ‫ה‬ ߏ‫ה‬ [ߢ*୬] ਜࢶ‫ڎ‬
1670B, p. 715, b15-17) Ր

*πՕା۫഑ಖρ “∘‫ֳ៱(ࣾۺ‬㠬ࣾΔԾֳ㠬‫ۺ‬Δ๽Ո)Δॾ৫ࣾ(៱ֳ߬ᙰࣾΔ๽
Ո)Δᗻ౴ࣾ(៱ֳ໑ՐࣾΔ๽Ո)Ζൔ‫ࣾॲߏֳ៱(ࣾڍ‬๽Ո)” (CBETA, T51, no. 2087,
p. 869, b12-17)

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The Pnli version also mentions five rivers, but the names are different from the above list:
Gaœgn, Yamunn, Aciravat–, SarabhÊ, and Mah–. See also The Dictionary of Proper
Names of Indian Buddhism, (‫ٱ‬৫۵ඒࡐ‫ဲټڶ‬᢯ࠢ) edited by Akanuma Chizen (ߧँ
ཕ࿳), p.479. The names of these five rivers are also mentioned in Chinese translations of
different sÊtras:

SÊtras in Chinese GaœgƗ YamunƗ Sarabhnj AciravatƯ MahƯ


Translation
πխॳܶᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬‫ۺ‬ ᄀ֠߷ ॐ໎௬ ॳ‫ڎ‬ᢅധ༼ ᐰٞ
T01, no. 26, p. 428,
b16-18; c25-27)
π௧Զᐚᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬 ߵճ ‫ޥ‬ຬ ॳ‫ڎ‬။ ᕠ
T01, no. 35, p. 819,
a26-28)
πᠧॳܶᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬ࣾ ળဆ߷ ៳ᢅ‫ط‬ ْᢅၐ༼ ᐰ㋝
T02, no. 99, p. 215,
a18-19)
πᠧॳܶᆖρ(CBETA, 㠬ࣾ ળ፠߷ ៳ᢅ‫ط‬ ْᢅၐ༼ ᐰ㋝
T02, no. 99, p. 262,
a26)
πॳḛሒᗣ࿇ཕᓵρ ∘‫ۺ‬ ᙝ‫߷ئ‬ ៳੖⾂ ॳּᢅ࿣ࢍ ๕㋝
(CBETA, T26, no.
1544, p. 918, c11-13)
πॳḛሒᗣՕḛധ‫ޥ‬ ∘‫ۺ‬ ᙝ‫߷ئ‬ ៳ᆵᅜ ॳּᢅ࿣ࢍ ๕㋝
ᓵρ(CBETA, T27, no.
1545, p. 21, c7-9)
289
NBS-A at the footnote gives the Pnli term as tissa. It is same to the Pnli version.
290
ᆖ‫ݹ‬, Miln, p.71, dhammam.
291
Here the Chinese word ‘‫ ’ݶ‬is not translated by Thich Minh Chau of Vietnam. He
gives a question mark. Here the word ‘‫(’ݶ‬kuai) means ‘excellent’ or ‘good’.
292
Here the meaning is that Nngasena asked the king whether his teacher still knows the
scriptures and books if the king had learnt all the scriptures and books from his teacher.
But in the present NBS-B, it is not clear. It just says, ‘still have his scriptures and books.’
So it gives the impression that the teacher still has the knowledge of scriptures and books.
But NBS-A states clearly, ‘O king you have taken (learnt) all (the knowledge from) the
scriptures and books.’ Here this meaning is appropriate to the context. So NBS-B misses
the words ‘‫( ’׆‬the king). And also NBS-A has ‘‫׆‬൜ኆ’ (the king has taken all), but
NBS-B has ൜៱’ (still is).
293
Here the Chinese word is ‘ཕ’ which normally means wisdom, but here it means soul.
Miln, p.71, vedagu upatabbhati.
294
Here Thich Minh Chau translates the Chinese word ‘ण’ as ‘excuse’ with a question
mark. But here ‘ण’ means ‘complaint’, when the thief finds that he is not guilty, he
would make a complaint before the judge.
295
Here in NBS-B, the king’s question is not clear. Thich Minh Chau, translates it as ‘Is
it by reason of the performance of good and bad actions of the old body that new good
and bad (result) come into existence?’ But this translation does not fit into the context. In

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NBS-A, it says, “The king asked, ‘Where are the good and bad actions done by this old
body?’” When Nngasena said that by reason of the performance of good and bad actions
in the present life, he will be born in the next life and will obtain a new body. Hence,
NBS-A is correct, because it fits the context.
296
NBS-A: ۵բֳࣽ‫ ;װ‬NBS-B: ۵բ౳ࣽ੘‫װ‬, Miln, p.73: parinibbuto bhagavn.
297
This quotation is from the Chinese Dharmapada chapter 36, on the nirvnØa, T4, 573a.
But this has no counterpart in the Pnli Dhammapada. And it also appears in the
MahnparinirvnØasÊtra ̓translated by Dharmarak™a. (T12, no. 374, 367b1). In Miln, it
gives as:
Covered with moist skin, the nine-doored (thing), a great sore,
Oozes evil-smelling bodily secretion all round.
I.B. Horner says that this verse is untraced. Demieville, p. 157, traces it as in S i, p.16;
Thag. 1151; 1152.
298
According to the Buddhist theory, there are only two great beings in the world that
have these thirty-two bodily marks and eighty subsidiary characteristics of a great being.
They are the fully Enlightened One and the Wheel-turning Monarch. See also
Madhyamngama, 59th SÊtra and Mahnprajxnpnramitn-‰nstra, chapter 4 and 89.
299
In NBS-A and Pnli version, the example is elephant, not bird. In NBS-A, Nngasena
asked, “What is the cry of a elephant like?” the king replied, “The cry (actually trumpet)
is like the cry of a wild goose. But in Pnli version, the cry of an elephant is compared to
the cry of a heron.
300
ᆖ‫ݹ‬, dharma and vinaya. The Pnli version (Miln. p.76) is upasampadn, ordination.
301
۵ᆖ, literally means BuddhasÊtra, Miln. p.77, dhamma.
302
NBS-A has no ‘he who is not liberated.’
303
Here the Pnli version has two more dialogues: one is on the dwelling place of wisdom
and the other is on sa—snra.
304
Here the Pnli sentence is kena atƯta— cirakata— saratƯ, Miln, p.77.
305
‫ݳ‬, Demievile (p.160) translates it as thought, and gives the Pnli word as citta.
306
࢚ can be rendered in two ways: if it is used as a verb, it means remember; if used as
a noun, it means mindfulness. Demieville, p.160, gives the Pnli word as sati.
307
NBS-A: ‫ ;ݳ‬NBS-B: ‫ݱ‬, incorrect.
308
Here the text is corrupted.
309
Trenckner (Miln. p.78) says that the text is corrupt. According to Demieville, P.160,
Nngasena distinguishes only two kinds of memories: abhijƗnantƯ'pi mahƗrƗja sati
uppajjati. ka‚umikƗ'pi satƯ’ ti.
310
The text is corrupted.
311
Here the Pnli version adds another more dialogue on the learning and memory.
312
The Chinese word is “ᢝ” which literally means consciousness or recognition, but the
Pnli text, p.78, uses another word “muddn” which is translated by Rhys Davids as
“suggestion” QKM, pp.121. See also Franke, D–gha translation, p.18 with note (he marks
muddn ‘Finger-rechnen’ with?). See PED published by PTS, p.538, under “muddn”
entrance.
313
Here the Pnli text uses the word ‘dhamma’ which can be rendered as ‘learning by
heart’. QKM, p.123, Rhys Davids gives a footnote on it: ‘dhnranato. The noun dhnrnaka
is only found here (where I follow the Sinhalese interpretation) and at J. II, 203 (where it
means ‘debtor’ as in Sanskrit)’.
314
Here the Chinese word is ‘ᦰ஼’ which can be translated in two ways as ‘reading
books’ here in the present work, or ‘learning’. But the corresponding Pnli word is
‘potthakanibandhana’ which literally means ‘tying books’ or ‘binding books’. So it is

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quite different from the Chinese translation.
315
Miln. p.78, Khujjuttarn. She is the foremost of the lay women devotees, who has
heard (learnt) much, A. i. 26. But neither she nor Ðnanda seems specially connected with
the power of remembering the former “habitations”. However, A. i. 28 it is said that the
Discourses in Itivuttaka are those that Khujjuttarn learnt by heart from the Buddha and
later repeated to Samavat– and her five hundred women attendants.
316
Here I keep the repetition as the original in NBS-B in order that the reader may get a
full knowledge and presentation of the Chinese text.
317
Pnli is ‘ka‚umikƗya sati uppajjati. Here ka‚umikn means the acts committed at present.
See Demieville p.162.
318
৸ ፂ , ordinarily translated as cintann. Pnli (Miln. p.78) sabhaga-nimittato.
Demieville, p.163, says that the Chinese text is corrupt. ୮৛, Pnli is mntara— vn
pitara—; ࡲᘣ, bhntara— vn̓ bhagini—. The memory arises by association with those
people.
319
This means on seeing a similar kind of man or cow or horse etc, one calls to mind the
man, or the cow or the horse etc, “from similarity of appearance, as on seeing one kind of
them we call to mind the mother or father or sister or brother or on seeing a camel or an
ox or an ass, we call to mind others like them.” QKM. P.122.
320
Here NBS-A has ‘Just as a man who is in debt, thinks that he should repay his debt.’
There is no ‘see the drum’ in NBS-A. According to W. Pachow, it should be ‘ढ’ ‘goods’,
not ‘ቔ’, ‘drum’.
321
Pnli potthaka-nibandhanato, Miln. p.80.
322
Pnli: upanikkhepato. Miln. p.80.
323
඄ᆖ‫ݹ‬, Miln. p.4, sikkhnpadam paxxnpeti.
324
Here it is interesting to notice that one can be saved by mindfulness of the Buddha
even if he has done evil deeds during life time. That means he can be saved by the power
of the Buddha. This idea is precisely the idea of Pure Land Buddhism which teaches that
one can be saved by the recitation of the names of the Buddhas such as Amita Buddha.
325
ឈ‫ءڶ‬༞, Demieville p.166, translates it as ‘Quoiqu’un homme ait [un karma]
foncierement mauvais’. ԫழ࢚۵, Miln, p.80: eka— buddhagata—sati— pa‚ilabheyya; cf.
S i, 211. There is a verse in Sahassa Vagga of Dhammapada:
mƗse mƗse sahassena yo yajetha sata— sama—
ekañca bhƗvitattƗna— muhuttampi pnjjaye
sƗ yeva pnjjanƗ seyyƗ yañce vassasata— huta—. 106
Though, month after month with a thousand, one should make an offering for a
hundred years, yet, if only for a moment, one should honour (a saint) who has perfected
himself, — that honour is, indeed, better than a century of sacrifice. (tr. Ven. Narada)
326
Here the Pnli text adds “good deeds are similar to a boat” Miln. 80. According to
Demieville, (BEFEO. Vol.xxiv, p.167.) this is an interpolation which is completely
illogical. It shows that those who revised the Pnli version did not understand the doctrine
based on which the discourse is made. Here we also find this in our Chinese texts so it
could not be added by the people who revised the Pnli text. It must be there in the
original text. This just suggest that the belief of the mindfulness of the Buddha was
already a widely spread faith.
327
Here the questions and answers seem to have not come to an end and something is
missing.
328
NBS-A: six days, Miln, p.81: four months.
329
Here li is a Chinese measurement, one kilometre is equal to two li.
330
Yonaka.

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331
ॳ౷ཋ, Miln. p.82: Alasanda, Greek: Alexandria in Bactria built on an island in the
Indus. I.B. Horner says that DPPN takes this name (Alasanda) as feminene, but here it is
masculine. Probably “Alexandria-under-the-Caucasus — Alasanda of the Yonas, as it is
called in the Mahnva—sa (XXIX. 39),” CHI.i. p.550. Geiger, Mahnvamsa translation.,
p.194, n.3, explains this passage as “Alexandria in the land of the Yonas, i.e., the Greeks,
probably the town founded by the Macedonian king in the country Paropanisadae near
Kabul. See Arrian, Anabasis iii. 28, iv. 22.” See Lamotte, Hist., p.414, for some varying
views as to the identity of this Alasanda.
According to Demieville, the name Alasnada “refers to, without any doubt,
Alexandria of Egypt as pointed by M. Pelliot. The Chinese version locates this explicitly
in the Kashmir of India. For Sakala is in the kingdom of Da-qing in the territory of India.
So it is permitted to suppose that the author locates the place of birth of Menander in
India. But nothing like that appears. In the Cambridge History of India, p. 550, M.
Rapson proposes to locates A-li-san in the region of Charikar between the rivers of
Panjshir and Kaboul.” BEFEO. Vol. XXIV, p.168.
332
One yojana is equal to a league of seven miles. NBS-A says: “It is 2,000 yojanas
which equals 80,000 li. But the Pnli text, Miln. p.82, gives about 200 yojanas.
333
Here the Pnli version gives as 12 yojanas. A yojana is equal to 40 li, and seven
hundred and twenty li is equal to 18 yojanas.
334
NBS-A: this pair of question and answer is omitted.
335
Ԯᤚ֭, bodhyaœga, the seven ways are different with the usually satta-bojjhaœga.
Pnli version just gives the name without detail. The following is a list of the bodhyaœgas
in different schools. 1. The H–naynna texts in Chinese and Pnli texts. 2. From the
Mahnynna texts in Sanskrit and Chinese. 3. From the numerical encyclopaedia compiled
by Mahnynnist authors at the sixth century A.D.
I. Nngasena Bhik™u SÊtra, (NBS-B) T. p.708a,
1.რ, mindfulness (smŠti), 2. ։ܑ, discrimination (vicaya), 3. 壄ၞ, exertion
(v–rya), 4. ‫ױ‬, satisfaction or joy (prit–), 5. ≞, serenity (pra‰rabdhi), (demieville: appui),
6. ࡳ, concentration (samndhi), 7. ᥨ, protection (upek™n).
II. ibid, NBS-A, T. p.702b; NBS-B. T. p.717c.
1. ࢚࿳༞հࠃ, thinking of the good and bad (vicaya), 2. 壄ၞ, exertion (v–rya),
3. ᑗሐ, delight in the Path (pr–ti), 4. ٗრ੡࿳, controlling the mind and directing it
towards good (pra‰rabdhi), 5. ࢚ ሐ , mindfulness of the Path (smŠti), 6. ԫ ֨ ,
concentration (samndhi), 7. ᔞ (NBS-B: ᔞመ) ྤࢬᏺფ) , non hatred and affection
(upek™n).
III. ᎅ᛽۩ԿԼԮ঴ᆖ, translated by An-shi-gao.
1. ࿳ऄ࢚, mindfulness on the good Law (smŠti), 2. ऄᇞ, analysis of the dharma
(vicaya), 3. 壄ၞ, exertion (v–rya), 4. ფ, love (prit–), 5. ַ, fixing (pra‰rabdhi), 6. ࡳ,
concentration (samndhi), 7. ᥨ, protection (upek™n).
IV. D–ghaniknya, Vol.III, p.303-304. satta bojjhaœgnni.
1. sati. 2. dhammavicaya, 3. viriya, 4. p–ti, 5. passaddhi, 6. samndhi, 7. upekkhn.
V. Madhyamngama, translated by Saœghadeva in 397-398.
1. ࢚, thought (smŠti), 2. ᖗၞ, selection of the dharma (vicaya), 3. 壄ၞ,
exertion (v–rya), 4. ໛, joy (pr–ti), 5. ஒ, rest (pra‰rabdhi), 6. ࡳ, concentration
(samndhi), 7. ඍ, equanimity (upek™n).
VI. Ekottarngama translated by Dharmanandin in 384-385, second translation by
Saœghadeva.

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1. ࢚, mindfulness (smŠti), 2. ‫ࠐڕ‬հࢬᎅऄ, the dharma preached by the
Tathngata (vicaya), 3. 壄ၞ, exertion (v–rya), 4. ໛, joy (pr–ti), 5. ଘ, rest (pra‰rabdhi),
6. ࡳ, concentration (samndhi), 7. ᥨ, protection (upek™n).
VII. Lalitavistara, Lotus, p.796. sapta bodhyaœgnni (the same list as in
Mahnvyutpatti XLIII)
1. smŠti, 2. dharmapravicaya, 3. v–rya, 4. pr–ti, 5. pra‰rabdhi, 6. samndhi, 7.
upek™n.
VIII. YogncnrabhÊmi ̓‰nstra, translated by Xuanzang, TT. XVIII, 2, 40a. Ԯᤚव,
‘seven branches of awakening’.
1. ᖗऄ, selection of dharma (vicaya), 2. 壄ၞ, exertion (v–rya), 3. ໛, joy (pr–ti),
4. ‫ڜ‬, peace or ease (pra‰rabdhi), 5. ࡳ, concentration (samndhi), 6. ඍ, equanimity
(upek™n), 7. ࢚, mindfulness (smŠti).
IX. ऄ੺‫ڻ‬ร壆॰, Tche-yi (538-598). (the same order as in ՕࣔԿ៲ऄᑇ and
៬᤟‫ټ‬ᆠႃ).
1. ᖗऄ, selection of dharma (vicaya), 2. 壄ၞ, exertion (v–rya), 3. , joy (pr–ti), 4.
ೈ, ease (pra‰rabdhi), 5. ඍ, equanimity (upek™n), 6. ࡳ, concentration (samndhi), 7. ࢚,
mindfulness (smŠti).
We can see that the first list given in NBS-B follows the order of the H–naynna list
reproduced with the exception of vicaya, the terminology of Ekottarngama, translated in
the Eastern Jin. Therefore Demieville comes to the conclusion that this list which is
missing in NBS-A and in the Pnli text is an interpolation in NBS-B. The translation of the
second list on the contrary appears to be close to the original. We can note that the order
is close to Mahnynna lists where vicnra appears as first. But according to the present
passage the vicara consists in discerning or differentiating the good from the evil. In the
Mahnynna scholarship, on the other hands, it differentiates the unreal from the real, the
real dharmas from the elusional dharmas. See also BEFEO. Vol.xxiv, p.169.
336
ⴌ, merit, puxxa; ੂ, demerit, apuxxa, Miln. p.84.
337
In MQ, I.B. Horner says: “Ninety one eons appears in the Pnli canon as some special
unit of time. For example, 91 eons ago, Vipassin was the Buddha (D ii,2); the Buddha
Gotama claims that he can remember his former births for 91 eons (M i, 483); and Ja I,
390 says that 91 eons ago the Boddhisatta went forth as a Naked Ascetic — almost
certainly the one the Buddha refers to as M I, 483 as gaining heaven. See also S iv, 324.
338
ཕृ, ჟृ, Miln. p.84, jnnanto, ajnnanto. The Chinese ‘ཕृ’ endowed with prajxn
and ჟृ(NBS-A: ჟԳ) ‘bnla, avidyn’. According to the Chinese text, the question is
not of who does evil consciously or unconsciously, but it is concerned with the evil-doers
who are endowed with knowledge and the evil-doers who are ignorant. That is to say
those who are instructed in the Buddhist doctrine and those who are not. The sages would
know how to repent of their evil deeds, but the ignorant ones have no means to diminish
their evil deeds. That is why their evil is of a worse kind. Demieville considered that this
interpretation which is clearer corresponds to the Buddhist ideas, and is preferable to that
suggestted in the abridged Pnli version. In fact it would be quite against the spirit of
Buddhism to consider the unconscious evil-doer’s evil to be greater than the evil which is
done consciously. And Vasubandhu repudiates rightly this opinion as given in the
heretical teaching of Nirgrantha, that is to say the Jaina (Abhidharmako‰a, translated by
Paramnrtha, TT. XXIII, 1, 69b; second translation by Xuanzang, TT. XXII. 10, 49a-b).
See also BEFEO. Vol.XXIV. 1924, p.173.
339
NBS-A: ᩀ໢။; NBS-B: ᩀ໢ֳ, Uttaravat–. Trenckner, Uttarakuru, Miln, p.85.
According to DPPN, II. p.355, Uttarakuru is a name of a country often mentioned in

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Niknyas and later literature as a mythical region. A detailed description of it is given in
the Ђnnn‚iya Sutta of D i, p. 199, where Uttarakuru is spoken of as a city (pura). See
also Uttarakuru in Hopkins: Epic Mythology, especially p. 186. The men who live in that
country own no property nor have wives of their own; they do not have to work for their
living. The corn ripens by itself and sweet-scented rice is found boiling on hot
oven-stoves. The inhabitants go about riding on cows, on men and women, on maids and
youths. Their king rides on an elephant, on a horse, celestial cars and state palanquins.
Their cities are built in the air. This mythical region is also found in Mahnynna
Buddhism, D–rghngama, where it is described as one of the four continents (the four
continentals are PÊrva-videha, Apara-godnn–ya, Jambudv–pa and Uttarakuru).
The country is always spoken of as being to the north of Jambudv–pa. It is eight
thousand leagues in extent and is surrounded by the sea (D ii, 623). Sometimes it is
spoken of as one of the four Mahnd–pa (the others are Aparagoyana, Pubbavedeha and
Jambud–pa) each being surrounded by five hundred minor islands. These four make up a
cakkavala, with Mount Meru in their midst, a flat-world system. A cakkavatti’s rule
extends over all these four continents (D.N. ii, 173). and his chief queen comes either
from the race of king Madda or from Uttarakuru; in the latter case, she appears before
him of her own accord, urged on by her own virtue.
Several instances are given of the Buddha having gone to Uttarakuru for alms (A
ii, 396). Pacceka Buddhas and various ascetics are mentioned as having visited
Uttarakuru on their begging round (A v, 316).
340
Zhang (Ձ) is a Chinese measurement, one zhang is equal to 3.33 meters.
341
Here the Pnli text gives as 100 leagues.
342
We do not know what kind of fish ‘zhi’ is. Since it is so large and as long as 28000 li,
it probably is whale.
343
Here the Pnli version gives it as 500 leagues.
344
In the text there are no such these words, but the next question is irrelevant to the text.
So here should end the question.
345
‫ݳ‬, Demieville. p.174, translates it as ‘esprit’ (mind) and in his footnote 6, he gives
the Pnli term as ‘manas’. Miln. p.85: knkacchamnno.
346
This passage is corrupt. The meaning is not clear.
347
Here the Chinese word is “Գ壀” which is very difficult to translate, it can be
rendered as ‘spirit’, ‘soul’, ‘mind’, ‘life principle’ etc. Demieville (p.176) translates it as
‘La conscience de l’homme’ (the conscience of man), Miln. p.86: vixxnØa. Horner also
translates it as consciousness, MQ, I, 120.
348
ཕ, Miln. p.86: paxxn.
349
۞ ྥ , Miln, p.86: bhÊtasmim j–vo, translated as prakŠti or svabhnva; see
Mahnvyutpatti. We are here concerned, according to the Chinese version, with the
existence of the non-conditioned by the previous causes. The entire negation is an object
of the same work. We know that the Snœkhya system proposes a metaphysical principle at
the beginning of all existence which is permanent and unconditioned, that is prakŠti. See
also BEFEO. Vol.XXIV, P.176.
350
ᤚ, Miln. p.86.: vijnnana. Demieville. p.176, translates it as perception.
351
ᖠሐ ibid: pajnnann.
352
ྤ‫ڶ‬Գ, Ibid: bhÊtasmim j–vo va upalabbhati.
353
ࢬվࠃ, Demieville. p.177, gives it as ‘cetann?’
354
壀ࠃ, vixxnØa?
355
࢚֨, Demieville, p.177, gives the Pnli word as ‘nrammaØa?’
356
This passage has a very subtle meaning. The text says literally: “From the thought of

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the heart, we get into that which is seen by the eye. From the thought of the heart, we get
into that which is heard by the ear.” Demieville explains that this could be translated as
“Due to the fact that the mind thinks, we are able to see with our eyes. Due to the fact
that the mind thinks, we are able to hear with our ears...” So the object of the sensation or
sensation itself would depend only on thought and would result from it. But this
conception which is fully idealistic would be contrary to the doctrine as exposed in the
whole of Milindapaxha, and in particular in the present passage. The doctrine, according
to which, thought, conscious and the soul are essentially complex and compose. The Pnli
version is revised as follows, (Miln. p.87,): “The fixing of those mental conditions
(dharmas) which depend on one organ of sense (nrammaØa), telling us that such is
contact, and such sensation, and such idea, and such intention, and such thought.” (QKM.
translated by Rhys Davids, p. 133). The nrammaØa can refer either to six objects of the
senses, form, sound, smell, etc... or to the thought in general. According to the Chinese
version, the first meaning should be adopted here. See also BEFEO. Vol. XXIV, 1924,
p.178.
357
ᦤխ, Miln, p.87: cattnri pa‚nknni nØattnni. Rhys Davids translates: ‘The four
banners are ordered’. See also BEFEO. Vol. XXIV, p.178.

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