General Relativity 1

Running Head: GENERAL RELATIVITY

Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity and Its Practical Uses

Nick Fowler

Glen Allen High School

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Introduction

Science has been at the forefront of progression for years. Beginning with the scientific

revolution in the 17th and 18th centuries, brilliant minds have sought to describe and explain the

natural and physical world in new ways. Science in general, but especially the field of physics,

creates opportunities for highly adventurous and motivated people to learn about the natural

world and interactions that take place within it. The interactions that take place between objects

are known as forces, a major topic of study within the physics curriculum and post-graduate

world. There are four fundamental forces that govern the laws of physics which include

electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force and gravity (Nave 1999). The force

of gravity exists on both large and small scales and effects every particle in the universe. Gravity

is summarized as a force that attracts objects and pulls them toward each other (Nave 1999).

Interestingly enough, it is the weakest of the forces but has the most exciting path of discovery

(Nave 1999). There have been many theories comprised about gravity, none of them withholding

the test of time, but all of them contributing to a greater purpose.

The most influential theory concerning gravity is Albert Einstein’s Theory of General

Relativity. In 1907, two years after publishing his theory of Special Relativity, Einstein

embarked on a new adventure after a simple thought experiment that included an observer in free

fall watching another object in free fall (General). After eight years of trial, error, struggle, and

mistakes, Einstein finally made a major breakthrough when he completed his field equations,

cementing the core of the general relativity theory. At a very basic understanding, the theory

specifies how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter and radiation are

present (General). However, beginning with Einstein would not do the complex and fascinating

tale of gravity justice. Einstein’s theory of general relativity, while abstract in nature, paved a
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way for major breakthroughs in specific fields of engineering and communications and will

continue to do so in the future.

Sir Isaac Newton’s Contribution

In order to apply General Relativity, it is essential to understand where it comes from.

What physicists know about gravity stems from Sir Isaac Newton’s Law of Universal

Gravitation. On a summer day in 1666, Isaac Newton went out for a stroll and came back in with

an idea. His idea would culminate in the creation of The Law of Universal Gravitation, a

landmark theory that is still taught today in schools. The law states that the force of gravity is

equal to the product of two masses divided by the square of the distance between them. Finally,

that number is again multiplied by Newton’s constant (Tong 2015). However, Newton’s Law of

Universal Gravitation works on relatively small scales, but what happens when objects become

very massive and distances become very large? Newton believed that matter simply pulled on

other matter across empty space, which is untrue. He also failed to account for the speed of light

when describing gravitational pull. Newton was aware that it plays a role in certain calculations

but he could not prove how (Tong 2015). This is where Newton’s law begins to fall apart and a

new equation is needed to take its place.

Einstein’s Theory and Equation for General Relativity

In 1905, Albert Einstein first published special relativity, which claims that nothing can

travel faster than the speed of light, not even gravitational forces, thus picking up where Newton

left off (Ferreira 2017). Next, in 1915, he presented to the scientific community general

relativity, his most important and significant achievement. With general relativity Einstein re-

evaluated the concept of space and time and concluded that they are an interwoven fabric that
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creates a three dimensional field (Overduin 2007). Einstein’s prediction that space-time is a field

is not a new physical concept. For decades the scientific community has acknowledged the

existence of electrostatic fields that operate between two charged particles (Tong 2015). The

movement of one particle in the field creates a ripple, or a wave, affecting the other particles’

motion (Tong 2015). The wave is the electromagnetic force acting on both of the particles.

Therefore, if planets sit in a space-time field, then there must be waves that propagate through it,

creating the force that scientists call gravity (Tong 2015).

Furthermore, Einstein’s space time is distorted by planets and stars whose masses are

very large. This distortion then affects the motion of the planets (Mastin 2009). For example, in

our solar system, planets orbit around the sun in an ellipse because the sun creates a very large

space-time warp due to its mass. Gravity is the strongest where space-time is the most curved.

For example, Mercury experiences more of the sun’s gravitational pull than the earth because of

its location within the sun’s space-time distortion. Therefore, Einstein hypothesized that gravity

is not necessarily a force, but the physical warping of the space-time continuum. Einstein created

a non-linear equation that modeled his discovery, meaning that its founding required intense

usage of approximation methods and predictions (Will 2017).

Einstein’s equation for general relativity is very complex and contains ten equations

within it. It will tell you how a given amount of mass and energy warps space time. In order to

do this Einstein uses a variable that describes how mass, energy, momentum and pressure are

distributed throughout the universe (Tong 2015). The equation also includes Newton’s constant

and factors in the speed of light. If calculated correctly, it will predict exactly how planets and

other large bodies affect the space-time they sit in (Tong 2015). However, the formula is so

complex it is only solved by computers that are programmed to do so. Einstein’s equations are
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profound and exciting to physicists and scientific minds, and they help explain amazing cosmic

phenomena like black holes and supernovas, but what is their practical use? How can general

relativity make a difference in our technologically advancing world full of amazing feats of

engineering and progress?

Current Applications of General Relativity

The most relevant and current application for general relativity exists within the Global

Positioning System. In the midst of the Cold War, the United States government spent 10 billion

dollars in an effort to increase the navigational capabilities of the US military. The government

along with NASA launched 24 satellites into Earth’s orbit (Will 2017). On earth, handheld

receivers detect radio waves from the satellites. The information sent from the satellites allows

user to determine latitude, longitude and altitude to an accuracy of fifteen meters and local tie to

50 billionths of a second (Will 2017). However, it’s not that simple. The satellites in earth’s orbit

are moving at 14,000 km/hr and circle earth twice per day. The distance from the surface of earth

to the satellites is 20,000 kilometers and they experience gravity that is four times weaker,

because space-time is less curved farther away from earth (Will 2017). The weaker effects of

gravity suggest that the clocks aboard the satellites tick faster by 38 millionths of a second. To

accurately determine a location, the computer chips aboard the satellites are programmed with

relativity calculations and correct the difference in time (Will 2017). On earth, the GPS receiver

uses the time at which the satellite signal was emitted, determined by the on-board atomic clock

and encoded into the signal, to calculate correct locations (Will 2017). Without the correct

programming to account for the effects of relativity, GPS would fail to predict accurate locations

and be useless. Relativistic principles have also been used when guiding the MESSENGER

spacecraft on its path of travel around Mercury.

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The MESSENGER mission commenced in August of 2004 with the goal of exploring

Mercury, the smallest, densest and least explored of the planets (Lakdawalla 2008). Mercury is

the closest planet to the sun, which means that it experiences more of the sun’s gravitational pull.

The company that was in charge of the navigation KinetX did include relativistic principles when

determining the trajectory of the spacecraft (Lakdawalla 2008). When using the Newtonian Law

to calculate distance, the targeted fly by destination was predicted to be missed by 65 kilometers.

However, including Einstein’s equation accurately predicted the location of the flyby with a

smaller error of about 5 kilometers total (Lakdawalla 2008). The inclusion of relativity when

determining flight paths of spacecraft will be essential in the future as companies like SpaceX

attempt to send missions to Mars and beyond. General relativity also assists astronomers and

astrophysicists who use the Hubble telescope because of its impact on celestial imaging.

Modern observers of the universe rely on general relativity to gain insight to the phases

and positioning of stars. Because all massive objects affect other massive objects around them,

the light from one star located behind another will be bent as it passes through that objects space-

time distortion (Weaver 2017). The light then reaches the Hubble telescope, the only imaging

device powerful enough to detect its change in path. This method is called microlensing and is

especially useful in determining the masses of white dwarf stars (Weaver 2017). Currently, a

research team at the space Telescope Science Institute in Maryland are using microlensing to

study Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth (Weaver 2017). The present day applications of

general relativity are extremely important and helpful to scientists across many fields. However,

the future may hold a major breakthrough that will revolutionize the daily lives of people as well

as the technological expansion of the world.

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The Story of High Frequency Gravitational Waves

The immediate future will bring with it the development of new technologies dealing

with gravitational waves. Einstein’s determination that space-time is a field brought with it

suggestions of the existence of gravitational waves that propagate through it, much like

electromagnetic waves propagate through an electromagnetic field (Tong 2015). Therefore, the

motions of planets in space create waves that affect other planets. The discovery of gravitational

waves occurred in 2015, exactly 100 years after Einstein produced the theory. The discovery was

made at two Laser Inferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory sites at the same time in

different locations across the United States (Svitil 2016). Waves were detected because of a

cataclysmic event, the merger of two black holes. This merger occurred over 1.3 billion years

ago and created enough of a space-time ripple to reach Earth (Svitil 2016). The observatory finds

the waves by watching to see the disturbances they make to space-time as they pass through the

earth. The discovery took so long because natural gravity waves occur at a low frequency, and

the waves from a huge event on the cosmic timeline had not made it to earth yet. (Svitil 2016).

While low frequency waves are not very useful, high frequency gravitational waves

would create amazing possibilities for communication, propulsion and imaging. In order to fully

use high frequency gravity waves, they must be generated and detected within a laboratory.

There are currently three generators in the production stage. The HFGW detectors are the most

important piece of the puzzle. Particularly, the Li-Baker model, which is labeled as the most

efficient and sensitive (Baker 2010). The Li-Baker detector is an energy resonance system,

which means that it does not measure a change in the length of a physical object or physical

distance like other types of detectors, which include mass resonance spheres and inferometers

(Baker 2010). Instead, it measures gravitational waves by direct coupling between metric
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oscillation that corresponds with the gravitational wave and the oscillation of the electromagnetic

field (Baker 2010). The idea is that as gravity waves propagate through the electromagnetic field,

the scattering of photons will be measured, thus measuring the strength of the gravitational wave

(Baker 2010). The detection of waves is the relatively easy part - creating the technology that can

produce them is still puzzling scientists and engineers in different corners of the globe.

There is some debate about the engineering and construction of a generator. The most

reasonable design features the usage of Film Bulk Acoustic Resonators, which are found in cell

phones (Stephenson 2007). These FBARS will be energized by magnetrons, which are found in

microwave ovens. The magnetrons create electromagnetic waves that force the acoustic

resonators to vibrate (Stephenson 2007). The vibration of the resonators creates a continuous

disturbance in the electromagnetic field by a gravity wave which can be measured by the

aforementioned detector (Baker 2008). Because of the rapid growth of the cell phone industry,

the prices of FBAR’s and magnetrons have significantly decreased, meaning that the successful

creation of a HFGW generator may occur within the coming years (Baker 2008).

Applications of HFGW

The most immediate and important role that high frequency gravity waves can play is in

the communications field. Gravity waves propagate through all matter without much absorption

and can carry significantly more information across larger distances, depths and altitudes.

Standard electromagnetic waves are absorbed very easily into almost every medium (Baker

2003). HFGW communications can potentially be point to point, for example from a ship to a

submarine, or point to multipoint, like a cell tower to cell phones (Baker 2003). When the

production and detection of HFGW is mastered, it will end the era of fiber optic cables, wires,

and other forms of transponder relays. (Baker 2003). There will be no need for expensive
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telecom systems as HFGW will allow people to communicate directly from Russia to Venezuela

without the help of towers and wired infrastructure. Beyond Earth, HFGW will allow future

aerospace vehicles like the magnetohydrodynamic aerodyne to successfully navigate in space

without the high amounts of electrostatic interference (Baker 2003). The commercial aspects of

communication with HFGW will make a large impact on the modern world, enabling militaries

to use this technology as well, for better or for worse.

The low absorption rate of high frequency gravitational waves means that they can be

generated at one of the earth's poles and received at the other. Militaries can take advantage of

this technology and use it to increase the effectiveness of their surveillance techniques in future

wars or hostile situations (Baker 2010). Theoretically, HFGW can be similarly to an X-Ray

machine to observe subterranean structures, geological formations and almost any disruption or

change in the earth's shape and interior (Baker 2010). Also, the interiors of buildings, buried

devices and potentially weapons of mass destruction can be identified and deemed safe or unsafe

by military personnel (Baker 2010). HFGW may allow for remote acoustical eavesdropping or

even a full body scan without the dangers posed by radiation (Baker 2010). The technology will

greatly help the military and law enforcement of the United States and other nations complete

their jobs easier, with more emphasis on safety and protection.

Aside from the communications and military aspects, HFGW could potentially be

included in nuclear fission, a reaction that results in the production of vast amounts of nuclear

energy. Nuclear fission is the process by which a nucleus splits on impact with another particle,

releasing energy. If an HFGW propagates through a nucleus, it is possible that it will be able to

initiate fission at a remote location (Baker 2003). The use of gravity in this process will created

radioactive waste free nuclear reactions and energy reactions. The universe already suggests that
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nuclear fission by gravity waves is possible because on active stars there are countless fission

and fusion reactions taking place, all of which are driven by a gravitational pull (Baker 2003).

The opposite of nuclear fission is also true because HFGW may be used in nuclear fusion

as well. Nuclear fusion occurs when two separate nuclei with a total initial mass combine to

produce a single nucleus with a final mass less than the total initial. The mass that is lost is

converted to energy (Baker 2003). On earth, fusion does not occur by itself because there are

electrostatic barriers that inhibit the reaction from taking place. However, in a controlled

laboratory setting, beaming HFGW towards a target mass composed of appropriate material

potentially could rearrange the atomic structure of the nuclei of two particles to fuse them (Baker

2003). If this process works in tandem with the creation of both a viable HFGW generator and

detector, then the energy consumption of humanity will be drastically reduced and the energy

problem may be solved (Baker 2003). The impact HFGW could have on nuclear energy is

remarkable and bold, but so is applying them to other arenas of exploration, like propulsion in

space.

New forms of propulsion can be introduced along with HFGW, which will benefit future

space travel, amongst other applications. Because the changes and shifting of the space time

continuum create low frequency gravitational waves, it would make sense that scientists could

create HFGW that in turn distort space time (Baker 2003). An effective generator would be used

to warp the space time around a particular object like a spacecraft to create a higher amount of

potential energy behind the craft and a lower amount in front of it (Baker 2003). Then the craft

will simply “roll down a hill” and move forward. The same mechanics can be applied to

sideways movement as well. Therefore, since gravity waves propagate through every object,

HFGW could theoretically be used to move massive objects in space and even to control objects
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such as missiles, warheads, asteroids, and clouds of hazardous vapors (Baker 2003). In terms of

spacecraft, gravitational wave generators could be place directly on board to create curvature

differences in the space time immediately next to the craft. Once again the universe provides a

model of this situation, as a star that is undergoing asymmetric collapse changes its velocity from

100 to 300 km/s because of the rapid emission of gravitational waves (Baker 2003). If physicists

can replicate the propulsion effect created by this scenario in a lab using HFGW, then space

exploration, missile defense, and homeland security will all receive tremendous advancements in

efficiency and effectiveness.

Conclusion

The theory of General Relativity has been called the most beautiful of all existing

physical theories. Its abstract nature explains the mysterious fore that was gravity and has

furthered the physical understanding of the earth and other planets as they rotate around the sun.

The theory suggests that everything in the universe is attracted to each other, every particle is

pulling on every other particle. While fascinating to explain and read about, the practical uses

that emerged after the theory have been extremely important and fundamental to the future role

that gravity will play in the scientific endeavors of humankind.

The current uses of general relativity are instrumental because they provide examples of

how scientists can take abstract theories and turn them into concrete applications. GPS,

MESSENGER and microlensing all set a precedent for the future of general relativity, which is

creating High Frequency Gravitational Waves in a laboratory and applying them to different

areas of transportation, propulsion, imaging, nuclear energy and the military. The downside to

HFGW is that there has not been a Bell-Watson experiment yet, one that proves the effectiveness

of HFGW, which will catapult HFGW into popularity. HFGW offer a promising future for
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humanity and can potentially solve many of the world’s problems. There is no other time then

now to use science as a tool for progress because the possibilities become significantly larger

when intelligent and curious minds seek to apply the knowledge gained from the universe and its

many discoveries.
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Reference List

Baker, R.M.L. (2003). What Poincaré and Einstein have wrought: a modern, practical

application of the General Theory of Relativity (the story of high-frequency gravitational

waves). Retrieved from http://www.gravwave.com/ pdf/The%20Story%20of% 20High

Frequency%20Gravitational%20Waves.pdf

Baker, R.M.L, Stephenson, G, Li, F. (2008). Analyses of the frequency and intensity of

laboratory generated HFGWs. Retrieved from http://www.gravwave.com/docs/Analysis

%20of%20 Lab%20HFGWs.pdf

Baker, R.M.L. (2010). Li-Baker HFGW detector fabrication [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved

from http://www.gravwave.com/index_2.html

Baker, R.M.L. (2010). Military applications of high frequency gravitational waves.

Retrieved from http://www.gravwave.com/docs/Military%20HFGW%20Applications.pdf

Ferreira, P. (2017). Instant expert: General relativity. Retrieved from https://www. New

scientist.com/round-up/instant-expert-general-relativity

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Lakdawalla, E. (2008, February 15). Accounting for general relativity at Mercury. Retrieved

from http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2008/1329.html.
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Mastin, L. (2009). General theory of relativity. Retrieved from https://www.physicsofthe

universe.com/topics_relativity_general.html

Nave, R. (1999). Fundamental forces. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-

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Overduin, J. (2007). Einstein's space-time. Retrieved from https://einstein.stanford.edu/

SPACETIME/spacetime2.html

Stephenson, G. (2007). Lessons for energy resonance HFGW detector designs from mass

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Svitil, K, Allen, K, Kupec, I, Ricci, F, Milde, S, O’Connor, T, Knispel, B. (2016). Gravitational

waves detected 100 years after Einstein’s prediction. Retrieved from https://www.ligo.

caltech. edu/news/ligo20160211

Tong, D. (2015). What is general relativity? Retrieved from https://plus.maths.org/content

/what-general-relativity.

Weaver, D., Villard, R., Sahu, K. (2017, August 6). Hubble astronomers develop a

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Will, C.M. (2017). Einstein's relativity and everyday life. Retrieved from http://physics
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