Geologic well log analysis

Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

Q1: write short notes about using continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool:
A good correlation exists between petrofabric orientation and directional permeability and resistivity of
rocks.
Tectonic deformation of soft rocks, particularly of shales, gives rise to oriented secondary petrofabric and,
thereby, to resistivity anisotropy.
Accordingly, by using oriented and focused resistivities (or conductivities) recorded by three-arm
dipmeter, it is possible to derive the orientation in space of a resistivity anisotropy ellipse at selected and
significant levels within the actual recorded dipmeter log. This, then, derives dominant directions of
petrofabric orientation controlled by sedimentation or tectonic deformation processes.
Q2: Define and give a brief about Fabric of sedimentary rocks:
Fabric: as sedimentary petrologists use it, refers to the orientation of a rock’s elements in space.
Apposition or primary fabrics: is the primary orientation of a rock’s elements that is developed or formed
when the material is deposited.
Tectonic deformation may partially or completely modify primary fabrics in soft sediments.
A sedimentary rock’s fabric elements may be represented by a single crystal, detrital fragment, fossil or
any component that sets as a single unit under an applied force.
Quartz grains constitute the almost universal fabric elements of sandstones.
Shapes of most fabric elements are like sphere, disks or rods.
Orientad and non-oriented fabrics:
Non-oriented fabric elements give rise to isotropic fabrics; whereas oriented fabric elements originate
anisotropic fabrics
An anisotropic fabric results from a force field’s aligning fabric elements.
Filed forces mainly responsible for this alignment in sedimentary rocks are:
1- The earth’s gravitational field.
2- Magnetic force fields.
3- Force fields related to current flow.
Such force fields have magnitude and direction and, therefore, constitute vector fields.
Spheres are not useful fabric elements for reconstructing current direction, since they cannot have a
preferred orientation.
Fabric elements are commonly non-spherical and unequal in size, the packing arrangement is very
difficult, if not possible, to specify in natural gravel and sand.
Disk and rod particles and particles with shapes resembling disks and rod commonly display markedly
preferred orientation. Force fields mainly responsible for these particles orientation may be :
1- The earth’s gravitational field.
2- Its combination with a current force field.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

Particle orientation by gravity alone may occur under sedimentation in an isolated or barred basin cut off,
or nearly cut off, from the main marine area.

Q3: How can sand fabrics be analyzed?

Sand fabrics can be analyzed by two methods:
1- Particulate method.
2- Aggregate method.
Particulate methods: deal with individual grains in an attempt to determine the fabric by measuring
orientation of individual grains.
Aggregate method: involve measuring a bulk or aggregate property that depends on the orientation of
many grains.
Aggregate methods are very attractive because they integrate over a volume of sandstone that may
contain 10 million to 1 billion more grains than a thin section and because they usually take up less time.
Particulate methods of sand fabric determination:
Measuring the orientation of the crystallographic “c” axes of calcite, dolomite and quartz is well
established and straightforward, it is not entirely satisfactory because the crystallographic “c” axis of
quartz grains needs not coincide with the longest shape axis; detrital quartz orientation depends on shape
rather than crystallography.
Specifying the longest apparent axis of a sand grain commonly presents a problem because quartz grains
have neither perfect ellipsoidal nor rectangular shapes; and, also at least three ways have been recognized
for measuring apparent long dimensions of quartz grains, a unique direction cannot be specified in some
irregular grains and in those that are essentially circular.
Aggregate methods of sand fabric analysis:
1- An optical method:
a. Depends on the statistical correlation between crystallographic “c” axes and longest
shape axes of quartz grains.
b. Measures the varying intensity of the monochromatic light passing through a thin section.
Data obtained from this method are in fair to good agreement with particulate fabrics, although
variations in excess of 60O were obtained between the two methods on some samples.
2- Determining the dielectric anisotropy in rocks such as sandstones and limestones, which are
relatively poor electric conductors. It is claimed that in sandstones and limestones, dielectric
anisotropy correlates with fabric anisotropy
Data obtained from this method are in good to fair agreement with the particulate shape fabrics of
sandstones, although some substantial deviation do occur.
3- Acoustic method: determines maximum and minimum direction of acoustic anisotropy that is
implied to principally depend on fabric anisotropy.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

4- A sandstone’s ability to imbibe water is an isotropic property which has been found to depend on
grain fabric. Maximum imbibition of water tends to parallel the direction of the average grain
elongation, and it is a basis for determining fabric anisotropy in the bedding plane.

Q4: Give brief about petrophysical properties and their relation with grain orientation:
In sedimentary rocks, the magnitude of the petrophysical properties (such as, dielectric coefficient,
electrical resistivity, fluid permeability, magnetic susceptibility, sonic transmissibility and thermal
conductivity) is not the same in all directions.
Aggregate petrophysical properties of anisotropic fabrics:
Several studies have demonstrated the anisotropic character of sandstone permeability, the
permeability being more parallel than perpendicular to bedding. The strongest grain orientation is parallel
to the direction of maximum permeability in the bedding plane.
Good correlation has been reported between dielectric coefficient and inhomogeneities in
artificial media, and fair to good correlation has been found with sandstone grain orientation.
Good agreement supposedly exists between sonic anisotropy and sandstone grain orientation.
Directional electrical resistivity should correlate closely with directional permeability variations
as the Kozeny equation suggests

Q5: Give a brief about current direction, sand fabric orientation and shape of sand bodies:
Elongate sand bodies occur in all major sedimentary environments.
Most elongate sand bodies are formed and shaped by those currents responsible for a preferred
orientation of grains composing the sand body. Therefore, a relationship between the alignment of the
long dimension of the sand body and preferred orientation of the component grains is expected.
Elongate sand bodies include two major types:
1- Those that are elongate parallel to the transport direction (sand bodies of fluvial origin).
2- Those that are elongate perpendicular to it (beach deposits or longshore sand bars).

Oriented petrofabric interpretation:

As a statistical expression of the resistivity anisotropy’s direction and degree of preferred orientation, a
simple two-dimensional scheme of vector analysis is employed.
The system considers the straight segments representing the anisotropy degree as vectors with direction
and magnitude.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

The resultant vector direction is interpreted as the preferred orientation direction of the resistivity
anisotropy.
The resultant vector magnitude is interpreted as the degree of preferred orientation.

Sedimentation interpretation:
In sand stone the resistivity anisotropy orientation is perpendicular to the average preferred sand grain
orientation.
The average preferred sand grain orientation indicates the sand body’s elongation direction on account of
its dependence on the deposition current’s direction.
The four common marine sand formations, which are likely to form stratigraphic traps, with the expected
grain orientation and sand body’s expected trend of elongation are:
1- Beach sands:
a. Long sand grain axis is aligned perpendicular to strandline.
b. Sand body is elongated parallel to strandline.
2- Offshore shallow marine sands:
a. Long sand grain axes are perpendicular to strandline.
b. Sand body is elongated parallel to strand line.
3- Deep marine sands:
a. Preferred sand grain orientation parallels strandline.
b. Sand body’s elongated parallel to strand line.
4- Continental alluvial sands:
a. Sand grain orientation and sand body elongation parallel the river valley trends.
In turbidity current deposits, the preferred grain orientation is expected to parallel the direction of current
transport.
In braided river deposits, grains and pebbles are oriented with their long axes perpendicular to current
direction. This is because grains and pebbles are rolled along the bottom by the low velocity water.

Tectonic interpretation:
Tectonic deformation may partially or completely modify primary depositional fabric.
Depending on the deformation intensity and sediments competency, tectonic deformation can impose a
grain orientation that is the product of deformation.
The less competent the sediments, the more likely the transition from a primary to a tectonic secondary
fabric.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

Q6: define warping index:

In grain orientation resulting from tectonic deformation, the sedimentation direction deduced from the
resistivity anisotropy will be apparent.
Deviation of the apparent from the actual sedimentation direction will indicate the degree of tectonic
deformation to which the formations have been subjected.
The degree of warping, or warping index, is the relative difference between the actual and the apparent
sedimentation direction.
The formula gives the warping index w:
1
𝑊 = 90 (𝑇𝑆𝐷 − 𝐴𝑆𝐷)

TSD: true sedimentation direction in degrees derived from regional geological information.
ASD: apparent sedimentation direction in degrees.
This parameter has most significance in brittle sediments, where fracture porosity could develop
from tectonic deformation.

Q7: How to determine the degree and orientation of the resistivity anisotropy:
1- By using the three resistivity values given by the three resistivity curves of a continuous dipmeter
log record, calculations are made of the length of the anisotropy ellipse’s semi-axes on the
bedding plane and their orientation relative to the No.1 dipmeter electrode.
2- The degree of resistivity anisotropy is calculated from the quotient of the large semi-axis divided
by the small semi-axis. In order to magnify the anisotropy effect in a graphical representation, “1”
is subtracted from the quotient.
3- The orientation of the large semi-axis, as projected on a horizontal plane, is calculated with
reference to the magnetic north by using the dip angel and azimuth of the bedding plane.

Q8: Write short notes about directional sedimentation trend studies from conventional high density
dipmeter results:
Directional sedimentation trend studies can predict directions from a known well in which improved sand
development may be found once a dry or marginal well has been drilled and in which poor productivity is
attributed to poor sand development.
To interpret data on the dip vector log, the vectors are first grouped according to three basic patterns.
For vectors to be grouped together to form any one of the patterns, they must exhibit a consistent dip
azimuth.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

The three patterns usually are identified by colors on the log:

1- Red patterns:
a. Groups of vectors showing increasing dip magnitude with increasing depth are red.
b. This pattern is commonly associated with “drape”, “creep” and “slump”.
c. Red patterns also point in the direction of thinning.
2- Blue patterns:
a. Patterns of decreasing dip magnitude with increasing depth are blue.
b. They are associated with forecasting, or current bedding, and generally indicate the
sediment transport direction.
c. They are also found just below the unconformities.
3- Green patterns:
a. Patterns of consistent dip magnitude and direction are greens.
b. Such patterns are prominent where structural dip magnitude is large.
c. In areas of low structural dip, green patterns are not prominent, and statistical methods
are often needed to define structural dip.
d. Green patterns are also represent regional dip.

Q9: Give a brief of Azimuth Frequency Diagram:

An azimuth frequency diagram determines the “statistically preferred dip directions” in the geological
study interval.
It is a polar diagram divided in 10-degree segments with north at the top of the plot.
Starting from the inner circle, segments are shaded according to the computed dip azimuth falling within
the respective segments. Thus the radial length of each shaded segment is proportional to the dip azimuths
falling within that segment.
In addition, azimuths from red and blue patterns in each segment are noted.
With these steps, the azimuth frequency diagram tends to assume characteristics patterns.

Bar-like Sands (barrier bars, offshore bars, tidal channels):

Results in two different patterns:
1- The red and blue pattern azimuths concentrate in the same general direction.
2- The red and blue patters fall 180 degrees apart.
In each case:
The red pattern concentration indicates the sand thinning direction.
The blue patterns concentration indicates the direction of sediment transport during deposition.
The sand body trends at right angel to the concentrations.
Grain orientation studies indicate that these sand bodies are two directional deposits, one by wave
motion perpendicular to shoreline and the other by longshore currents parallel to shoreline.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

Trough-fill sands (river channel deposits):

Two directional concentration centers 90 degrees apart are usually observed on the azimuth frequency
diagram.
Concentrations of red pattern azimuths point toward trough (channel axis).
Concentrations of blue pattern azimuths point toward transport.
The trough (channel) trend is at right angel to the red pattern concentration.
Grain orientation studies indicate that channel-fill sands are unidirectional (parallel to trough’s center).
Special cases:
While the centers of concentration usually fall in one or two directions, three concentrations occasionally
will be observed on the azimuth frequency diagram.
These three concentrations diagram characteristically have two concentrations approximately 180 degrees
apart and the third at right angel.
Opposing concentrations of red pattern azimuths:
Indicate the well is near the sand body’s axis.
Abundant blue patterns, at right angel, suggest a trough axis; few blue patterns suggest a ridge axis.
In either case. The trend of the sand body parallels the blue pattern azimuth, or is at right angel to the red
pattern azimuth.
Opposing concentrations of blue pattern azimuths:
May represent a series of transgressive and regressive trends within a trough.
If so, the trough trends parallel to the blue pattern azimuths and its axis is indicated by the concentration
of red pattern azimuths.

Q10: Give a brief about Modified Schmidt Diagram:

A modified Schmidt diagram distinguishes between present structural and depositional dip.
The diagram is a polar plot of dip azimuth and magnitude.
The azimuth grid, with north at the top of the plot, divides the circle into 10-degree segments.
The dip magnitude grid is formed by concentric circles corresponding to each 10-degrees of dip with zero
at the perimeter and 90 degrees at the center.
For the interval under study, each computed dip is plotted with respect to magnitude and direction.
Contours are then drawn on equal concentrations of dip occurrences within incremental grid sections.
In low structural dip areas:
Point concentrations from structural fall along the periphery of the plot.

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Geologic well log analysis
Ch_5 Continuous dipmeter as a sedimentation tool

These contours are elongate with little variation in dip magnitude.

The azimuth variation within the concentration of structural dips deceases as the structural dip magnitude
increases. However, variation in dip magnitude remains small.

Depositional dips:
It lead to triangle-shaped contours.
The triangle base appears on or near the periphery of the plot with the apex points toward the center.
Depositional dips characteristically exhibits large variations in magnitude- from zero to 40 degrees.
When structural dip exceeds a few degrees, components from structural dip must be subtracted before
depositional directions can be oriented properly.