General Flying

Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport
Class E
FL 600
Class A
No VFR
DME required at and above FL 240 [91.205(e)]
18,000 MSL (FL 180) — Altimeter 29.92
Class E
Class E
14,500 MSL
Class E
12,500 MSL
Ceiling of Class B
can be anywhere
10,000 MSL — Transponder Mode C (91.215) from 7,000 to 12,500
Speed Limit — 250 Knots below 10,000 MSL MSL
Class E
Speed Limit 7,000 MSL
200 kts below
2,500 AGL
within 4 NM Class E
of an airport Class B
in Class C or
D airspace.
(does not apply to
Class B) Speed Limit
4,000 AGL Unlimited
at & above 10,000’;
250 KIAS
Class E 2,500 AGL Class C below 10,000’;
200 KIAS
Class D
below a floor.
1,200 AGL
700 AGL Class E
Class G
Class G
Class G Class G
Class E can go down to Class E to the surface

Class D 700’ AGL to accommodate Class B — Individually
No radar must have weather
instrument approaches. tailored. 250 kts below reporting and radio
10,000 (200 kts below the communications with
Class G — When 700’ Class D with radar floor or in VFR corridor). ATC to the ground.
MAGENTA on sectionals. is called a TRSA
Class C — Radar. Individually Class G — When

Class G — Uncontrolled. tailored but usually 5 NM Core 1,200’ BLUE on
Surface to 14,500 MSL. from surface to 4,000’ AGL, 10 sectionals.
Shaded on enroute charts NM Shelf from 1,200 to 4,000
(mostly western US) AGL, Outer Area 20 NM radius.
2 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

CLASS A Airspace: (71.1, 71.31, 71.33, 71.75, 71.133, 91.135, 91.155, AIM 3-2-1, 3-2-2, 3-2-3)
1. All airspace from 18,000 feet up to and including FL 600 within the 48 contiguous States (including the
District of Columbia) and most of Alaska plus the airspace within 12 NM offshore.
There is no Class A airspace over Hawaii and the Victor airways have no upper limit in Hawaii.
2. All aircraft MUST be IFR unless otherwise authorized. No VFR (unless for purposes of lost communications).
3. No minimum flight visibility or distance from clouds is specified.
4. Altimeter setting for all aircraft — 29.92
CLASS B Airspace: (71.41, 91.117, 91.126, 91.127, 91.129, 91.130, 91.131, 91.155, 91.215, AIM 3-2-1, 3-2-3, 3-5-6)
1. Surface to 7,000 feet or up to 12,500 feet surrounding the nation’s busiest airports.
2. Individually tailored upside-down wedding cakes — contain all instrument approaches.
3. Clearance into Class B required. (91.131)
4. VFR operations — 3 miles — Clear of Clouds and at least a 1,000 ft ceiling (or Special VFR) .
5. IFR operations — An operable VOR or TACAN receiver is required. (91.131)
6. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, a LARGE TURBINE-POWERED airplane operating to or from a
primary airport in Class B airspace MUST operate AT or ABOVE the FLOORS of the Class B airspace
while within the lateral limits of that area even when operating on a visual approach.
7. A LARGE (12,500 lbs or more) or TURBINE-POWERED airplane shall, unless otherwise required by
distance from cloud criteria, enter the TRAFFIC PATTERN at an altitude of at least 1,500 feet AGL and
maintain 1,500 AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing. [Noise abatement]
8. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an ILS shall fly at or
above the GLIDE SLOPE between the outer marker and the middle marker.
9. Any airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VASI shall maintain at or above the glide
slope (aka glide path) until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.
10. Mode C veil — All aircraft operating within 30 NM of a Class B airport, from the surface to 10,000 feet
must have Mode C (unless the aircraft was originally certified without an electrical system and still does not have one).
11. SPEED LIMIT — 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet (200 KIAS below the floor or in VFR corridor).
a. 250 KIAS MUST NOT BE EXCEEDED even if you are told to “MAINTAIN BEST FORWARD
SPEED.”
b. “Maintain best (or maximum) forward speed” — means — “maximum or best forward
*LEGAL* speed.” ATC does not have the authority to lift the 250 below 10,000 ft speed
restriction [91.117(a)]. You cannot be cleared to violate a regulation, and you cannot accept
such a clearance.
c. If a controller assigns you 300 kts or greater inbound (10,000 ft or above), and he later
descends you to 8,000 ft, it is UNDERSTOOD that you must slow to 250 KIAS BEFORE
descending below 10,000.
d. NOTE: There was a test program that took place at HOUSTON International (IAH) to delete the
250 kts below 10,000 for DEPARTURES only, AND only if authorized by ATC. The
phraseology was “NO SPEED LIMIT” or “INCREASE SPEED TO (number) KNOTS” or
“DELETE the 250 kt RESTRICTION” or “CLIMB UNRESTRICTED” or “HIGH SPEED CLIMB
APPROVED”. This program was cancelled in January of 2004.
“At or above the glide slope” does OpSpec C077 requires commercial
not prohibit normal bracketing “Normal bracketing maneuvers”
maneuvers above or below the are maneuvers which remain within operators to remain within Class B, C, or
glide slope for the purpose of the limits of the higher and lower D airspace — or within Class E airspace
glide slope signals. when within 35 miles of the destination.
remaining on the glide slope.
Do you have to hear the words “ Cleared into Class B” ???

1. If you can get a word in edgewise, always ask for confirmation, just to get it on the tape.
2. But if you’ve been radar identified; and given a heading/altitude assignment that will put you in the Class B;
and you cannot get through the radio clutter to get a Class B clearance confirmation — stay on the assigned
heading [91.123(a) When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may deviate from that
clearance. 91.123(b) Except in an emergency, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC
instruction…]. The formal words “Cleared into Class B” are moot (although it sure is comforting to hear those words).
3. 91.131 [Operations in Class B airspace] (a)(1) — “The operator must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC
facility having jurisdiction for that area before operating an aircraft in that area.”
It does NOT say — “The operator must HEAR the WORDS ‘Cleared into Class B’…”
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 3

CLASS E Airspace: (71.71, 91.127, 91.155, AIM 3-2-1, 3-2-6, 3-2-8)

1. CONTROLLED airspace that is not Class A, B, C, or D within the 48 contiguous States and Alaska.
2. Generally the upward limit is 18,000 feet. NOTE: Class E airspace begins again above FL 600.
3. Types of Class E:
a. A SURFACE AREA designated for an AIRPORT designed to contain all instrument
approaches. The primary requirements for a Class E airport are approved weather reporting
(FSS or ASOS/AWOS) and a means of communications with ATC all the way to the ground.
b. EXTENSIONS to a SURFACE AREA of Class B, C, or D airspace to contain instrument
approaches.
c. TRANSITION AREAS beginning at either 700 or 1,200 ft AGL, used to/from the en route
environment.
d. EN ROUTE AREAS that provide controlled airspace for IFR but are NOT Federal airways.
e. Federal AIRWAYS from 1,200 AGL upward to but not including 18,000 MSL.
f. Unless designated at lower altitude—Class E begins at 14,500 MSL up to, but not including,
18,000 MSL.
OpSpec C077 requires commercial operators to remain within Class B, C, or D
airspace — or within Class E airspace when within 35 miles of the destination.
.VFR in CLASS E (controlled) Airspace : (91.155, 91.157, AIM 3-2-6, 3-1-4, 5-4-20,
OpSpec C077)
1. Less than 10,000 feet MSL — 3 SM visibility — Cloud separation: 500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000
horizontally.
2. At or above 10,000 feet MSL — 5 SM visibility — Cloud separation: 1,000 below, 1,000 above, 1 mile
horizontally.
3. No person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within the limits of controlled
airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet (except “Special
VFR” — 91.157).
4. NOTE #1: Do NOT cancel in the air while on approach to an airport with a Class E surface area
unless the weather meets the basic VFR weather and cloud separation requirements of 91.155
(see 1. above) unless you have received a “Special VFR” clearance (91.157).
5. NOTE #2: A “Special VFR” clearance is treated almost the same as an IFR clearance as far as
separation is concerned. It is not likely to save you or the guy behind you any time. So, if the
weather is below 3 miles visibility and/or the ceiling is below 1,000 ft or there’s a chance that cloud
separation could be a problem, just wait till you’re on the ground to cancel. You never know who
might be lurking in the weeds just waiting for a chance to make your life miserable.
6. NOTE #3: To conduct a VISUAL APPROACH in Class B, C, D, or E airspace under Part 91 you need
only maintain “clear of clouds” (AIM 5-4-20). Part 135 (turbojets) and Part 121 are restricted by
OpSpec C077 and must maintain the cloud separation required by 91.155 (see 1. above).
SURFACE-BASED CLASS E: (AC 90-66A, Airplane Flying Handbook FAA H-8083-3)

1. Brings Class E, controlled airspace, to the surface in order to raise the weather minimums and
restrict VFR traffic during poor weather. Especially important for ILS approaches.
2. Must have approved weather reporting and communications with ATC to the surface.
3. The airport manager must also request and receive Class E approval from the FAA.
4. Most airports with weather reporting and communications with ATC never request Class E status
because it would make VFR traffic illegal when the visibility drops below 3 SM and/or ceiling below
1,000 feet. Not good for business, especially if there’s a flight school on the field.
5. When weather reporting is unavailable, Class E reverts to Class G with a Class E transition area.
6. Represented by dashed lines on sectionals and enroute charts.
7. Surface-based Class E was formerly known as a control zone. Class E
8. “RECOMMENDED” traffic pattern SPEED LIMIT is 200 kts.

Chap 10 — Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia
PILOT IN COMMAND (1.1)

Means the person who:
(1) Has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight;
(2) Has been designated as pilot in command before or during the flight; and
(3) Holds the appropriate category, class, and type rating, if appropriate, for the conduct of the flight.
PILOT IN COMMAND SEATING POSITION:

1. AIRPLANES — The PIC normally sits on the LEFT — Evolved from the maritime rule that states
vessels approaching head-on must pass to the right of each other. Sitting on the left provided the best
view when passing at close quarters such as in a harbor. It is curious that most all present-day pleasure
boats seat the driver on the right.
2. HELICOPTERS — The PIC normally sits on the RIGHT — The first successful helicopters (developed
by Igor Sikorsky) had a single “collective” / throttle control located between the two pilots. Both pilots
were provided a control stick (“cyclic”). Since it was more desirable to operate
the stick with the right hand and the collective with the left hand, the PIC
would normally sit on the right. Most modern helicopters have a collective
installed on the left side of both pilot seats, but the custom
continues. Many manufacturers also place slightly more fuel on
the left side of the helicopter to help balance the load when the
pilot is the only one on board.
ACTIVE PILOTS in the UNITED STATES: (Year 2001)

1. A little over 635,470 “active pilots” (with current medicals).
Approximate breakdown:
⇒ 97,360 Student Pilots.
⇒ 343 Recreational Pilots.
⇒ 258,750 Private Pilots.
⇒ 124,260 Commercial Pilots.
⇒ 79,700 Flight Instructors.
⇒ 137,640 Airline Transport Pilots.
2. The number of active pilots peaked at 820,000 in 1980.
3. Approximately 3 million people hold some level of pilot certificate but of those only about 600,000 have
current medicals.
ENGLISH — The UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE:

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Annex 10 (Aeronautical Telecommunications)
Chapter 5.2.1.1.2 — “… pending the development and adoption of a more suitable form of speech for
universal use in aeronautical radiotelephony communications, the English language should be used as such
and should be available at all stations on the ground serving designated airports and routes used by
international air services.”
WILCO: (P/C Glossary)

I have received your message, understand it, and will comply with it.
TANGO: (AIM 4-2-4)

Air Taxi or other commercial operators not having FAA authorized call signs should prefix their normal
identification with the phonetic word "Tango".
FLIGHT CHECK: (P/C Glossary)

A call-sign prefix used by FAA aircraft engaged in flight inspection/certification of navigational aids and flight
procedures. The word "recorded" may be added as a suffix; e.g., "Flight Check 320 recorded" to indicate
that an automated flight inspection is in progress in terminal areas.

Chap 10 — Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia
OIL: (AC 65-12A, AC 65-15A)
1. MINERAL OIL — Also known as non-detergent oil because it contains no additives. Normally used
in a new or over-hauled engine for break-in.
2. ASHLESS DISPERSANT — Mineral oil with additives that give it high anti-wear properties and is
available in multi-viscosity formulas. Ashless dispersant oil picks up contamination and carbon
(ash) particles and keeps them suspended so buildups of sludge do not form.
3. VISCOSITY:
(a) Viscosity is internal resistance to flow. A liquid such as gasoline flows easily (has a low
viscosity) while a liquid such as tar flows slowly (has a high viscosity). Viscosity increases as
temperature decreases.
(b) Generally, oils of lower viscosity are used in colder weather and oils of higher viscosity are
used in warmer weather.
(c) Commercial aviation oils are classified numerically, such as 80, 100, 120, etc., which are an
approximation of their viscosity as measured by a testing instrument called the Saybolt Universal
Viscosimeter. In this instrument a tube holds a specific quantity of the oil to be tested. The oil is
brought to an exact temperature by a liquid bath surrounding the tube. The time in seconds
required for exactly 60 cubic centimeters (about 2 ounces) of oil to flow through the accurately
calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the oil's viscosity.
(d) 120 (Commercial Aviation no.) = The approximate number of seconds it takes for exactly 60cc of
oil (heated to 210ºF) to flow through the outlet orifice of the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter.
(e) The letter "W" occasionally is included in the SAE number giving a designation such as SAE 20W.
This letter "W" indicates that the oil, in addition to meeting the viscosity requirements at the
testing temperature specifications, is a satisfactory oil for winter use in cold climates.
(f) Although each grade of oil is rated by an SAE number (Society of Automotive Engineers),
depending on its specific use, it may be rated with a commercial aviation grade number or an
Army and Navy specification number. The correlation between these grade numbering systems
is shown below. Heating Unit Thermometer
Liquid Bath
Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter Oil
Grading System Correlation

Automotive Army & Navy
Commercial
Equivalent Specification
Aviation No.
(SAE) (AN)
65 30 1065
80 40 1080
100 50 1100
120 60 1120
Container
140 70 Cork
60 c.c. Reservoir
Piston Engine SMOKE:

1. BLUE Smoke — Oil burn in the cylinders most likely due to worn or broken piston rings.
2. BLACK Smoke — Residual carbon granules exhausting due to an excessively rich mixture causing
some of the fuel to not be burnt, turning it into carbon granules.
3. WHITE Smoke — High water content in the combustion chamber exhausted as “steam” smoke.
BACKFIRING of a reciprocating engine is caused when the fuel-air mixture in the induction system is
ignited by gases that are still burning in a cylinder when its intake valve opens. This is usually an
indication of a mixture that is too lean, which can be caused by any number of reasons.

Chap 11 — Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions
ºC ºF Reciprocals
360º - 180º Measurements
38 100
010º - 190º 1/64 - 1/32 - 3/64 - 1/16
35 95
020º - 200º 800-992-7433. 5/64 - 3/32 - 7/64 - 1/8
32 90 030º - 210º 9/64 - 5/32 - 11/64 - 3/16
IFR (VFR)
29 85 040º - 220º (Tail#) _______________ 13/64 - 7/32 - 15/64 - 1/4
27 80 050º - 230º (AC Type)________/U/A/G 17/64 - 9/32 - 19/64 - 5/16
24 75 ________ Knots 21/64 - 11/32 - 23/64 - 3/8
060º - 240º 25/64 - 13/32 - 27/64 - 7/16
21 70 (Where am I?) __________
070º - 250º Departure Time __ (or ASAP) 29/64 - 15/32 - 31/64 - 1/2
18 65 080º - 260º _________ thousand 33/64 - 17/32 - 35/64 - 9/16
15 59 090º - 270º DÎ___DÎ & Lndg____ 37/64 - 19/32 - 39/64 - 5/8
13 55 100º - 280º ____hours enroute 41/64 - 21/32 - 43/64 - 11/16
10 50 110º - 290º Remarks ___________ 45/64 - 23/32 - 47/64 - 3/4
____hours fuel 49/64 - 25/32 - 51/64 - 13/16
7 45 120º - 300º Alternate? _ _ _ 53/64 - 27/32 - 55/64 - 7/8
4 40 130º - 310º Name__ __spelled_ _ _ 57/64 - 29/32 - 59/64 - 15/16
2 35 140º - 320º Based in _ _ _ Phone #______
61/64 - 31/32 - 63/64 - 1”
150º - 330º _____ on board
0 32 (color) ______ & ______
-4 25 160º - 340º
-7 20 170º - 350º
DG
-9 15
-12 10 Transponder
-15 5 This TAKEOFF mnemonic will keep you
—————————
-18 0 alive in virtually any airplane.
Pumps / Props
-21 -5 If you’re flying a turbine or jet, you might Vacuum
-23 -10 want to add the IGNITERS at the end. Trim
-26 -15 —————————
-29 -20 Always do the real checklist FIRST, and
Flaps / Fuel
-32 -25 then back it up with this mnemonic. Lights
You’d be amazed how often a checklist item Attitude / Altitude
inadvertently gets omitted, even in a 737. Doors
Engines
Controls
SPIN Recovery
PARE
Power — IDLE SHUTDOWN
Ailerons — NEUTRAL
Radios
Rudder — OPPOSITE direction of spin
Elevator — Briskly FORWARD
Mags
Lights
MASTER

Chap 11 — Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions
Conversions, Comparisons, Formulas & Weights

Aeronautical Chart Sectional....................................................................... 8 SM or 7 NM per inch
WAC and ONC ......................................................... 16 SM or 14 NM per inch
Scales Terminal Area ............................................................ 4 SM or 3.5 NM per inch
1 NM = 1.15078 SM = 6,076.12 feet = 2025.3733 yards = 1.852 kilometers
MILES / KILOMETERS 1 SM = .86898 NM = 5,280 feet = 1760 yards = 1.6093 kilometers
1 Kilometer = 3,281 feet = 0.62137 SM = 0.53996 NM = 1093.6666 yards
1 SM Per Hour = 88 Feet Per Minute = 1.46 Feet Per Second
SPEED 1 NM Per Hour (1 Knot) = 101.288 Feet Per Minute = 1.69 Feet Per Second
120 knots = 2 NM per min or 5:00 to go 10 miles
240 knots = 4 NM per min or 2:30 to go 10 miles Speed of Sound
@ 15ºC =
480 knots = 8 NM per min or 1:15 to go 10 miles 661.7 knots or
Speed of Sound This formula will determine the 1116.9 feet per second
(knots) speed of sound to within 1 knot 39 x OAT in Kelvin

ºC to ºF Ballpark Figure:
TEMPERATURE ºC to ºF Kelvin = ºCelsius + 273 Double the number of ºC and
30’s hot, 20’s nice, 10 is cold (ºC x 1.8) + 32 = ºF add 30.
and 0’s ice (ºF – 32) 5/9 = ºC 2 x 15ºC = 30 + 30 = 60ºF
ºRankin = ºFahrenheit + 459.7
WEIGHT
100LL Av Gas = 6.0 lbs/gal (2.72 kg) (1 liter = 1.6 lbs or .719 kg)
(Av Gas = 6 lbs/gal @ +20ºF = 6.3 lbs/gal @ -40ºF = 5.56 lbs/gal @ +104ºF)...
50W Oil = 7.5 lbs/gal (1.875 lbs/qt = 1.981 lbs/liter)
Jet A = 6.75 lbs/gal (3.06 kg) (1 liter = 1.8 lbs or .8 kg)
Kerosene = 6.75 lbs/gal
Prop Alcohol = 6.8 lbs/gal
5606 Hydraulic Fluid = 7.2 lbs/gal
Water = 8.33 lbs/gal
Methanol = 6.62 lbs/gal
U.S. to METRIC 1 quart............................................ 0.95 liter = 906 grams = .95L = 946ml
1 U.S. gallon .................................. 3.7853 liters = 3624 grams
1 U.S. gallon ................................... 0.83268 Imperial gallons
1 inch .............................................. 25.4 millimeters (mm) or 2.54 centimeters
Gallons x 3.785 = 1 foot............................................... 0.3048 meters or 30.48 centimeters
Liters 1 yard.............................................. 0.9144 meters
1 Statute Mile ................................ 1.6 kilometers (5280 feet)
1 Nautical Mile .............................. 1.85 kilometers or 6076 feet
1 ounce .......................................... 28.35 Grams
1 pound........................................... 0.45359 kilogram
1 horsepower.................................. 0.75 kilowatt
METRIC to U.S. 1 liter .............................................. 0.26418 U.S. gallons (1.0567 qts)
1 Imperial gallon ............................. 1.2 U.S. gallons
1 millimeter ..................................... 0.04 inch
1 centimeter.................................... 0.39 inch
Liters x .264 = 1 meter........................................... 3.2808 feet or 39.37 inches or 1.0936 yds
Gallons 1 kilometer..................................... 0.62 SM or 0.54 NM or 3281 feet
1 gram ............................................ 0.035 ounce
1 kilogram...................................... 2.2046 pounds or 35.27396 ounces
1 kilowatt......................................... 1.3 horsepower
METRIC to METRIC 1 centimeter.................................... 10 millimeters
1 meter ........................................... 100 centimeters (1,000 millimeters)
1 kilometer ...................................... 1,000 meters
1 liter............................................... 1,000 milliliters
1 kiloliter ......................................... 1,000 liters
1 gram ............................................ 1,000 milligrams
1 kilogram ....................................... 1,000 grams
1 metric ton..................................... 1,000 kilograms

Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach
PREFLIGHT ACTION: (91.103)
Before beginning a flight, each Pilot In Command shall become familiar with all available information
concerning the flight including — weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available,
traffic delays — aircraft performance for expected airport elevation, runway slope, wind, temperature
and aircraft gross weight — runway lengths, takeoff & landing distance information, and NOTAMS.
ATC CLEARANCE and FLIGHT PLAN REQUIRED: (91.173)

No person may operate an aircraft in CONTROLLED airspace under IFR unless that person has—
(a) Filed an IFR flight plan; and
(b) Received an appropriate ATC clearance.
It is perfectly legal to fly in UNCONTROLLED [Class G] airspace without an IFR flight plan or clearance.
Therefore, when receiving an IFR clearance on the ground at an uncontrolled (Class G) airport, the
clearance may include the phrase “upon entering controlled airspace… ”
NOTE: See Chapter 1 for more details about flying under IFR in UNCONTROLLED [Class G] airspace.
PREFERRED ROUTES: (P/C Glossary, A/FD)

1. Established between busier airports to increase efficiency and capacity.
2. Preferred routes are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory. 800 -992-7433.
IFR (VFR)
(Tail#) _______________
(AC Type)________/U/A/G
A pilot operating under Part 91 can file an IFR flight plan to an ________ Knots
airport that does not have an instrument approach (or does not (Where am I?) __________
have an instrument approach that the aircraft can legally execute) Departure Time ___(or ASAP)
if the pilot includes in that flight plan an alternate airport, which _________ thousand
meets the alternate airport weather requirements of 91.169(c). Dè___Dè & Lndg____
____hours enroute
Remarks ____________
FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS at STATIONS — ____hours fuel
(PILOTS in their SEATS) — SAFETY BELTS — Alternate? _ _ _
Name__ __spelled_ _ _
SEAT BELTS — SHOULDER HARNESS: Based in _ _ _ Phone #______
(91.105, 91.521, 135.128, 121.311, 121.543) _____ on board
(a) During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight (color) ______ & ______
crewmember shall—
(1) Be at the crewmember station unless the absence is necessary to
perform duties in connection with the operation of the aircraft or in connection with
physiological needs; and
(2) Keep the SAFETY BELT fastened while at the crewmember station.
(b) Each required flight crewmember shall, during takeoff and landing, keep his or her SHOULDER
HARNESS fastened while at his or her assigned duty station. This paragraph does not apply if —
(1) The seat is not equipped with a shoulder harness; or
(2) The crewmember would be unable to perform required duties with the shoulder harness
fastened.
Physiological — functional “Physiological needs” — using the
processes in an organism or restroom, stretching your legs briefly,
any of its parts. or “other” physiological requirements.
91.203(b) — No person may

operate a civil aircraft unless the
airworthiness certificate required
or a special flight authorization is 91.107 requires that you
displayed at the cabin or cockpit brief your passengers to
entrance so that it is legible to fasten their seatbelts before
passengers or crew. taxi, takeoff and landing.

TAKEOFF BRIEFING: (AC 120-71 APPENDIX 17)

AC 120-71 — Standard Operating Procedures for Flight Deck Crewmembers:
The purpose of the pilot briefing is to enhance communications on the flight deck and to promote effective
teamwork. Each crewmember is expected to perform as an integral part of the team. The briefing should
establish a mutual understanding of the specific factors appropriate for the flight. A pilot briefing should be
given prior to starting engines for the first flight of the day (and any subsequent flight, if applicable).
A TAKEOFF BRIEFING should be given prior to each takeoff.
The captain (typically) determines the length and detail of the briefing. Factors to consider include:
⇒ Experience level of the pilots.
⇒ Special MEL procedures as a result of inoperative components.
TAKEOFF BRIEFING (typical)

Pilot Flying (PF) — “The Departure Procedure is — fly runway heading to 3000 then a left turn to 270º on
course, climb and maintain 9000. I’ll have you set takeoff power on my command — call out —
Power Set, Airspeed Alive, 80 knots Crosscheck, V1, Rotate, Positive Rate, Gear Up and Flap Speed.
Monitor the gauges—any major malfunction (such as engine fire, engine failure, thrust reverser deployment,
loss of directional control, or other catastrophic malfunction) below V 1 — we’ll abort — any malfunctions
after V1, — we’ll continue. If we do lose an engine after V1, we’ll return to land on the most convenient
runway. Any Questions?”
.Pilot Not Flying (PNF) — “Are we gon’na get some food when we get to Albuquerque?”
Pilot Flying (PF) — “Affirmative. Takeoff briefing complete.”
Other considerations could be:

⇒ Runway conditions
⇒ Terrain
⇒ Abort procedures (e.g., drag chute, thrust
reversers) Lengel Executive Airlines
⇒ Anti-ice .TAKEOFF. FALCON 20
⇒ Takeoff alternate
ATIS:.
TOLD Card (Take-Off & Landing Data)

(TAKEOFF side) Typically provides spaces for:
V1
WEIGHT
1. ATIS
2. Takeoff weight
VR
FLAPS TIME TO 100
3. Flap setting
4. Time to 100 knots
V2
T.O.
5. Power settings — TakeOff and Max Continuous
6. Runway required — Balanced Field Length
VFR
M.C.
(BFL), aka Required Runway Length, Takeoff
Field Length, Accelerate-Stop/Go distance or
VFS
RWY RQD
Critical Field Length
7. Speeds:
RETURN
(a) V1 — Takeoff decision speed
(b) VR — Rotation speed
(c) V2 — Takeoff safety speed & best VENR VREF
single engine climb gradient CLEARANCE:.
(d) VFR —Flap Retraction speed
(e) VFS — Final Segment climb speed
(f) VENR — ENRoute climb speed
(g) Return VREF — Emergency RETURN
for landing REFerence speed
8. Clearance

APPROACH BRIEFING — ATIS-ATS:

1. “ATIS” —
a. “WIND is…
b. ALTIMETER SETTING is… Another Acronym to Consider
c. Glideslope out of service; AHARMMMS
d. Approach lights out of service; ATIS, Heading, Altitude, Radios,
e. Locator Outer Marker out of service; Markers, Minimums, Missed, Speed.
f. Snack machine at the FBO out of Fritos.”
2. “A” = Approach —
th
a. DATE and chart NUMBER — “This chart is dated July 5 20XX revision # 31-1.”
b. NAME and LOCATION of approach — “ILS 18R at CLT, Charlotte Douglas.”
c. Navaid FREQUENCY — “Localizer frequency is 111.3. I’m putting it in both boxes now and
identifying.” (also a good time to tune and identify any other frequencies that may be applicable
such as the Locator Outer Marker, etc.)
NOTE: ALWAYS set BOTH approach capable navigation radios to the localizer frequency.
NEVER trust your life to just one approach radio. If you only have two approach capable
nav radios, NEVER set one of them to the missed approach frequency before the approach
(therefore trusting your life to only one nav radio for the approach).
Remember, EVERY missed approach begins EXACTLY the same way —
CLIMB like a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Sort out the details later.
d. FINAL APPROACH COURSE — “The final approach course is 183º and I’m putting it in both
HSI’s (or OBS’s) now.”
e. GLIDE SLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE — “Glide Slope Intercept Altitude will be 4600 feet at
‘TOMME’ which is the CLT VOR 14.3 DME fix and I’m putting CLT 115.0 in the DME now.”
f. Decision Height or Minimum Descent Altitude and Missed Approach Point — “Decision
Height will be 943 feet on the Glide Slope and that will be our missed approach point.”
g. TOUCHDOWN ZONE ELEVATION (TDZE) — “The touchdown zone elevation is 743 feet. Do
NOT descend below this altitude at any time!”
h. MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE — “Missed approach is a climb to 3600 feet via the CLT
186º radial, basically straight ahead. I’ll give you the rest of the holding instructions when and if
we need them.”
i. RUNWAY LENGTH — “The runway is 10,000 feet long and 150 feet wide.”
3. “T” = Terrain — Minimum Sector Altitude and the highest obstacle. Any interesting TOWERS
or MOUNTAINS in the area that you may want to avoid during the approach or the missed approach?
4. “S” = Speeds & Special — “Approach speed (V AP) will be 126 and VREF will be 118. Initial
go-around speed is 132 (V AC ), I’ll give you that speed again and flap retract speed (V FR ) should we have
to go missed.”
⇒ VAP — APproach target speed—VREF + configuration and wind
⇒ VREF — REF erence speed for final approach
⇒ VAC — Missed Approach Climb speeds for flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1%
climb gradient)
⇒ VFR — Flap Retraction speed — minimum speed required for flap retraction (after missed
approach)
Special — Anything that merits special attention. Like maybe the 3 inches of ice hanging off the
wings that could call for an increase in the approach speed or maybe that enormous thunderstorm
right off the opposite end of the runway, either of which could warrant
special attention to making this
particular approach work. Noise
abatement procedures might be
another issue especially on
some visual approaches.
5. “Any QUESTIONS?”

.NONPRECISION — NDB / VOR — APPROACH & HOLDING:

PRIMARY NDB CONCEPTS: (AIM 1-1-2, FAA-H-8083-15 Instrument Flying Handbook)
1. PARALLEL the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):
⇒ The HEAD of the needle ALWAYS points to the COURSE (and the wind).
2. While PARALLELING the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):

If the HEAD of the needle is:
⇒ LEFT of Center — Turn LEFT — 30º or 45º for a few seconds
(turning only “double the deflection” is usually much too wimpy, it will NOT work in any significant wind)
⇒ RIGHT of Center — Turn RIGHT — 30º or 45º for a few seconds
(turning only “double the deflection” is again much too wimpy)
Since ADF receivers do not have a “flag” to warn when erroneous information is
being displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB’s identification.
NDB OUTBOUND:
1. Parallel the outbound course .
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle — 30º or 45º for a few seconds.
3. When the TAIL (superimposed on the DG) points to the outbound course — YOU’RE ON IT — turn
back to the outbound heading and see what you got — repeat if necessary (it’s just like shampooing!).
4. NOTE: The Procedure Turn is always AWAY from the fix.
NDB INBOUND:
1. Parallel the inbound course .
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle — 30º or 45º for a few seconds.
3. When the HEAD (superimposed on the DG) points to the inbound course — YOU’RE ON IT — turn
back to the inbound heading and see what you got — repeat if necessary.
NDB or VOR — ON the Field:

1. When established on the inbound course — DROP the GEAR / FLAPS & DESCEND to MDA as
quickly as possible — AT LEAST 1,000 to 2,000 FPM
(you must get to MDA As Soon As Possible so you have time to look for the airport).
2. If this will be a Single Engine CIRCLING approach — be ready to get the gear / flaps back UP before
reaching MDA.
NDB or VOR — OFF the Field:

1. When crossing over the NDB / VOR inbound—start TIME—DROP the GEAR/FLAPS & DESCEND to
MDA as quickly as possible — AT LEAST 1,000 to 2,000 FPM
(you must get to MDA As Soon As Possible so you have time to look for the airport).
2. If this will be a Single Engine CIRCLING approach — be ready to get the gear / flaps back UP before
reaching MDA.
HOLDING: (AIM 4-4-3, 5-3-7, 5-4-8, FIG 5-3-1, 5-3-2, 5-3-3)

STANDARD (RIGHT turns) NON-STANDARD (LEFT turns)
D D P
P 110º 70º 70º 110º
30º 30º
T D D T
VISUAL Descent Point (VDP): [AIM 5-4-5f, P/C Glossary, 121.651(c)(4)]
1. A defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach from which
normal descent from the MDA to the runway touch-down zone may commence, provided the runway or
approach lights, etc., are clearly visible to the pilot.
2. The VDP is almost always located so that it coincides with a VASI, PAPI, or other ground-based
descent aid. The VDP is identified on the profile view of the approach chart by the symbol: V.
3. To calculate a 3º descent angle from the VDP to the runway — Divide the groundspeed by 2, then
multiply the result by 10 [100 kts (GS) ÷ 2 x 10 = 500 fpm descent].
4. Another good method is to look at the end of the runway—drive the airplane over to it—and then land!
5. 121.651(c)(4) — A pilot may descend below the MDA prior to the published VDP only where a
descent to the runway cannot be made using normal procedures or rates of descent if final descent
is delayed until reaching that point.
PLANNED Descent Point (PDP):

1. That point during an approach where a pilot MUST begin the descent to the runway or he will NOT
land in the landing zone.
2. RULES of THUMB: When using DME for distance information, the DME
(a) TIME Method — 10 feet per second. distance of the MAP or runw ay threshold must be
(b) DISTANCE Method — 300 feet per mile added (or subtracted) to the calculated PDP.
FAF 2 min & 40 sec to PDP PDP MAP

TIME Method
MDA to RWY 502 ft to descend
= 50 sec
50 sec 10 ft/sec
MDA = 502 ft AGL
3 min & 30 sec TOTAL from FAF to MAP
FAF 2.8 miles to PDP PDP MAP

DISTANCE Method
MDA to RWY 502 ft to descend
= 1.7 miles
1.7 miles 300 ft/mile
MDA = 502 ft AGL
4.5 miles TOTAL from FAF to MAP
3. Of course once again, the alternate method is to look at the end of the runway—drive the airplane over
to it—and then land! Works every time for most pilots.
Vertical Descent Angle (VDA): (AIM 5-4-5h.)

1. A computed path from the Final Approach Fix and altitude to the runway threshold at TCH. The
optimum descent angle to be used is 3.00 degrees.
2. Pilots can use the published angle and estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of descent
from a rate of descent table published with the instrument approach procedure.
3. The published angle is for information only and is strictly ADVISORY in nature. The tried and true
“Dive and Drive” method is still perfectly legal (and preferred by most pilots).
Charted VISUAL Flight Procedure Approach (CVFP): (P/C Glossary, OpSpec C077)
An approach conducted while operating on an IFR flight plan which authorizes the pilot of an aircraft to
proceed visually and clear of clouds to the airport via visual landmarks and other information depicted
on a charted visual flight procedure. The approach must be authorized and under the control of the
appropriate air traffic control facility. Weather minimums required are depicted on the chart.

Chap 3 — Navigation & Radios
ANTENNAS
BASIC RADIO STUFF:
1. Radio frequencies range from 30 KHz (Kilohertz — thousands of cycles per second) to 30,000 MHz
(megahertz — millions of cycles per second).
2. This frequency range is broken down into various “BANDS” that are grouped by “WAVELENGTH”
measured in meters or centimeters:
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
USED FOR WAVELENGTH
BAND RANGE
Low Frequency — LF 30-300 KHz Loran & ADF 10,000 – 1,000 m
Medium Frequency — MF 300 – 3,000 KHz ADF 1,000 – 100 m
AM (Amplitude Modulation) Broadcast 535 – 1,605 KHz ADF & Broadcast radio 560 – 187 m
High Frequency — HF 2 – 30 MHz Long Range Communications 100 – 10 m
Communications, VOR, ELT
Very High Frequency — VHF 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m
& Marker Beacons
Transponder, Radar,
Ultra High Frequency — UHF 300 – 3,000 MHz 100 – 10 cm
Glideslope, DME, & GPS
3. LOW frequency radio signals travel long distances, but are more susceptible to interference from
atmospheric conditions.
4. HIGH frequency signals are much less prone to interference, but are limited to line-of-sight range.
5. Generally, the SIZE of an antenna depends on the frequency and WAVELENGTH it is designed to
receive or transmit. Wavelength being inversely proportional to frequency. Antennas are normally
designed to be ½, ¼, or some other fraction of the wavelength.
6. COMMUNICATIONS antennas are usually mounted VERTICALLY so they can receive and transmit in
all directions (Note: Comm radios use Amplitude Modulation — “AM”).
7. NAVIGATION antennas are normally mounted HORIZONTALLY due to their directional nature.
When aircraft communications were first initiated, the only radios
COMMUNICATION Antenna:
available were of the Amplitude Modulation ( AM) type. Frequency
Modulation (FM) would definitely be preferable because of its immunity
to noise or interference, but that would require changing over all radios
1. VHF frequencies from 118.0 to 137.975 MHz.
in the air and on the ground simultaneously. That ain’t gon’na happen!
2. Wavelength approximately two meters.
3. Approximately ½ meter long (20 inch) whip (bent or straight) or can be in the shape of a smaller
“blade” or “V-blade ” (boomerang sitting on top of a vertical support), normally mounted vertically to the
TOP of the aircraft (with about 20 inches of copper wire coiled inside; i.e., ¼ of the wavelength).
4. If there are two radios, there will normally be two antennas.
Communications
ELT NOTE: Many “NAV-
COMM” units share
the same box, but
very few components
are shared. So if the
NAV or COMM fails,
the other unit in the
same box is still
likely to be working.
ELT Antenna:
1. VHF frequency 121.5 MHz.
2. Usually slightly shorter than a communication antenna due to its fixed frequency.
3. Most often a thin whip antenna mounted vertically on top of the fuselage.
4. Sometimes ELT antennas are attached to the ELT transmitter (or buried in the vertical tail) and
therefore no external antenna is observed.
LORAN Antenna:
1. LF frequencies from 90 to 110 KHz.
2. Looks virtually the SAME AS a COMMUNICATION ANTENNA even though it operates at a lower
frequency.
3. Typically a WHIP (straight or bent) mounted to the TOP or BOTTOM of the fuselage.
4. If an aircraft looks like it has three communication antennas, one of them is probably for the loran.

More About ANTENNAS

VOR / LOCALIZER Antenna:
1. VHF frequencies 108 to 117.95 MHz.
2. Most often attached to the vertical fin and shaped like a horizontal V-whip or rectangular with a
tubular cross-section.
3. In some applications the VOR/localizer antenna can be combined with the communications antenna
to take the shape of a boomerang sitting on top of a vertical support. In this case the vertical
support is the communications antenna while the horizontal boomerang section is for the
VOR/localizer.
VOR / LOCALIZER
Horizontal V -Whip U-Shape Balanced Loop (towel rack)
ADF Antenna:
1. LF, MF and AM broadcast frequencies 190 to 1605 KHz.
2. Older ADFs have a long “ sense ” antenna stretching from the top of the cockpit to the vertical fin
and in addition a small “loop” antenna mounted on the underside of the fuselage.
3. Newer installations combine the sense and loop into one rectangular or teardrop-shaped fiberglass
box mounted on the belly. This arrangement eliminates the significant parasite drag of the long sense
antenna.
Long “sense” antenna
ADF
ADF “Loop”
Flat oval box
GLIDESLOPE Antenna:
1. UHF frequencies from 329.15 to 335 MHz.
2. Can sometimes be a wire embedded in a wide, oval shaped plastic plate installed inside the
windshield near the top.
3. Or… a T-shaped antenna on top or in front of the windshield.
4. Or… a small fiberglass appendage that looks like a boomerang mounted on top of the cockpit or
sometimes to the belly.
5. Or… a U-shaped band with a brace through the center mounted on the nose .
6. Or… can sometimes be combined with the VOR antenna.

Even More About ANTENNAS

MARKER BEACON Antenna:
1. VHF frequency 75 MHz (low-power, about three watts).
2. Can be a small BLADE mounted on the belly somewhat longer than a DME blade.
3. Or… a thick WIRE on the belly that BENDS sharply REARWARD with a metal support near its tail.
4. Or… a “canoe-shaped” fiberglass attachment mounted on the belly.
Marker Beacon Transponder
Marker Beacon or DME or Transponder
TRANSPONDER Antenna:
1. UHF frequencies. Transmits on 1090 MHz and receives on1030 MHz.
2. Normally located on the BELLY, may be a 2-inch VERTICAL METAL WHIP with a SMALL BALL on
the end or a small fiberglass FIN or blade identical to the DME antenna.
3. The DME and transponder operate in approximately the same frequency range and therefore require
the antennas be placed as far apart as possible to avoid interference (at least 6-feet apart).
DME Antenna:
1. UHF frequencies 962 to 1213 MHz.
2. Small FIN or blade mounted on the BELLY.
GPS Antenna:
1. UHF frequency 1575 MHz.
2. Thin CIRCULAR or RECTANGULAR or teardrop-shaped fiberglass box mounted on the TOP of the
fuselage.
GPS
TROUBLESHOOTING Radios:
1. Keep all antennas CLEAN and FREE from GREASE and OIL. A dirty antenna will not work properly.
TRANSPONDER antennas or any other antennas located on the belly need to be cleaned on a regular
basis to keep those radios operating correctly.
2. Check for LOOSE antenna-to-airframe CONNECTIONS or SWELLING and CRACKING of the
FIBERGLASS sheathing on COMMUNICATION antennas. Corroded metal underneath the fiberglass
can expand and cause the fiberglass sheathing to swell and split.
3. VOR antennas are susceptible to cracks where the antenna bends.
4. Long-wire ADF sense antennas are also prone to cracks at the attachment points.

Chap 4 — Speed, Altitude & Jet
SPEED LIMITS : (91.117, 97.3, AIM 3-2-4d.5., 3-2-5b.5., 4-4-11, 5-3-7, 5-4-8, 5-5-9, AC 90-66A, Controller’s Handbook
7110.65, Airplane Flying Handbook FAA-H-8083-3)
Below 10,000 ft......................................................... 250 KIAS
Class B ..................................................................... 250 KIAS below 10,000 ft (unrestricted at or above 10,000)
Beneath Class B....................................................... 200 KIAS (or in VFR corridor through a Class B)
Procedure Turn......................................................... 200 KIAS
Class C or D (below 2,500 AGL within 4NM of the airport) .... 200 (unless a higher speed is specifically approved by ATC)
Class E or G Airport Traffic Pattern.......................... 200 KIAS (recommended)
91.117(d) — If the minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater than the maximum speed prescribed in this section, the
aircraft may be operated at that minimum speed. NOTE: There is no requirement to advise ATC when exceeding a speed for this reason.
SPEED RESTRICTION / ADJUSTMENT: (AIM 4-4-11)

1. If a controller issues a speed restriction while vectoring you, it continues to apply with an altitude
change.
2. An approach clearance cancels any previously assigned speed adjustment (however the controller
would not anticipate a large speed INCREASE when close to the runway). Pilots are expected to make
their own speed adjustments to complete the approach unless the adjustments are restated. Speed
adjustments should not be assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles from the
runway, whichever is closer to the runway.
3. It is the pilot’s responsibility and prerogative, to refuse a speed adjustment that he or she considers
excessive or contrary to the aircraft’s operating limitations with a comfortable margin for safety.
SPEED BELOW 10,000 and/or in CLASS B: (91.117, 91.1)

1. Speed — 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet (or 200 KIAS below the floor or in VFR corridor). 250 KNOTS
MUST NOT be EXCEEDED even if you are told to “MAINTAIN BEST FORWARD SPEED.”
2. “Maintain maximum (or best) forward speed” — means — “maximum or best forward ‘LEGAL’ speed.”
ATC does not have the authority to lift the 250 below 10,000 speed restriction [91.117(a)]. You cannot
be cleared to violate a regulation, and you cannot accept such a clearance.
3. At 10,000 feet and above, in Class B airspace, you can go as fast as you want unless issued a
speed restriction by ATC.
4. If a controller assigns you 300 kts or greater inbound (10,000 or above), and then later descends you to
8,000, it is UNDERSTOOD that you must SLOW to 250 kts BEFORE descending below 10,000.
5. NOTE: There was a test program that took place at HOUSTON International (IAH) to delete the 250 kts
below 10,000 for DEPARTURES only, AND only if authorized by ATC. The phraseology was “NO
SPEED LIMIT” or “INCREASE SPEED TO (number) KNOTS” or “DELETE the 250 kt
RESTRICTION” or “CLIMB UNRESTRICTED” or “HIGH SPEED CLIMB APPROVED”. This program
was cancelled in January of 2004. Currently an air traffic controller does not have the authority to
authorize a speed above 250 kts below 10,000 anywhere in the United States.
6. The speed restriction of 250 kts below 10,000 does not apply to aircraft operating beyond 12 NM
from the coastline within the U.S. Flight Information Region [91.1(a)&(b)].
SPEED in CLASS C, D, E and G Airport Areas: (91.117, AC 90-66A, FAA-H-8083-3)

1. Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no aircraft may operate at or below 2,500 AGL within
4 NM of the primary airport of a Class C or Class D at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots.
2. “…maintain best forward speed” is NOT an authorization to exceed the 200 kts in Class C or D.
3. Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be specifically assigned by ATC (e.g. “…maintain 220 kts”).
4. It is “RECOMMENDED” that while operating in the traffic pattern at an airport WITHOUT an operating
control tower the pilot maintain an airspeed of no more than 200 knots. In any case, the speed should
be adjusted, when practicable, so that it is compatible with the speed of other airplanes in the pattern.
Never let an airplane take you someplace your brain didn’t get to five minutes earlier.

V SPEEDS — V means VELOCITY

V1 Takeoff decision speed for jets, turboprops or Transport category aircraft —
Engine failure BELOW V1 — takeoff must be aborted and the aircraft brought to a stop on the runway. Engine failure at or
ABOVE V1 — mandates the pilot continue the takeoff — accelerate to VR — and after rotation accelerate to V2. Does not
apply to most light, prop-driven twins because they cannot continue a takeoff roll and accelerate on one engine; there is no choice but to abort.
V2 Takeoff safety speed for jets, turboprops or Transport category aircraft — Best climb gradient speed
i.e., best altitude increase per mile with the most critical engine inop — twin engine aircraft with an engine inop are
guaranteed a 2.4% climb gradient (24 ft UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD) — min speed to be maintained to at least 400 ft AGL.
V2MIN Minimum takeoff safety speed. Usually 1.2 times stall speed in takeoff configuration.
VA Design mAneuvering speed — The highest safe airspeed for abrupt control deflection or for operation in
turbulence or severe gusts. If only one speed is published it is usually determined at max landing weight.
This speed decreases as weight decreases.
Formula for determining VA at less than max landing weight: VA2 = VA x current weight ÷ max lndg weight
VABE Maximum speed for Air-Brake Extension.
VABO Maximum speed for Air-Brake Operation.
VAC Missed Approach Climb speed for flap configuration with critical engine inop (2.1% climb gradient).
VAP APproach target speed. VREF + configuration (flaps/slats setting) & wind factor.
Typically — add (to VREF) ½ the headwind component + all the gust factor (to a max of 20 knots)
VB Design speed for maximum gust intensity for Transport-category aircraft or other aircraft certified
under Part 25. Turbulent-air-penetration speed that protects the structure in 66-fps gusts.
VC Design Cruising speed. Speed the aircraft was designed to cruise at. The completed aircraft may
actually cruise slower or faster than VC. It is the highest speed at which the structure must withstand the FAA’s hypothetical
“standard 50-fps gust”.
VD Design Diving speed — The aircraft is designed to be capable of diving to this speed (in very smooth
air) and be free of flutter, control reversal and buffeting. Control surfaces have a natural vibration frequency where they begin
to “flutter” like a flag in a stiff breeze. If flutter begins, it can become catastrophic in a matter of seconds. It can worsen until
the aircraft is destroyed even if airspeed is reduced as soon as flutter begins.
VDEC Accelerate/Stop DECision speed for multiengine piston and light multiengine turboprops.
VDF / Demonstrated-Flight Diving speed — VDF is in knots. MDF is in a percentage of Mach number.
MDF Some aircraft are incapable of reaching VD because of lack of power or excess drag. When this is the case, the test pilot dives to the maximum
speed possible — the demonstrated-flight diving speed.
VEF Speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff (used in certification tests).
VENR ENRoute climb speed with critical engine inop—accelerate to VENR above 1,500 AGL.
VF Design Flap speed — During the design phase, the flaps are designed to be operated at this
maximum speed. If the engineers did a good job, the actual flap speed—VFE—will be the same.
VFC / Maximum speed for undesirable Flight Characteristics — must be regarded with the same respect as
VNE — Red line. Instability could develop beyond the pilot’s ability to recover. VFC is expressed in knots; MFC is expressed in a percentage of
MFC Mach number.
VFE Maximum Flap-Extended speed—Top of white arc — Highest speed permissible with wing flaps in a
prescribed extended position. Many aircraft allow the use of approach flaps at speeds higher than VFE. Positive load for Normal category
airplanes is usually reduced from +3.8Gs to +2.0Gs with the flaps down, and negative load is reduced from –1.52Gs to Zero. The purpose of
flaps during landing is to enable steeper approaches without increasing the airspeed.
VFR Flap Retract speed — minimum speed required for flap retraction after takeoff.
VFS Final Segment speed (jet takeoff) with critical engine inop. Accelerate to VFS at 400 feet AGL.
VFTO Final TakeOff speed — end of the takeoff path — en route configuration — one engine inoperative.
VH Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power. Mainly used for aircraft
advertising. Ultralights are limited by Part 103 to a VH of 55 knots.
VLE Maximum Landing gear Extended speed — Maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely
flown with the landing gear extended. In an EMERGENCY, FORGET ABOUT THIS SPEED, THROW THE GEAR OUT!
VLLE Maximum Landing Light Extended speed.

VLLO Maximum Landing Light Operating speed.
VLO Maximum Landing gear Operating speed — Maximum speed at which the landing gear can be safely
extended or retracted. Usually limited by air loads on the wheel-well doors. On some aircraft the doors close after extension, allowing
acceleration to VLE — Max gear extended speed. In an EMERGENCY — when the ground is getting close and the airspeed is approaching
redline — FORGET ABOUT THIS SPEED, THROW THE GEAR OUT!

VLOF Lift-OFf speed. Speed at which the aircraft becomes airborne. Back-pressure is applied at VR
(rotate)—a somewhat lower speed—so that lift-off actually happens at VLOF.
VMCA or More commonly known as VMC (although VMCA is more correct)— Minimum Control speed with
VMC critical engine (usually the left) inoperative out of ground effect in the Air — “RED line” — Most
critical engine inop & windmilling; 5º bank towards operative engine; take-off power on
operative engine; gear up; flaps up; and most rearward C.G. In this configuration, if airspeed is
allowed below VMC, even full rudder cannot prevent a yaw toward the dead engine. At slower
speeds, the slower moving wing—the one with the failed engine—will stall first. VMC is NOT a
constant, it can be reduced by — feathering the prop, moving C.G. forward, and reducing power.
VMCG Minimum speed necessary to maintain directional Control following an engine failure during the
takeoff roll while still on the Ground — determined using purely aerodynamic controls with no
reliance on nosewheel steering — jets, turboprops or transport category aircraft.
VMO / Maximum Operating limit speed — turboprop or jet — VMO is indicated airspeed measured in knots
MMO and is mainly a structural limitation that is the effective speed limit at LOWER altitudes. MMO is a
percentage of Mach limited by the change to the aircraft’s handling characteristics as localized airflow over the aircraft
approaches the speed of sound creating shock waves that can alter controllability. As altitude increases, indicated airspeed
decreases while Mach remains constant. MMO is the effective speed limit (“barber pole” on the airspeed indicator) at
HIGHER altitudes. MMO Is usually much higher for swept winged jets than a straight wing design.
VMU Minimum Unstick speed. Slowest speed at which an aircraft can become airborne. Originated as
a result of testing for the world’s first jet transport, the de Havilland “Comet”. During an ill-fated takeoff attempt, the nose was
raised so high and prematurely that the resultant drag prevented further acceleration and liftoff. Tests were then established
to ensure that future heavy transports could safely takeoff with the tail touching the ground and maintain this attitude until out
of ground effect.
VNE Never Exceed speed — “RED line” — Applies only to piston-powered airplanes. This speed is never
any more than 90% of VDF. G loads imposed by ANY turbulence can easily overstress an aircraft at this speed.
VNO NO go there. Maximum structural cruising speed — Beginning of the yellow arc—or caution range.
Theoretically a brand new aircraft can withstand the FAA’s 50-fps gust at this speed. Unfortunately the pilot has no way of
measuring gust intensity.
VR Rotation speed. Recommended speed to start applying back-pressure on the yoke, rotating the
nose so that ideally the aircraft lifts off the ground at VLOF.
VREF Calculated REFerence speed for final approach—final approach speed. Usually 1.3 times VSO or
higher. SMALL PLANE — bottom of white arc +30%. JETS — calculated from landing performance charts
that consider weight, temperature and field elevation. To this speed jets typically calculate an approach
speed (VAP) by adding (to VREF) ½ the headwind component + all the gust factor (to a max of 20 knots).
VS Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable. VS is a generic
term and usually does not correspond to a specific airspeed.
VS1 Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in a specific configuration. Normally regarded as the
“clean”—gear and flaps up—stall speed. Lower limit of the green arc (remember Stuff In). However this is not always the
case. It could represent stall speed with flaps in takeoff position or any number of different configurations. So VS1 is a clean
stall, but the definition of “clean” could vary.
VSO Stall speed in landing configuration — Lower limit of white arc — Stalling speed or the minimum
steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable in landing configuration: engines at idle, props in low pitch, usually
full wing flaps, cowl flaps closed, C.G. at maximum forward limit (i.e. most unfavorable CG), max gross landing weight.
Maximum allowable VSO for single-engine aircraft and many light twins is 61 knots (remember Stuff Out).
VSSE Minimum Safe Single Engine speed (multi) — Provides a reasonable margin against an
unintentional stall when making intentional engine cuts during training.
VTOSS Takeoff safety speed for Category A rotorcraft.
VWWO Maximum Windshield Wiper Operating speed.
VX Best angle of climb speed — Delivers the greatest gain of altitude in the shortest possible horizontal
distance. The speed given in the flight manual is good only at sea level, at max gross weight, and flaps in takeoff position.
VX increases with altitude (about ½ knot per 1,000 feet), and usually decreases with a reduction of weight. It will take more
time to gain altitude at VX because of the slower speed, but the goal is to gain the most altitude in the shortest horizontal
distance — like before you hit those TREES that they always seem to put at the end of most every runway!
VXSE Best Single-Engine angle of climb speed (multiengine 12,500 Lbs or less).
VY Best rate of climb speed — delivers the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest possible time. Flaps
and gear up. Decreases as weight is reduced and also decreases with altitude. Lift-to-drag ratio is usually at its maximum at
this speed so it can also be used as a good ball-park figure for best-glide speed or maximum-endurance speed for holding.
VYSE Best Single-Engine rate of climb speed — “BLUE line” (multiengine 12,500 Lbs or less).
.TRAFFIC PATTERN ALTITUDE at AIRPORTS.

.WITHOUT. an OPERATING CONTROL TOWER.: (91.126 thru 91.131, 91.155, AIM
4-3-3d.1., AIM 4-3-4, AC 90-66A, Airplane Flying Handbook FAA H-8083-3)
1. At most airports and military air bases, traffic pattern altitudes for propeller-driven aircraft generally
extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet AGL. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for military turbojet
aircraft sometimes extend up to 2,500 feet AGL. Therefore, pilots of en route aircraft should be
constantly on the alert for other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas whenever possible.
Traffic pattern altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from
cloud criteria (NOTE: there is different VFR distance from cloud criteria for Class G or Class E airspace).
2. 1,000 feet AGL is the recommended pattern altitude unless established otherwise… (AIM 4-3-4 [1])
3. There is a “RECOMMENDATION” (in AC 90-66A) that large and turbine powered airplanes should
enter the traffic pattern at 1,500 AGL or 500 feet above the established pattern altitude. Apparently
someone at the FAA feels it’s OK for a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft (very
possibly moving at a similar speed) during base to final. Wake turbulence could also be a major
concern if a VERY large aircraft is flying around 500 feet above everyone else.
4. Traffic pattern altitudes are occasionally listed in the Airport/Facility Directory, in which case the
published altitudes would be somewhat regulatory. In some cases these airports actually have different
altitudes for small and large or turbine-powered aircraft. In other cases there is only one altitude
published, and that would be the altitude for ALL aircraft (unless you accept the recommendation of
AC 90-66A and fly your large and invincible turbine 500 feet above everybody else — until you turn
base to final — then descend on top of the other aircraft that was in the pattern below you the whole
time flying at just about the same speed!).
5. Other “unofficially published” sources of traffic pattern altitude are the “Flight Guide” produced by
Airguide Publications for VFR pilots; and the two different “Airport Directories” produced by Jeppesen
and AOPA. These commercial publications list far more pattern altitudes than the A/FD, but very often
disagree as to what these altitudes actually are!
6. The majority of Class G or E airports do not have “officially published” (in the A/FD) pattern
altitudes. In which case you have your choice of the 1,000 AGL (for ALL aircraft) as recommended
by the AIM — and/or 1,500 AGL for large and turbine powered as recommended by AC 90-66A — or
personally calling the airport manager and asking if he has “established” a “recommended” altitude for
“his” airport (an obviously imperfect system).
7. Large and turbojet aircraft are also governed by 91.515 which states those aircraft are required to
maintain at least 1,000 feet AGL during the day and the altitudes prescribed in 91.177 at night (IFR).
However this rule does not apply during takeoff or landing. There is another reference to minimum safe
altitudes in 91.119 that states “Except when necessary for takeoff or landing… .” A traffic pattern
would certainly be considered a necessary part of landing.
8. Aircraft remaining in the traffic pattern should not commence a turn to the crosswind leg until
beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic pattern altitude. (AIM FIG 4-3-3)
9. “Recommended” traffic pattern speed limit is 200 kts. (AC 90-66A)
Boy am I glad I ran across

that Advisory Circular so I
know it’s “recommended”
that I stay 500 feet higher
than those cheap little 1,500 AGL
piston airplanes. 140 kts
I sure hope this

avionics shop
down here can
fix these damn
radios. 1,000 AGL
140 kts

JET / TURBINE ENGINE — 101:
1. All aircraft engines push the airplane forward in the same manner. They take in a volume of air at the
front, accelerate it, and then throw it out the back. The result (reaction) is — the airplane moves
forward.
2. Propellers, whether attached to a turbine or piston engine, take in a large amount of air, moderately
accelerate it, and then throw it out the back — the airplane moves forward moderately fast.
3. Jet engines take in a relatively small amount of air, accelerate it a great deal, and then throw it out the
back — the airplane moves forward very fast (hopefully).
4. There are FOUR TYPES of jet engines, but they all work the same;
a. Turbojet and Turbofan engines are more commonly called jet engines.
b. Turboprop and Turboshaft engines are jet engines with a propeller or rotor-blade (helicopter)
attached. Commonly referred to as turbine engines.
TURBOJET
SuperSonic Transport
5. TURBOJET engine (pure jet) — creates power by taking in a small amount of air (SUCK), compressing
it a lot (SQUEEZE), adding fuel and igniting it (BANG). The resultant hot flow of gases turns a turbine
wheel, which keeps the front part (compressor section) of the engine turning, before exiting the tailpipe
(BLOW). Once the “igniters” start the fire, ignition is normally self-sustaining. This type of engine is
still used on the Concorde and some military aircraft to achieve supersonic flight, but because of its
high noise level and relative inefficiency there are virtually no civilian aircraft using it anymore.
You know you’ve landed a jet

with the wheels up if it takes
full thrust to taxi to the ramp.
TURBOFAN
B-757
6. TURBOFAN engine (combination jet) — merely a turbojet engine with a fixed-pitch propeller, that is,
“ducted fan” or “shrouded fan” at the front of the engine (or sometimes in the rear, although much
less efficient in the rear). The fan acts like a propeller to give a moderate acceleration to a relatively
large volume of air, which then “bypasses” around the turbojet core of the engine. The turbojet
core of this engine creates a large amount of acceleration to a relatively small amount of air. This
“combination” retains some of the low-altitude, low-speed efficiency and takeoff performance of a
propeller engine and combines it with turbojet-like cruise speed and high altitude ability. A turbofan is
also 30% to 40% more fuel efficient than a turbojet and much quieter because the lower-velocity
“bypass” air shrouds and mixes cool bypass air with the hot high-velocity jet core exhaust, which
insulates and muffles the sound. The relationship between the amount of air bypassing the jet core to
the amount of air passing through the jet core (or, thrust provided by fan to thrust provided by jet core)
classifies the turbofan engine as to its BYPASS RATIO:
a. LOW-BYPASS — 1:1 ratio — the fan (bypass) and the compressor section (jet core) receive
and make use of approximately equal amounts of air. High fuel consumption but capable of
very fast, even supersonic speeds.
b. HIGH-BYPASS — In the vicinity of 5:1. The air being bypassed around the jet core by the
ducted fan produces 75% to more than 80% of the total thrust. Most popular on the newer
airliners for reasons of fuel economy and relatively low noise.

You know you’ve landed a free-turbine

turboprop with the wheels up when
—full-power makes a lot of noise— FREE-TURBINE
but the airplane doesn’t move. King Air
P&W “PT-6”
7. FREE-TURBINE TURBOPROP — The propeller is not directly connected to the jet core shaft.
Exhaust gases from the jet core are used to drive a free spinning “power turbine” through a “gaseous
coupling” (like the automatic transmission in a car but using hot gas instead of transmission fluid),
which in turn rotates a shaft that turns a propeller gearbox. The venerable P&W PT-6 makes the best
use of this design by installing the jet core “backwards”, that is, intake air is ducted to the rear of the
engine to enter the rearward-mounted compressor stage, this arrangement puts the jet core exhaust
at the front of the engine just where it is needed to drive the “gaseous coupling” of the “power turbine”
which drives the propeller gearbox. After these hot gases spin the “power turbine” they are exhausted
rearward. When you turn the propeller of a free-turbine engine by hand you are turning just the “power
turbine” not the entire engine. These engines are extremely reliable but somewhat less powerful and
fuel-efficient by weight than a direct-drive. A free-turbine is easy to spot on the ramp because the
propellers will always be in the “feathered” position when the engines are not running and the
exhaust stacks are located near the front of the engine. The PT-6 is used on most Beechcraft King
Airs, the Starship and BE-1900, Shorts 360, De Havilland Dash-7, Piaggio Avanti, some Cessna
Conquests and Piper Cheyennes. Larger versions of the P&W free-turbine design are used on the
Embraer Brasilia EMB-120, ATR 42/72, Dornier 328, British Aerospace ATP, De Havilland Dash-8,
etc.
You know you’ve landed a direct-drive
turboprop with the wheels up ‘cause
after the scraping sound stops
—it gets real quiet—
even with the power levers full forward.
DIRECT-DRIVE
Jetstream 31
“Garrett”
TPE 331
8. DIRECT-DRIVE TURBOPROP (TURBOSHAFT) — The propeller is driven directly by the engine’s

jet core shaft through a reduction gearbox. When you turn the propeller by hand you are turning the
entire engine. More immediate power response, more fuel efficient, more power per pound of engine
weight but extremely LOUD on the ground due to the much higher idle RPM of the propeller. The TPE
331 series, made by GARRETT, is one of the most popular models. Start locks hold the blades of the
propeller at the 0º blade angle after shutdown. During start the propeller must be turned with the
engine, this flat pitch angle serves to lower air resistance making it much easier for the starter to spin
the engine jet core to the proper “light-off” speed. A direct-drive (usually Garrett) engine is easy to
identify because of the exceptionally LOUD noise it makes while taxiing, the flat blade angle of the
propellers after shutdown, and the exhaust located at the rear of the engine. The Garrett TPE 331
can be found on the Mitsubishi MU-2, Fairchild Merlin, Turbo-Commander series, Fairchild Metroliner,
British Aerospace Jetstream 31 & 41, Dornier 228, and some Cessna Conquests and Piper
Cheyennes, etc.
Chap 5 — Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs
DOCUMENTS ON BOARD AIRCRAFT: [91.203(a)(1), 91.293(a)(2), FCC, 91.9(b), .91.103, A ircraft Flight Manual]
"A-R-R-O-W"
1. Airworthiness Certificate — 91.203(a)(1) (must be displayed at cabin or cockpit entrance so it is legible to passengers
and crew)(The Airworthiness Certificate remains valid as long as the aircraft is maintained and operated as required by the FAR’s)
2. Registration papers — 91.203 (A TEMPORARY registration is NOT acceptable for international travel)
3. Radio Station License — FCC Form 605 (NOT required within the U.S. — IS required outside the U.S.)
This aircraft radio station license is good for 10 years but is not transferable if the aircraft is sold.
4. Operating Limitations — 91.9(b) and Aircraft Flight Manual. (14 CFR 23.1581)
5. Weight & Balance data — 91.103, 135.185 and Aircraft Flight Manual. (14 CFR 23.1581)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
FCC Wireless Telecommunications Bureau

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT ATION —FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Federal Communications Commission
STANDARD AIRWORTHINES CERTIFICATE
1 NATIONALITY AND 2 MANUFACTURER AND MODEL 3 AIRCRAFT SERIAL 4 CATEGORY
REGISTRATION MARKS NUMBER RADIO STATION AUTHORIZATION
N4823U DA-20F 341 TRANSPORT
LENGEL WORLD AIRLINES
5 AUTHORITY AND BASIS FOR ISSUANCE 1223 RIVERSIDE DRIVE
This airworthiness certificate is issued pursuant to the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 and certifies that, as of the date of
issuance, the aircraft to which issued has been inspected and found to conform to the type certificate therefore to be in CHARLOTTE NC 28214
condition for safe operation, and has been shown to meet the requirements of the applicable comprehensive and detailed
airworhiness code as provided by Annex 8 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, except as noted herein Etc.
Exceptions
NONE
6 TERMS AND CONDITIONS
Unless sooner surrendered, suspended, revoked, or a termination date is otherwise established by the Administrator,
thisairworthiness certificate is effective as long as the maintenance , preventative maintenance, and alterations are performed
in accordance with Parts 21, 43, and 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations, as appropriate, and the aircraft is registered in
the United States.
DATE OF ISSUANCE FAA REPRESENTATIVE DESIGNATION NUMBER FCC 605
03-09-74 RONALD McDONALD SO FSDO 13
Etc.
REGISTRATION NOT TRANSFERABLE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA This certificate must
DEPARTMENT OF TRASPORTATION-FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION be in the aircraft
when operated
CERTIFICATE OF AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION
NATIONALITY AND AIRCRAFT SERIAL NO.
REGISTRATION MARKS N 4823U 341 Operating Limitations
MANUFACTURER AND MANUFACTURER’S DESIGNATION OF AIRCRAFT
DASSAULT
ICAO Aircraft Address Code: 513788
DA-20F &
This certificate is
LENGEL WORLD AIRLINES

issued for registra-
tion purposes only Weight & Balance data
1223 RIVERSIDE DRIVE and is not a certifi -
cate of titile. The
CHARLOTTE NC 28214 Federal Aviation
Administration does
not determine rights
of ownership as
between private
persons.
Etc.
CERTIFICATES REQUIRED IN PILOT’S POSSESSION: (61.3)

"R-P -M"
1. Radio permit (FCC license) — FCC Form 605 — NOT required for operations WITHIN the U.S. but IS
required for operations OUTSIDE the U.S. (ICAO rules). A Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit
is good for life. Call the FCC at 888-225-5322 (www.fcc.gov) for a copy of the form and the current fee.
2. Pilots certificate — in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft — the original only
— a copy will not do — and a PHOTO IDENTIFICATION such as driver’s license , Government or
State ID card, U.S. Armed Forces ID, Passport, Airport Security Badge, or “other form of
identification that the Administrator finds acceptable”. (61.3)
3. Medical — in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft — the original only. (61.3)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Department of Transportation
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Federal Aviation Administration
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA MEDICAL CERTIFICATE FIRST CLASS

Federal Communications Commission DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION — FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
This certifies that (full name and address) :
Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit IV NAME Richard Flyanything Lengel
RICHARD FLYANYTHING LENGEL 1223 Riverside Drive
Richard Flyanything Lengel is authorized to V ADDRESS VI NATIONALITY IVa D.O.B.
1223 RIVERSIDE DR USA 14APR19XX Charlotte, NC 28214

operate any radio station which may be operated by Date of Birth Height Weight Hair Eyes Sex
CHARLOTTE NC 2821 4 SEX HEIGHT WEIGHT HAIR EYES
a person holding this class of license. This permit is 4/14/XX 68 175 Brn Blue M
M 68 176 BRN BLUE
issued in conformity with Paragraphs 3454 and 3945 IX HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE PROPERLY QUALIFIED TO EXERCISE THE PRIVILEGES OF Has meet the medical standards prescribed in part 67, Federal Aviation
Regulations, for this class of Medical Certificate.
of the Radio Regulations, Geneva 1979, and is valid II AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT
for the lifetime of the holder unless suspended by the III CERTIFICATE NUMBER XXXXXXX
FCC. X DATE OF ISSU E 20 MAY 20XX
Etc. Richard Lengel XIV Jane Garvey NONE
VII SIGNATURE OF HOLDER VIII ADMINISTRATOR
Date of Examination Examiner’s Designation No.
01/08/20XX 07253-3
Etc.
INSPECTION of CERTIFICATE — PRESENTATION of DOCUMENTS: [61.3, 61.51(i)]
Each person who holds an AIRMAN CERTIFICATE, MEDICAL certificate, LOGBOOK, authorization, or license
required by this part must present it for inspection upon a request from:
1. The Administrator;
2. An authorized representative of the NTSB;
3. Any Federal, State, or local law enforcement officer; or
4. An authorized representative of the Transportation Security Administration.
TYPE RATING REQUIREMENTS — CATEGORY / CLASS RATING: [61.31(a)(b)(c)(d)]
1. A person who acts as a Pilot In Command of a large aircraft (more
than 12,500 lbs gross takeoff weight), a turbojet-powered
airplane, or other aircraft specified by the Administrator must
hold a type rating for that aircraft.
2. If the aircraft requires two pilots, the pilot must also be CURRENT
in that aircraft — see 61.58 — Maintaining Currency for a Type
Rating — Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check: “Operation of
Aircraft Requiring More than One Pilot Flight Crewmember”. See this chapter.
3. A person may be authorized to operate without a type rating for up to 60 days at a time provided the
Administrator has authorized the flight or series of flights for the purpose of a — ferry flight, training
flight, test flight, or practical test for certificate or rating and as long as it involves only the carriage of
flight crewmembers essential for the flight and does not involve compensation or hire. The FSDO may
issue a Letter Of Authorization (LOA) in lieu of the type rating. The FSDO may also issue an LOA letter
for a pilot with a type rating for ferry or training flights for the purpose of meeting the 12 month or 24
month proficiency check requirements of 61.58.
4. An applicant for a type rating needs only a THIRD CLASS medical to take the practical test (flight test)
in the aircraft and receive the type rating. When taking the flight test in a simulator he would not need
ANY medical at all [(61.23(b)(8)]. He would however need the appropriate class medical (depending
on the type of operation) to actually serve as a required flight crewmember in the aircraft (duh!).
5. To serve as Pilot In Command of an aircraft, a person must hold the appropriate category, class,
and type rating (if required) — or — be receiving training for that rating under the supervision of an
authorized instructor — or — have received an endorsement for solo flight in that aircraft from an
instructor authorized to provide the required endorsement.
COMPLEX AIRPLANES — ENDORSEMENT: [61.31(e)]

1. No person may act as Pilot In Command of a complex airplane (retractable
gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller; or, in the case of a seaplane,
flaps and a controllable pitch propeller), unless that person has received and
logged ground and flight training from an authorized instructor in a complex
airplane or simulator — has been found proficient — and has received a one-
time endorsement in the pilot’s logbook from the instructor who certifies the
person is proficient.
2. This training and endorsement is not required if the person has logged flight
time as Pilot In Command of a complex airplane or simulator prior to
August 4, 1997.
A pilot may LOG PIC time

in a complex or high
performance aircraft
without the appropriate
endorsements if he is the
“sole manipulator of the
controls of an aircraft for
which the pilot is rated”
(category, class, and type)
and the ACTING PIC is
appropriately rated and
does have the appropriate
endorsements. (61.51)
HIGH-PERFORMANCE AIRPLANES — ENDORSEMENT: [61.31(f)]

1. No person may act as Pilot In Command of a high-performance airplane (more than 200 hp
produced by one of the engines), unless that person has received and logged ground and flight
training from an authorized instructor in a high-performance airplane or simulator — has been found
proficient — and has received a one-time endorsement in the pilot’s logbook from the instructor who
certifies the person is proficient. NOTE: A small twin with 200 hp or less per side would not count
as a high performance aircraft for the purpose of this regulation.
2. This training and endorsement is not required if the person has logged flight time as Pilot In
Command of a high performance airplane or simulator prior to August 4, 1997.

OPERATIONS REQUIRING A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE: (61.23, 67.111)

A person must hold:
1. A First-Class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of an Airline Transport Pilot
certificate. Required for Part 135 PASSENGER-carrying operations only — No person may
serve as PIC of a turbojet (carrying passengers), or an airplane having 10 or more passenger seats,
OR a multiengine airplane in a commuter operation unless he holds an Airline Transport Pilot
certificate and a current 1st Class Medical (135.243).
NOTE: A First Class medical requires an electrocardiogram—aka “EKG” — examination at the first
th
application after reaching the person’s 35 birthday and on an annual basis after reaching the
th
person’s 40 birthday. (67.111)
2. At least a Second-Class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of a Commercial Pilot
certificate. Required for all commercial flying except that which requires an ATP (no “EKG”).
3. At least a Third-Class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of a Private Pilot,
Recreational Pilot, Student Pilot, or Flight Instructor (with certain exceptions for gliders and balloons).
CFIs need only a Third-Class medical to give instruction (and get paid
for it) if they act as a required crewmember, but no medical at all if they
don’t act as a required crew member (and they can still get paid for it).
OPERATIONS NOT REQUIRING A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE: (61.23)

A person is not required to hold a medical certificate:
1. When exercising the privileges of a pilot certificate with a glider category rating;
2. When exercising the privileges of a pilot certificate with a balloon category rating;
3. When exercising the privileges of a student pilot certificate while seeking a pilot
certificate with a glider category rating or balloon class rating;
4. When exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate with a glider category rating;
5. When exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate if the person is not acting as pilot in
command or serving as a required pilot flight crewmember;
6. When exercising the privileges of a ground instructor certificate;
7. When serving as an examiner or check airman during the administration of a test or check for a
certificate, rating, or authorization conducted in a flight simulator or flight training device; or
8. When taking a test or check for a certificate, rating, or authorization conducted in a flight simulator or
flight training device.
H E
P
E
T
S N L
R D
IA

DURATION OF A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE: (61.23, 61.19)
1. A First-Class medical expires at the end of the last day of—
th
a. The 6 month after the month of the date of examination shown on the
certificate for operations requiring an Airline Transport Pilot certificate;
th
b. The 12 month after the month of the date of examination shown on the
certificate for operations requiring a Commercial pilot certificate or an
air traffic control tower operator certificate; and
th
c. The 36 month after the month of the date of examination shown on the certificate if the person
th
has NOT reached his or her 40 birthday on or before the date of examination; OR
th
the 24 month after the month of the date of examination shown on the certificate if the person
th
HAS reached his or her 40 birthday on or before the date of the examination for operations
requiring a Private, Recreational, Student, or Flight Instructor certificate (with certain
exceptions for gliders and balloons).
NOTE: A 1 Class medical requires an electrocardiogram—aka “EKG” — examination at

st
d.
th
the first application after reaching the person’s 35 birthday and on an annual basis after
th
reaching the person’s 40 birthday. (67.111)
You must report visits to any health professional within

the last 3 years including names and addresses. Even
an annual physical exam from your family doctor
should be reported, but routine dental or eye
examinations need not be reported. More serious
medical problems may require additional documentation.
2. A Second-Class medical expires at the end of the last day of—

th
a. The 12 month after the month of the date of examination shown on the certificate for
operations requiring a Commercial pilot certificate or an air traffic control tower operator
certificate; and
th
b. The 36 month after the month of the date of examination shown on the certificate if the person
th
has NOT reached his or her 40 birthday on or before the date of examination; OR
th
th
3. A Third-Class medical expires at the end of the last day of the 36th month after the month of the
th
date of examination shown on the certificate if the person has NOT reached his or her 40
birthday on or before the date of examination; OR
th
th
A “Student Pilot Certificate ”,
essentially the 3rd Class medical,
For each eye
is only valid for 24 months . (61.19) separately.
20/20
VISION REQUIREMENTS
The first 20 of the
20/20 refers to 20 1st & 2nd 3rd
feet away from the Class Class
Snellen eye chart. Distance 20/20 20/40
If the smallest line Vision corrected corrected
you can read is the
20/60 line, your eyes Near 20/40 20/40
are seeing that line as
Vision corrected corrected
if a person with 20/20
vision were standing 60 feet No limitation on how badly you see
from the chart instead of 20.
without correction.
Chap 6 — Weather & NOTAMS
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS for FLYING IN ICE

General rules — Deice units must be provided for the wings, tail,
propellers or engine inlets, pitot/static sources; an alternate
source of air for reciprocating engines; and a thermal or chemical
means of providing vision through the windshield. External lighting
must also be provided to enable adequate monitoring during icing
conditions encountered at night. The FAA must approve the
equipment and any operational limitation such as, “flight into known
icing conditions is prohibited” must be formally removed from
the AFM or POH (if the statement was previously included). It is
important to note that aircraft certified for flight in known ice are
approved for flight in light or moderate conditions only, and even
then the systems cannot cope with severe or continuous icing.
ICE : [Part 23, Part 25, 91.9, 91.13, 91.527, 121.341, 121.629, 125.221, 135.227, 135.345, AIM 7-1-16, 7-1-19, AC 20-73,
AC 23.1419-1, AC 135-9, AFM or POH]
1. Found in VISIBLE MOISTURE between +5º & -20ºC or colder — but usually between +2º & -10ºC.
2. Any mention of icing conditions during a weather briefing, even if only a “slight possibility” is considered
“KNOWN ICING” by the FAA and the NTSB. The briefer should check AIRMETs — issued at the first
indication of moderate ice; and SIGMETs — issued for severe icing. Flight in known icing is definitely
forbidden unless the aircraft is certificated for these conditions. You might want to mention to the briefer
that you plan to remain below the freezing level or clear of clouds, just for the record. If the aircraft is
not certified for flight in known icing, your job then becomes flying where the ice ain’t.
If you crash, or seriously disrupt the ATC system because of an encounter with ice — chances are —
you will receive a very unpleasant phone call from an FAA Safety Inspector.
3. 91.527 and 135.227 do not require the aircraft to be “certified for flight into known icing” in order to
depart into “known or forecast light or moderate icing”, as long as the aircraft has some kind of
“functioning deicing or anti-icing equipment protecting each rotor blade, propeller, windshield,
wing, stabilizing or control surface, and each airspeed, altimeter, rate of climb, or flight attitude
instrument system”. However, if the aircraft also carries a placard or limitation in the AFM that states,
“flight into known icing conditions is prohibited”, the aircraft could not be launched into icing
conditions because it would be subject to compliance with placards and limitations (91.9).
4. Nevertheless — Advisory Circular 135-9 (pertaining to Part 135) says — “…aircraft could be operated
in forecast or known light or moderate icing under VFR or IFR rules if it was equipped as required in
Section 135.227 and this equipment was functioning, unless the aircraft was prohibited by operating
limitations from operating in icing conditions.”
AC 135-9 also says:
a. “Aircraft equipped with functioning equipment meeting Section 135.227(b) and NOT placarded
restricting operations in icing conditions [many aircraft manufactured prior to 1973] may fly under
IFR or VFR rules in known or forecast light or moderate icing and continue flight in actual icing
conditions.”
b. “Aircraft equipped with functioning equipment meeting Part 135.227(b) and a PLACARD
PROHIBITING operation in icing conditions may depart on a flight when light or moderate icing is
forecast or reported to exist for the intended route to be flown. However, continued flight in
actual icing conditions is NOT permitted since such flight does not comply with the placard or the
operating limitation in the aircraft flight manual.”
5. Rule #1 — take off “CLEAN” without ANY ice, snow, or frost on the aircraft. (91.527, 135.227, 121.629)
6. Find out what the freezing level is, stay 3000 feet below it or 8000 feet above it, or above the clouds.
7. At the 1st sign of ice — do something about it — when doing battle with ice, especially in rapidly
building severe ice, by far the safest tactic is to GENTLY turn around and RUN AWAY!
8. Boots & prop heat will buy a little time, but if ice is bad enough it can bring down any aircraft.
Don’t think that boots will allow you to fly for extended periods of time in moderate to severe icing.
BFGoodrich ICEX boot treatment DOES help. It creates a slick surface and minimizes ice adhesion.
9. Alcohol windshields are anti-ice not de-ice; however alcohol will remove some (most) ice. NOTE:
Save the windshield alcohol for the landing approach and don’t forget to turn it OFF at least 20 seconds
before touchdown. It’s virtually impossible to see through alcohol streaming over a windshield.
10. When prop heat is not available, operate the propellers at MAXIMUM RPM. High RPM helps to
prevent ice from forming down the blades and the greatly increased centrifugal force tends to sling it off.

11. The term “ice bridging” has been proven to be a myth unless
the boots have longer than 10-second inflation and deflation
times (usually an indication of malfunctioning boots). However,
the more ice that accumulates prior to boot inflation, the more
that will tend to shed when the boots are inflated. So, let at
least some ice build before activating the boots.
12. As a rule of thumb — CLIMBING is usually the preferred FIRST option —
you’ll either break out on top or climb into air too cold for icing. This must
be done at the first sign of ice, while the aircraft is still capable of climbing.
Of course there are no guarantees, without knowing what the conditions are at
the higher altitudes, you may be going from bad to worse. But the higher you
fly, the more stored energy you’ll have should you need to “drift down” due to
ice accumulation. DESCENDING is usually the preferred SECOND option (get
to warmer temperatures below the clouds and the ice if possible). As another
rule of thumb, research has shown that 90% of icing encounters are limited to a
3000-foot vertical area. The other 10% of the time, ANYTHING is possible.
Call ATC. Get pilot reports.
13. Cloud tops in winter rarely extend above 30,000 feet.
14. Penetrate the icing altitudes as quickly as possible going up or down. If you’re at an ice-free altitude
closing in on your destination, try to stay there until the very last minute, then make a rapid descent.
15. Don’t allow ATC to fly your airplane. TELL THEM what you need to do. TELL THEM you are in a
dangerous icing situation and you MUST climb/descend or turn around RIGHT NOW. If the situation
really gets serious — TELL THEM you need “PRIORITY”, then use your emergency authority (91.3) to
do what you have to do RIGHT NOW. Do NOT let the aircraft completely ice up and fall out of the sky
while waiting for a request to be granted. Keep in mind however, if you declare an icing emergency in
an aircraft not properly equipped, an ugly enough incident may come to the attention of the local FSDO.
A small price to pay if you’re still alive!
16. Some of the heaviest icing can be found in the tops of clouds. An altitude that puts you in and out of
the cloud tops is not the best place to be.
17. Some of the WORST ICING can be found over or downwind of mountainous terrain (enormous lifting
factor) and over or downwind of the Great Lakes region (copious amounts of moisture).
18. As ice accumulates, it destroys lift and adds massive amounts of weight and drag. Cruise speed
drops and stall speed increases. When those speeds meet, you are forced to descend. If there is
warm air below, there is no problem. If there is an airport below, there is usually no problem.
If there are BIG ROCKS below, there WILL be a BIG PROBLEM.
19. Remember, fuel consumption increases dramatically as more and more power is needed to keep the
struggling aircraft flying.
20. When approaching to land carrying a load of ice, find a LONG runway preferably with an ILS. KEEP
the POWER & SPEED UP, the TURNS GENTLE, and DON’T CHANGE the FLAP SETTING. You
don’t NEED flaps. Flaps can cause a very exciting “TAIL STALL” (the negative lift of the tailplane is
eliminated and the aircraft pitches nose down). A sharp turn can cause a sudden accelerated stall
that will not be recoverable at low altitude.
21. KEEP the POWER UP. KEEP the SPEED UP. EVEN a SMALL POWER or SPEED REDUCTION
during APPROACH or EVEN in the FLARE, could cause an INSTANT STALL that will bend a lot of
metal. Better to slide off the end at 10 kts than to corkscrew into the ground a ½ mile short at well
over a 100 kts.

kAWOS vs. ASOS. Pilots can access ASOS/AWOS @

www.nws.noaa.gov/om/osd/portal.shtml
AWOS: (AIM 7-1-11)
1. Automated Weather Observing System. A suite of weather sensors of many different configurations
that were either procured by the FAA or purchased by individuals, groups, airports, etc. that are required
to meet FAA standards. AWOS can be purchased from three different contractors in the U.S.
2. A state or airport can purchase an AWOS with assistance from the FAA’s Airport Improvement Program.
3. Provides minute-by-minute weather to pilots at airports that have no other approved weather reporting.
4. Typically includes ceiling & visibility (AWOS-3), sky conditions, temperature, dewpoint, altimeter, wind
speed including gusts and wind direction.
AWOS-A — Only reports the altimeter setting.
AWOS-1 (I) — Altimeter, wind, temperature, dew point, and density altitude.
AWOS-2 (II) — Information provided by AWOS-1 plus VISIBILITY.
AWOS-3 (III) — Information provided by AWOS-2 plus CLOUD/CEILING data.
AWOS-3-P (III-P) — Adds a precipitation type identification sensor.
5. AWOS can also generate automated remarks about density altitude, variable winds, and ceilings.
6. A01 indicates a station WITHOUT a precipitation identification sensor (i.e., cannot determine the
difference between liquid or frozen/freezing precipitation).
7. A02 indicates a station WITH a precipitation identification sensor.
8. AWOS information can be obtained on the proper frequency in-flight and normally by telephone on the
ground (Airport Facility Directory, “AC-U-KWIK”, etc.).
9. An AWOS commissioned prior to July 1996 is not required to use the METAR format. That means it
might report temperature in degrees Fahrenheit amongst other differences.
AWOS observations are considered the “official weather” unless “challenged as incorrect”. If the AWOS
is reporting IFR conditions (e.g. isolated fog around the sensor), but the pilot’s eyesight is reporting obvious
VFR, the Part 91 pilot’s observation overrules the AWOS. Part 121 & 135 rules are more restrictive, they
require those pilots to consider the AWOS information as correct no matter how bogus it may seem.
ASOS: (AIM 7-1-11)

1. Automated Surface Observation System. More sophisticated than AWOS and is designed to provide
the necessary information to generate weather forecasts. A product of a National Weather Service
(NWS), Department of Defense (DoD) and FAA joint venture. ASOS is comprised of a standard suite of
weather sensors (with several exceptions) all procured from one contractor.
2. Continuous minute-by-minute observations necessary to generate an aviation routine weather report
(METAR).
3. Similar to AWOS but more sophisticated and is designed to provide the essential information
(METAR) to generate weather forecasts (TAF).
4. ASOS can determine type and intensity of precipitation (rain, snow, freezing rain), thunderstorms and
obstructions to visibility such as fog and haze.
5. ASOS can also measure wind shifts, peak gusts, rapid pressure changes, and the amount of
accumulated precipitation.
6. ASOS shines a laser ceiliometer into the sky to observe cloud layers. It takes a measurement every 30
seconds over a 30-minute period, then double-weighs measurements during the last 10 minutes so the
computer can decide if the cloud layers are scattered, broken or overcast.
7. The ASOS visibility sensor is normally located near the touchdown zone of the primary instrument
runway.
8. The word “AUTO” included in the broadcast signifies that an observer is not logged onto the ASOS for
backup or augmentation.
10. ASOS information can be obtained on the proper frequency in-flight and normally by telephone on the
ground (Airport Facility Directory, AC-U-KWIK, etc.).
ASOS and AWOS:

1. The flag word “TEST” is added to the voice transmission of an ASOS/AWOS when it is being tested
before commissioning. The quality of the observations may not be up to FAA standards. Therefore, the
data should not be used operationally until the “TEST” flag word is removed.
2. Ceiling information is “time averaged” over a 30-minute period and visibility over a 10-minute period.
3. The upper limit of cloud height and visibility reported by ASOS/AWOS is 12,000 feet and 10 miles.
4. Most common reason ASOS/AWOS cannot be received by telephone is due to maintenance or repair.
5. Questions about ASOS/AWOS? — call 202-366-9908 (FAA Weather Sensors Research Team).
Chap 7 — Commercial Operations
Part 91 vs. Parts 121/135 (119.1)

Part 91 Parts 121/135
1. A commercial pilot may fly as a Part 91
“Corporate pilot” — flying a company airplane
carrying company property and passengers.
2. May provide Part 91 “pilot service” — whereas a 1. Requires an “Air Taxi/Commercial Operator
commercial pilot is paid by an airplane owner to fly Certificate”.
the airplane for the owner and his guests. 2. Can “hold out” to the public and offer “common
3. May provide “private carriage ” for hire for one carriage” to anyone who is willing to pay.
customer or a few select customers. 3. Can advertise and offer “carriage in air
4. May also perform the services listed in 119.1 that commerce of persons or property for
are not covered under Part 135 regulations compensation or hire.”
(i.e., student instruction, nonstop sightseeing
flights within 25 NM, ferry flights, crop dusting,
banner towing, pipeline patrol, etc.).
A Part 135 PIC must have at least 500 hours total

time (…etc.) for VFR operations and at least
1200 hours total time (…etc.) for IFR operations.
No minimum flight experience required. For Part 135 PIC — an ATP is required for turbojets,
or airplanes with 10 or more passenger seats, or
multiengine commuter operations. (135.243)
A Part 121 PIC must have an ATP. [121.437(a)]
A Second In Command is required when carrying
A Second In Command is not required for
passengers under IFR unless the operation (and the
instrument flight in aircraft that are normally flown
pilot) is approved for use of an autopilot in lieu of a
single pilot.
Second In Command. (135.101, 135.105)
An FAA approved training program is required for

No training program required.
all 135 operations except simple single pilot operators.
Must have a drug and alcohol random testing

No drug and alcohol program required for most program for all employees in “ safety sensitive”
operations [except drug testing is required for positions. This would include anyone the operator
“nonstop sightseeing flights” see 135.1(a)(5)]. contracts with, such as when maintenance is
performed by another facility away from home base.
(135.249 thru 135.255 & 121 appendix I & J)
FIVE YEAR background checks are required due to

the Pilot Records Improvement Act of 1996 (PRIA):
1. A check of all previous employers for training or
checkride problems and drug testing history.
Background checks NOT required
2. An FAA records check of the pilot’s certificate
and medical including any accidents or incidents.
3. A check of the pilot’s driving record for any drug
or alcohol related “motor vehicle actions”.
No flight time limits, duty time limits or rest 135.261 thru 135.273 (121.470 thru 121.525) regulates
requirements. crew flight time, duty time and rest requirements.
The airport must have WEATHER REPORTING and

Any airport may be used — IFR or VFR — as long be of adequate length to meet required accelerate
as it is adequate for the aircraft and is in compliance stop/accelerate go distance (for most aircraft) and
with the limitations of the Aircraft Flight Manual. meet the 60%/70% (destination/alternate) landing
limitation rules. (135.367 thru 135.399; 121.185 thru 121.205)
A pilot may not begin an instrument approach

An instrument approach may be initiated
unless the latest weather reports at least
regardless of the weather.
minimums for the approach. [135.225, 121.651(b)]

Hi, my name is Captain Dudley.
If it’s got wings, I can fly it.
Pilot In Command QUALIFICATIONS:

(135.243, 135.247, 135.293, 135.299, 135.345 thru 135.351, 121.434 thru 121.445)
1. Part 135 VFR:
a. Commercial / Instrument / Multi-Engine ratings (for
nd
multi-engine operations), and 2 Class Medical.
b. Must be instrument current, also company trained and line
checked (135.293, 135.299) in the aircraft within the last
12 months.
c. TOTAL PILOT TIME ....................... 500 hours
d. Total cross country ......................... 100 hours
e. Night cross country........................... 25 hours
2. Part 135 IFR:
a. Commercial / Instrument / Multi-Engine ratings (for multi-engine
nd
operations), and 2 Class Medical.
b. Must be company trained and line checked (135.293, 135.299) in
the aircraft within the last 12 months and instrument checked (135.297) within
the last 6 months.
c. TOTAL PILOT TIME ......................................1,200 hours.
d. Total cross country .......................................... 500 hours.
e. Total night....................................................... 100 hours.
f. Night cross country............................................ 25 hours.
g. 75 hours of actual or simulated instrument time at least 50 hours of which were in actual flight.
3. For PASSENGER-carrying operations only — No person may serve as PIC of a turbojet, or an
airplane having 10 or more passenger seats, OR a multiengine airplane in a commuter operation
unless he holds an Airline Transport Pilot certificate and a current 1st Class Medical (135.243).
4. For COMMUTER operations, the PIC must also have the Initial Operating Experience (IOE) outlined in
135.244 (or 121.434)(i.e., 20 hours in a multiengine turbine or 25 hours in a turbojet with a qualified
check pilot that can be acquired during revenue flights. The hours can be reduced by 50% by the
substitution of one additional takeoff and landing for each hour of flight. See Initial Operating
Experience in Chapter 8 of this book for specific details).
5. Part 121 — No pilot may act as Pilot In Command of an aircraft (or as Second In Command
of an aircraft in a flag or supplemental operation that requires three or more pilots) unless he holds
an Airline Transport Pilot certificate and an appropriate type rating for that aircraft. [121.437(a)]
RECENT PILOT EXPERIENCE for Pilot In Command: (61.57, 91.103, 121.439, 135.247, 135.299)
1. To carry PASSENGERS the PIC must have 3 takeoffs and landings in an aircraft of the same category
and class in the past 90 days — these landings must be made to a full stop if in a tailwheel aircraft or
at night — and — if a type rating is required — must be in the same type of aircraft. (61.57, 135.247)
For Part 121 operations the three takeoffs and landings are required for ANY flight crewmember
regardless of if passengers are carried or not. (121.439)
2. For operations at NIGHT (between 1 hour after sunset and 1 hour before sunrise), the same as #1
above during this same 90 day period of time.
3. If the PIC has not flown over a route and into an airport within the preceding 90 days — the pilot must
become familiar with all available information required for the safe operation of the flight [135.299(c),
91.103].
TOP SECRET CAPTAIN STUFF

#1. Point the airplane where you want to go, if it doesn’t go that way — POINT HARDER.
#2. If you don’t want the airplane to go over there — DON’T LET IT GO OVER THERE.

IFR TAKEOFF Minimums Continued:

[91.175(f), 121.617, 121.619, 121.625, 121.651, 135.217, OpSpec C057 & C078 or C079]
B. TWO PILOTS — Flightcrew of two “required” pilots (required by the regulations or the type
certification of the aircraft) — Check T non-standard. Takeoffs from Unlisted Airports: (121.637)
No pilot may takeoff an airplane from an airport not
1. ¼ Mile or RVR 1600 — AT LEAST ONE of the following: listed in the OpSpecs unless the weather conditions
(a) High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL). are equal to or better than prescribed in Part 97.
Where minimums are not prescribed, the weather
(b) Centerline Lights (CL). minimums of 800-2, 900-1½, or 1,000-1 are required.
(c) Centerline Marking (RCLM).
(d) OR… Adequate visual reference to continuously identify the takeoff surface.
2. TDZ RVR 1200 and Rollout RVR 1000 and must have BOTH of the following:
(a) Centerline Lights (CL).
(b) Two RVR reporting systems.
3. TDZ [as low as] RVR 600, Mid RVR 600, and Rollout RVR 600, provided ALL of the following
visual aids and RVR equipment are available:
(a) Centerline Lights (CL).
(b) Centerline Markings (RCLM).
(c) At least two of the three RVR reporting systems must be working.
NOTES:
1. Mid RVR may be substituted for either TDZ RVR or Rollout RVR if TDZ RVR or Rollout RVR is not
available.
2. Use of autopilot in lieu of a required 2nd-in-command IS NOT authorized.
3. Each pilot station must have:
(a) An Attitude Indicator, DG, VSI, Airspeed and Altimeter.
(b) An independent source of power for Attitude and DG.
4. Each PIC and SIC must have at least 100 hours PIC (or SIC) in specific make & model and have
completed company training program for the minimums authorized.
5. For takeoffs when TDZ RVR is less than RVR 1200, the aircraft must be able to achieve performance
specified in FAR 135.367 (Must have “ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE” — the distance required to
accelerate to liftoff speed and, assuming failure of an engine at the instant that liftoff speed is attained,
to bring the airplane to a full stop — and/or be able to climb to 35 ft before the end of the runway on one
engine if it fails at V1 — aka “ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE”).
6. If you TAKEOFF with weather BELOW landing minimums — for all practical purposes — you cannot
return to land if you lose an engine after takeoff. Therefore, you must FILE (or list in the dispatch or
flight release) a “TAKEOFF ALTERNATE” (aka “DEPARTURE ALTERNATE”) that is within
ONE hour’s flying time at normal cruise speed, in still air — 135.217; or… at normal cruise speed
in still air with one engine inoperative — 121.617) or… TWO hours flying time for an aircraft with
3 or more engines. (135.217, 121.617) The “TAKEOFF ALTERNATE” airport must have weather at or
above IFR landing minimums. (121.625)
If the departure runway does not have RVR you are limited to
½ mile visibility (or the lowest Cat I visibility authorized for that 135.217 — No person may takeoff where weather
runway). OpSpec C057 does not allow takeoffs from runways conditions are below IFR landing minimums
which do not have RVR, based on the RVR report of another unless there is an alternate airport within 1 hour’s
runway. OpSpec C057 — “…RVR reports, when available for a
particular runway, shall be used for all takeoff operations on that flying time (at normal cruise speed, in still air).
runway. All takeoff operations, based on RVR, must use RVR
reports from the locations along the runway specified…”
121.617 — No person may takeoff where weather

The flight plan (or flight release ) must conditions are below IFR landing minimums unless
specify a takeoff alternate if the weather there is an alternate airport within:
at the takeoff airport is below landing 1. Aircraft having TWO engines — Not more
minimums for that airport. than one hour at normal cruise speed in still
Any landing minimums at the takeoff air with one engine inoperative.
airport that are authorized for the 2. Aircraft having THREE or more engines —
certificate holder may be considered Not more than two hours at normal cruise
including Category II or III ILS approaches. speed in still air with one engine inoperative.

Chap 8 — More Commercial Stuff
General Operations Manual (GOM): (135.21, 135.23, 121.131 thru 121.141)

1. The certificate holder shall prepare and keep a current Operations Manual (aka: General Operating
Manual, GOM, or “Ops Manual”), approved by the FAA, setting forth the policies and procedures by
which the company will comply with the Operations Specifications issued by the FAA and the current
Federal Regulations.
2. A copy of the manual must be made available to all ground personnel and furnished to all flight
crewmembers and is intended to be used by employees for guidance on how to do their jobs.
3. Each flight crewmember is required to have their Operations Manual IN THEIR POSSESSION any
time while operating a company aircraft.
4. Each employee to whom a manual is furnished is responsible to keep it up to date with changes and
additions furnished to them.
OPERATIONS MANUAL (GOM) CONTENTS: (135.23, 135.77, 135.179, 119.69, 121.131 thru 121.141)
Each manual shall have the date of the last revision on each revised page. The manual must include:
1. The name, title, duties and responsibilities of each management person (119.69).
2. Name and title of each person authorized to exercise
“operational control”[the authority to launch an aircraft] (135.77).
3. Weight & Balance procedures.
4. Copies or excerpts from the Operations Specifications including:
a. Area of operation.
b. Types of operations.
c. Category and class of aircraft.
d. Crew complements.
5. Accident notification procedures.
6. Procedures for ensuring the Pilot In Command knows

that required airworthiness inspections have been made.
7. Procedures for reporting mechanical discrepancies and determining that the mechanical
discrepancies have been corrected whether at home base or on the road.
8. Minimum Equipment List (MEL ) procedures (135.179).
9. Refueling procedures.
10. Passenger briefing procedures.
11. Flight locating procedures. The “Ops Manual” is your Bible
12. Emergency procedures. while working for any Part 135 or Part 121 company.
13. En route qualification procedures. You must know all the company procedures
14. Approved Aircraft Inspection Program contained within it. If you are “ramp checked” it will
(AAIP), when applicable. be one of the first things they ask for. If you cannot
15. HAZardous MATerials procedures. produce it you’ll be in a heap-o-trouble. The FAA feels
16. Evacuation of passengers during an you cannot fly an airplane without it. Make sure you
emergency. can reach it from the cockpit in flight.
17. Other procedures and policy instructions
regarding operations.
The manual cannot act contrary to any FAR. It is not “approved” by the POI (Principle Operations
Inspector) it is “accepted”, which is a lower standard of review. It can include any “guidance” the
company wishes to provide. “Guidance”, by definition, is not mandatory but merely informatory.
If an individual fails to comply with a part of the Operations Manual that is made mandatory by some
section of the FAR’s, then the individual is in violation of that FAR and should be cited by the FAA.
If, on the other hand, an individual violates a company standard or policy not covered by the FAR’s then
any action against the individual is purely at the discretion of the company, not the FAA.
Decisions made in 1991 by the FAA Assistant Chief Counsel and Attorney, Office of the Regional Counsel.

The Inspector’s Checklist:
RAMP
1. Airworthiness certificate;
2. Registration;
3. Operating handbook;
CHECK
4. Weight & Balance information;
5. Flashlight;
Of course the
6. Charts (currency); 1st thing they’ll
7. VOR check; ask for is your
8. ELT battery; pilot certificate
9. Seat belts; and medical.
10. MEL (if applicable);
11. General airworthiness of the aircraft.
INSPECTIONS and TESTS — “RAMP CHECK”: (135.73, 121.547,121.548)

Each certificate holder and each employee shall allow the Administrator, at any time or place , to make
inspections or tests (including en route inspections) to determine compliance with the regulations and
Operations Specifications.
INSPECTORS ADMISSION to PILOTS’ COMPARTMENT — “RAMP CHECK” —

EN ROUTE CHECK — FORWARD OBSERVER’S SEAT: (135.75, 121.547, 121.548)
1. Whenever, in performing the duties of conducting an inspection, an FAA inspector presents an Aviation
Safety Inspector credential (FAA Form 110A) to a Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated by the
certificate holder, the inspector must be given free and uninterrupted access to the pilot
compartment. However, this does not limit the emergency authority of the PIC to exclude any
person from the pilot compartment in the interest of safety.
2. A forward observer’s seat on the flight deck, or forward passenger seat with headset or speaker
must be provided for use by the Administrator while conducting an en route inspection.
“RAMP CHECK” — INFO FROM the FAA INSPECTOR’S HANDBOOK:

[FAA order 8700.1, Volume 2, Ch 56, Sec 1, para 5(B)]
1. The inspector shall always have identification available.
2. An inspector must not board any aircraft without the knowledge of the crew or operator (inspectors
cannot board an aircraft without the permission of the captain). Some operators may prefer to have a
company representative present to answer questions.
3. If the surveillance will delay a flight, the inspector should use prudent judgment whether or not to
continue. {NOTE: An inspector is NOT authorized to detain you if it means missing an engagement
or a flight. They can only keep you long enough to check the appropriate paperwork.}
4. The inspector should also bear in mind that he or she may not be able to complete all items on every
ramp inspection.
RAMP CHECK ADVICE

1. ALWAYS remain FRIENDLY and COURTEOUS.
2. ALWAYS address the inspector by his (or her) FIRST NAME, it has the affect of keeping things at
the human level — they’re doing their job, you’re doing your job. A little humor and a super-
friendly attitude go a long way to break the ice if you can do so without acting like an idiot.
See if you can get them to SMILE. Ask THEM questions. See if you can get a dialogue going
about something other than the ramp check. FAA people usually love to talk, and usually don’t
have a whole lot of time. If you can keep him distracted with chitchat — eventually his time will run
out — and everyone will go home happy. If you give him enough time to dig, he WILL find
something wrong, in which case HE will go home happy and YOU will go to the motel unhappy.
3. Graciously comply with a request to see your license/medical and the aircraft’s airworthiness
certificate and registration.
4. Beyond that, if you wish to end the inspection [are those batteries in your flashlight still good?],
VERY POLITELY, tell him you have an important commitment and a schedule you’ve GOT to
keep…. Then go grab some lunch, take in a movie, throw a few balls at the local bowling alley, or
crank-up and takeoff — but get away from the airport if you wish to end the inspection.

“SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMIT” or “FERRY PERMIT”: [91.213(e), 21.197, 21.199]

1. Notwithstanding any other provision of this section (91.213), an aircraft with inoperable instruments or
equipment may be operated under a special flight permit issued in accordance with Secs. 21.197 and
21.199.
2. A “special flight permit” aka “ferry permit” may be issued by the Flight Standards District Office (FAA
Form 8130-6) for an aircraft that may not currently meet airworthiness requirements but is capable of
safe flight.
3. Normally an authorized mechanic makes the determination as to the safety of the aircraft.
4. A “ferry permit” is typically issued for:
a. Repositioning an aircraft to a place where repairs or maintenance is to be performed or to a
place of storage.
b. Flight-testing or delivery of aircraft.
c. Customer demonstration flights for new production aircraft.
d. Evacuating aircraft from an area of impending danger.
e. Operating an aircraft at a weight in excess of maximum gross weight for a long-range flight such
as crossing the Atlantic.
5. A “Special Airworthiness Certificate” (FAA form 8130-7) is also required if the aircraft is
“out of annual”.
OPERABLE CONDITION means that the

instruments and equipment required to comply
with the airworthiness requirements under which
the airplane is type-certificated shall be in a
condition so as to operate efficiently and in the
manner intended by the manufacturer.
A ferry flight of a 3 or 4
turbine engine aircraft with
one engine inoperative to a
repair station may be made
in VFR conditions with only
required flight crewmembers
on board. (91.611)

Chap 9 — Emergency & Legal
EMERGENCY. TELL them the problem.

(91.3, 91.123, 135.19, TELL them what you’re doing about it (e.g., “We are descending, turning NOW”)
121.533, 121.535, 121.537,
121.557, 121.559, 121.565, TELL them what you need them to do — DO NOT “REQUEST” A DAMN THING!
AIM 6-1-1 & 6-1-2) TAKE CHARGE — YOU ARE the BOSS
DO NOT LET ATC CRASH YOUR AIRPLANE!
During ANY EMERGENCY:

1. Do NOT “request” a damn thing! TELL THEM WHAT YOU’RE DOING.
2. Do NOT try to maintain an altitude or heading that you cannot maintain when there is a problem.
3. Example — Do NOT wait for a “request” to be granted before turning back to the airport with an engine
problem or FIRE! Just START TURNING BACK TO the AIRPORT. Do what you have to do
IMMEDIATELY! Talk about it later.
4. An uncountable number of pilots and passengers have been KILLED waiting for a “REQUEST”
to be granted!!
5. JUST DO IT! Tell them about it LATER!
6. Take charge of the situation — YOU become the BOSS — ATC becomes your ASSISTANT.
7. Example —
you “Falcon 123T has a FIRE in the right engine we are descending and turning back to the
airport NOW. Need vectors for the ILS as close in as possible.”
them “123T understand—are you declaring an emergency?”
you “You can call it anything you like—but we need to get it on the ground RIGHT NOW —
We need “PRIORITY” — please give us that heading.”
BOTH the Dispatcher AND the Captain “PRIORITY” will get you exactly what you want RIGHT NOW!
have the responsibility and authority to
declare an EMERGENCY. 121.557
“Emergency” and “Priority” mean the same to a controller. See 91.123(d)
91.3 Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot In Command:

(a) The Pilot In Command is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to the operation of that
aircraft. (Notice it says nothing about after the pilot declares an emergency.)
(b) In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the Pilot In Command may deviate from any
rule to the extent required to meet that emergency. (Again, nothing about after saying the “word”.)
(c) “Upon the request of the Administrator”, you may be required to supply a written report of the incident
[Usually, only when they think you might have had some part in causing the incident].
⇒ The fact that a pilot does not formally declare an emergency on his radio does not The point is:
preclude reliance on 91.3(b) as a defense [NTSB 2015]. Don’t be afraid to
⇒ You do NOT have to FORMALLY DECLARE an EMERGENCY before deviating say the “E-word”
from a clearance when dealing with a potentially life threatening situation. but also don’t be
⇒ Just do what has to be done to get the aircraft on the ground as soon as possible. afraid to do what
⇒ You have the power to ignore every regulation in the book if you need to. is necessary
⇒ Do what you have to do, tell them about it as soon as you get a chance. BEFORE getting
⇒ Chat about semantics later when you get on the ground — ALIVE!!! permission.
When it becomes necessary to SHUT-DOWN an ENGINE, a LARGE AIRPORT with a LONG RUNWAY
and an ILS providing GLIDE SLOPE information is definitely an important consideration with a large
aircraft and/or bad weather in any aircraft.
However, one must also consider 91.7(b), which has been interpreted to mean; “the pilot, in an emergency
situation, must land at the first AVAILABLE and ‘SUITABLE’ airport at which a safe landing can be made. But
he is NOT REQUIRED to land at the first AVAILABLE airport if it is not ‘SUITABLE’.” According to the FAA,
safety is the paramount consideration. Convenience and comfort are not considerations at all.
The pilot is required to land at the “FIRST AVAILABLE” location “CONSISTENT with SAFETY”.
So, in other words, do not shut an engine down, then fly another 100 miles, passing several “suitable”
airports along the way, just to get the airplane back home where your car is! Somebody at the local
FSDO may not consider that “consistent with safety”, and you’ll probably be hearing these words—
“you’re in a heap-o’-trouble Boy!”

Chap 9 — Emergency & Legal
HOW TO CRASH AN AIRPLANE
EQUIPPED WITH A PERFECTLY GOOD SPARE ENGINE
Single engine airplanes fall out of the sky all the time. Here’s the scenario: Ä engine quits — the pilot realizes
immediately he forgot to bring along a spare engine — pilot immediately screams two words — “Oh _ _ _ _”.
An OFF airport landing is usually inevitable and may or may not be survivable.
Multiengine airplanes always bring along a spare engine. In the event of an engine failure there may be some
screamin’ goin’ on, but an ON airport landing should always be inevitable and survivable. A spare engine is
the cheapest life insurance you can buy. Plus, YOU get to collect on this type of insurance. Unlike that other
insurance only your wife benefits from!
Because an
accident did not
happen — you
never hear about
the uncountable
times that twins
lose an engine
and land safely.
The majority of accidents are due to pilot
error — however an AMAZING number of
accidents are due to pilot STUPIDITY!
COMMON MULTIENGINE ACCIDENT SCENARIOS:

1. Pilot continues VFR flight into INSTRUMENT CONDITIONS — without any instrument skills!
2. Pilot RUNS OUT OF GAS! Usually two miles from the destination airport, after passing several others.
3. Pilot becomes PARALYZED at the controls, FAILS to FEATHER the ailing ENGINE — Complacency
can lead to a brain meltdown when trying to remember all those “proper procedures”. Every takeoff
should be viewed as an emergency. Before every takeoff discuss with yourself what you’re gonna do
if ya lose one right after liftoff. By the way, there’s only ONE “procedure” to feather an engine in
virtually any airplane — PULL or PUSH the CORRECT FEATHER LEVER or BUTTON RIGHT NOW!
Everything else will usually take care of itself if you have the gear up and maintain at least VXSE.
4. Pilot FEATHERS the WRONG ENGINE — Take that extra second to VERIFY you are preparing to
feather the engine NOT running as opposed to the engine that is running.
Remember: Ä STEP ON THE BALL — DEAD FOOT = DEAD ENGINE.
Also: Ä LOOK at the ENGINE GAUGES (but be conscious to the fact that a completely dead piston
engine will show approximately 30” of manifold pressure).
5. Pilot FAILS to RAISE the GEAR after losing one at lift off — CLEAN UP the DRAG!
6. Pilot FAILS to MAINTAIN AIRSPEED, airplane falls out of the sky — Airspeed is everything when low
and slow. Especially when hot, high and heavy — carry a little extra speed before liftoff so you have an
airspeed “cushion” to work with while sorting things out if you suddenly become single. Do NOT allow
the airplane to stall. Any excursion below VXSE or VMC may be your last! Once the propeller is
feathered, TRIM for ¼ to ¾ ball-width out and 3º bank towards the OPERATING engine.
7. Pilot uses EXCESSIVE BANK while turning — As bank angle increases; stall speed increases and
climb decreases. Use conservative bank angles when low, slow and single (especially into the dead engine).
8. Pilot gets TOO LOW and TOO SLOW on final, airplane does not make it to the runway — Always stay a
little high and a little fast on the glidepath during final approach. Do NOT allow yourself to get
below the “power curve”. Do not put the gear down or flaps down until you’re positive you can make
the runway. It’s almost always better to land a little long than land a little short.
9. Pilot LANDS LONG and GOES OFF the END of the RUNWAY, airplane is banged up but pilot OK — If
you are much TOO FAST on FINAL, the lack of drag from the feathered propeller can contribute to a
“floater” landing that can consume a lot of runway and could put you off the end. If you have some
altitude to work with, try to find a LARGE AIRPORT with a LONG RUNWAY and an ILS or VASI
providing GLIDE SLOPE information. Flying that few extra miles to a larger airport is usually a good
idea. Plus the larger airport will probably have a much nicer hotel and a better restaurant.
10. Pilot attempts SINGLE ENGINE GO-AROUND — Single engine landings in a relatively small twin
should be considered a one-shot deal. Make your approach as precise as possible. A host of factors
including type of airplane, weight, temperature, elevation, pilot skill and good old fashioned luck make
the single engine go-around a hair-raising choice of action. Do NOT SCREW UP the APPROACH!!!
KEEP YOUR SPEED UP — DO NOT GET BELOW the POWER CURVE — PICK a BIG AIRPORT.

General Flying

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

General Flying

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport

18,000 MSL (FL 180) — Altimeter 29.92

Class E can go down to Class E to the surface

Class C — Radar. Individually Class G — When

2 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

Do you have to hear the words “ Cleared into Class B” ???

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 3

CLASS E Airspace: (71.71, 91.127, 91.155, AIM 3-2-1, 3-2-6, 3-2-8)

SURFACE-BASED CLASS E: (AC 90-66A, Airplane Flying Handbook FAA H-8083-3)

6 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

PILOT IN COMMAND (1.1)

PILOT IN COMMAND SEATING POSITION:

ACTIVE PILOTS in the UNITED STATES: (Year 2001)

ENGLISH — The UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE:

WILCO: (P/C Glossary)

TANGO: (AIM 4-2-4)

FLIGHT CHECK: (P/C Glossary)

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 359

Grading System Correlation

Piston Engine SMOKE:

366 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

382 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

Conversions, Comparisons, Formulas & Weights

(knots) speed of sound to within 1 knot 39 x OAT in Kelvin

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 385

ATC CLEARANCE and FLIGHT PLAN REQUIRED: (91.173)

PREFERRED ROUTES: (P/C Glossary, A/FD)

91.203(b) — No person may

34 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

TAKEOFF BRIEFING: (AC 120-71 APPENDIX 17)

TAKEOFF BRIEFING (typical)

Pilot Flying (PF) — “Affirmative. Takeoff briefing complete.”

Other considerations could be:

TOLD Card (Take-Off & Landing Data)

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 39

APPROACH BRIEFING — ATIS-ATS:

50 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

.NONPRECISION — NDB / VOR — APPROACH & HOLDING:

2. While PARALLELING the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):

NDB or VOR — ON the Field:

NDB or VOR — OFF the Field:

HOLDING: (AIM 4-4-3, 5-3-7, 5-4-8, FIG 5-3-1, 5-3-2, 5-3-3)

PLANNED Descent Point (PDP):

FAF 2 min & 40 sec to PDP PDP MAP

MDA = 502 ft AGL

3 min & 30 sec TOTAL from FAF to MAP

FAF 2.8 miles to PDP PDP MAP

MDA = 502 ft AGL

4.5 miles TOTAL from FAF to MAP

Vertical Descent Angle (VDA): (AIM 5-4-5h.)

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 77

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 97

More About ANTENNAS

Horizontal V -Whip U-Shape Balanced Loop (towel rack)

98 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

Even More About ANTENNAS

Marker Beacon Transponder

Marker Beacon or DME or Transponder

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 99

SPEED RESTRICTION / ADJUSTMENT: (AIM 4-4-11)

SPEED BELOW 10,000 and/or in CLASS B: (91.117, 91.1)

SPEED in CLASS C, D, E and G Airport Areas: (91.117, AC 90-66A, FAA-H-8083-3)