What is lithium carbonate?

Lithium carbonate is an inorganic compound, the lithium salt of carbonate with

the formula Li2CO3

A white solid, Li2CO3; relative density is 2.11 g/cm3; melting. Point is 723°C;
decomposes above 1310°C. It is produced commercially by treating the ore, with
sulphuric acid at 250°C and leaching the product to give a solution of lithium
sulphate. The carbonate is then obtained by precipitation with sodium carbonate
solution. Lithium carbonate is used in the prevention and treatment of manic
depressive disorders. It is also used industrially in ceramic glazes.

What is spodumene?

Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral that is found, almost exclusively, in granite

pegmatites. It has a chemical composition of LiAlSi2O6 but small amounts of sodium
sometimes substitute for lithium. Spodumene is typically found in lithium-rich
pegmatites in association with other lithium minerals such as lepidolite, eucryptite,
and petalite. In the historical literature, the mineral is often referred to as "triphane."

Physical Properties of Spodumene

Chemical Classification Silicate
Color White, gray, yellow, green, blue, lilac, pink, brown. Sometimes pleochroic
Streak White, colorless
Luster Vitreous, pearly
Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent
Cleavage Perfect in two directions with parting
Mohs Hardness 6.5 to 7
Specific Gravity 3.1 to 3.3
Diagnostic Properties Prismatic crystals with strong striations parallel to their principal axis. Perfect cleavage.
Chemical Composition LiAl(SiO3)2
Crystal System Monoclinic (low temperature), tetragonal (high temperature)
Uses An ore of lithium. Gemstones (kunzite, hiddenite)

Uses of Spodumene

Spodumene once served as the most important ore of lithium metal. Although it
remains an important source of lithium, today most of the world's lithium is produced
from subsurface brines in Chile, Argentina, and China. These sources of lithium have
lower production costs and are suitable for most uses. However, when lithium of
highest purity is needed, spodumene is the source that is used.
Demand for Spodumene

The demand for spodumene is dependent upon the use of lithium in manufacturing.
In the past, most lithium compounds and minerals were used to produce ceramics,
glass, aluminum alloys, and high-temperature grease. However, an exploding
demand for rechargeable batteries to power cell phones, tablet computers, cameras,
music players, GPS units, and other portable electronic devices is driving the
demand for high-purity lithium - and that drives the demand for spodumene.

Lithium batteries have a much higher charge-to-weight ratio and power-to-weight

ratio than lead/acid and zinc carbon cells. This makes lithium the battery material of
choice.

Lithium produced from spodumene has fewer contaminants than lithium produced
from brines. These contaminants can interfere with battery performance and make
spodumene the preferred choice for battery lithium. A new battery technology could
displace the use of lithium; however, most new battery technologies have been
lithium-based.

What is sulphuric acid?

A colourless oily liquid, H2SO4; relative density 1.84 g/cm3; melting point is 10.36°C;
boiling point is 338°C. The pure acid is rarely used; it is commonly available as a 96–
98% solution (m.p. 3.0°C). The compound also forms a range of hydrates:
H2SO4.H2O (m.p. 8.62°C); H2SO4.2H2O (m.p. –38/39°C); H2SO4.6H2O (m.p. –
54°C); H2SO4.8H2O (m.p. –62°C). Its full systematicname is tetraoxosulphuric(VI)
acid.

Until the 1930s, sulphuric acid was manufactured by the *lead-chamber

process, but this has now been replaced by the *contact process (catalytic oxidation
of sulphur dioxide). More sulphuric acid is made in the UK than any other chemical
product; production levels (UK) are commonly 12 000 to 13 000 tonnes per day. It is
extensively used in industry, the main applications being fertilizers (32%), chemicals
(16%), paints and pigments (15%), detergents (11%), and Übres (9%). In
concentrated sulphuric acid there is extensive hydrogen bonding and several
competing equilibria, to give species such as H3O+, HSO4–,H3SO4+, and H2S2O7.
Apart from being a powerful protonating agent (it protonates chlorides and nitrates
producing hydrogen chloride and nitric acid), the compound is a moderately strong
oxidizing agent. Thus, it will dissolve copper: Cu(s) + H2SO4(l) → CuO(s) + H2O(l) +
SO2(g) CuO(s) + H2SO4(l) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) It is also a powerful dehydrating
agent, capable of removing H2O from many organic compounds (as in the
production of acid *anhydrides). In dilute solution it is a strong dibasic acid forming
two series of salts, the sulphates and the hydrogen sulphates.

What is sodium carbonate?

Anhydrous sodium carbonate (soda ash, sal soda) is a white powder, which cakes
and aggregates on exposure to air due to the formation of hydrates. The
monohydrate, Na2CO3.H2O, is a white crystalline material, which is soluble in water
and insoluble in alcohol; r.d. 2.532; loses water at 109°C; m.p. 851°C.The
decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda), is a translucent efÛorescent
crystalline solid; r.d. 1.44; loses water at 32–34°C to give the monohydrate; m.p.
851°C. Sodium carbonate may be manufactured by the *Solvay process or by
suitable crystallization procedures from any one of a number of natural deposits,
such as: trona (Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O), natron (Na2CO3.10H2O), ranksite
(2Na2CO3.9Na2SO4.KCl), pirsonnite (Na2CO3.CaCO3.2H2O), gaylussite
(Na2CO3.CaCO3.5H2O). The method of extraction is very sensitive to the relative
energy costs and transport costs in the region involved. Sodium carbonate is used in
photography, in cleaning, in pH control of water, in textile treatment, glasses and
glazes, and as a food additive and volumetric reagent.

a) Identify end-uses of the products of the process. Identify any special

requirements on raw materials and products?

The market for lithium, lithium minerals, and lithium chemicals has seen major
changes over the last four years in terms of supply and demand and will continue to
evolve and grow over the coming five years and beyond. The main driver of growth
in demand over recent years has been secondary (rechargeable) lithium-ion
batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and portable electronics market.

Historically, lithium produced from mineral-based sources was consumed

primarily in technical applications, while production from brines was consumed
primarily in chemical applications. Over the last two years, China has increased
production of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide using concentrated or raw
spodumene ore imported from Australia, mainly for lithium battery material
production. The chemical market is now dominated by lithium battery material
production. Lubricant greases, primary aluminum production, air treatment as an
absorbent and desiccant, continuous steel casting, initiator in rubber and
thermoplastic applications, pharmaceuticals, and aluminum-lithium alloys in
aerospace applications are other chemical markets for lithium. The leading technical
applications include the glass, ceramic, and metallurgical industries, where its low
cost and inherent benefits of having alumina and silica content make it the product of
choice.

The projected growth in battery applications led to continued investigation into

lithium resources and reserves during 2013–17. Capacity has increased at more
than 14% per year on average over the last five years, and is forecast to grow at
more than 27% annually during 2017–22, as current and new producers expand
capacity to meet demand over the coming years. Brine deposits are being
investigated and developed in Argentina, Bolivia, China, and the United States.
Mineral deposits are being developed in Australia, Canada, China, Finland, and the
United States.
Other article

Lithium carbonate is a lithium compound used in a range of industrial, technical and

medical applications. As Rockwood Lithium notes, it is often “the first chemical in the
production chain,” with other compounds such as lithium hydroxide being produced
with subsequent steps if needed.

For this reason, investors will often see lithium production numbers broken
down in terms of lithium carbonate equivalent. As with other lithium products, lithium
carbonate may be produced from brines or from hard-rock deposits, although a few
companies are also looking to develop clay-based lithium deposits.

Those interested in the lithium space will no doubt have seen plenty of references to
lithium carbonate in company reports. Here are a few key points to keep in mind:

-- Lithium is used for much more than just lithium-ion batteries

-- Not all lithium carbonate is created equal

-- Lithium hydroxide is becoming more and more popular for use in the
manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries.

 Batteries and beyond

Batteries have generated most of the excitement in the lithium space as of late, with
Tesla Motors’ (NASDAQ:TSLA) plans for a lithium-ion battery gigafactory still
drawing plenty of investor attention. However, there is more to the lithium market
than Tesla (it’s far from the only company building a lithium-ion battery megafactory),
and the market for lithium goes well beyond batteries as well.

Specifically, lithium carbonate is used in ceramics, glass, cement and aluminum

processing. While the battery market is certainly growing, the US Geological Survey
(USGS) estimates that glass and ceramics still made up roughly 32 percent of global
end-use markets in 2015.

Lithium carbonate also has an important use in the pharmaceutical industry — it’s on
the World Health Organization’s list of essential medicines as a treatment for bipolar
disorder.

 Types of lithium carbonate

Not all lithium carbonate is made equal, and end products must meet specific
requirements to be used in different applications. For example, battery-grade lithium
carbonate can be used to make cathode material for lithium-ion batteries, but most
contaminants must be removed in order for the material to be considered battery
grade.
Technical-grade lithium carbonate sells for a cheaper price than battery-grade
material, but such products must have very low concentrations of iron to make the
cut for end users.

This type of lithium is used in applications for glass and ceramics. It’s also worth
noting that lithium is used in the form of ore concentrates in industrial applications
rather than as lithium carbonate or hydroxide, according to the USGS.

 Lithium carbonate vs. lithium hydroxide

Along with all of the excitement surrounding lithium-ion batteries, lithium hydroxide
has also been getting more attention than its counterpart, lithium carbonate. Both are
used to produce cathode material for lithium-ion batteries, and hydroxide is more
expensive. However, it can also be used to produce cathode material more efficiently
and is actually necessary for some types of cathodes, such as nickel-cobalt-
aluminum oxide (NCA) and nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC).

As Jean Francois Magnan, technical manager for Nemaska Lithium (TSXV:NMX),

explained in an interview last year, “because hydroxide decomposes at a lower
temperature, it accelerates the process. It uses less heat, less energy, so you
produce more cathode material with less energy, and you can still use the same
equipment.”

Certainly, lithium hydroxide is expected to be used in the battery megafactories of

the world over lithium carbonate. In recent years, rising demand from the battery
space has raised concerns of a lithium hydroxide shortage. At least two companies
— Nemaska, mentioned above, and Neometals (ASX:NMT) in Western Australia —
are looking to cut out the middleman and produce lithium hydroxide directly from
spodumene concentrates.

That might not sound like good news for lithium carbonate, but as mentioned above,
the material still has plenty of uses beyond batteries. And since it’s still a precursor to
lithium hydroxide in most cases, lithium carbonate could still have a place in the
lithium-ion battery supply chain.
b) . Identify any special requirements on raw materials and products?
REFERENCES

Spodumene Information
[1] Mineralogic Notes, Series 3: Waldemar Schaller, Gigantic Crystals of Spodumene, United States Geological
Survey, Bulletin 610, 1916.

[2] Lithium: Brian W. Jaskula, United States Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2017.

[3] Lithium: Brian W. Jaskula, United States Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbook, November 2017.