1.

1 Introduction
A cell, a tissue, or an organ (e.g. - thyroid gland) which secretes certain useful chemical
compounds for particular functions is called a gland. Gland, cell or tissue that removes
specific substances from the blood, alters or concentrates them, and then either releases
them for further use or eliminates them.
Typically, a gland consists of either cuboidal or columnar epithelium resting on a
basement membrane and is surrounded by a plexus, or meshwork, of blood vessels.
There are two types of glands-1) Exocrine glands (e.g., salivary, sweat, digestive)
discharge their products through ducts.2) Endocrine or ductless glands (e.g., pituitary,
thyroid, adrenal) secrete substances known as hormones directly into the bloodstream
rather than through ducts (see in table 1). The endocrine and nervous systems often work
toward the same goal.However, they attain their goals differently.
In addition to traditional endocrine cells, specially modified nerve cells within the
nervous system secrete important hormones into the blood. These special nerve cells are
called neurosecretory cells, and their secretions are termed neurohormones to
distinguish them from the hormones produced by traditional endocrine cells.
Neurohormones are stored in the terminals of neurosecretory cells and are released into
the bloodstream upon stimulation of the cells.

Table 1: Differences between endocrine and exocrine glands.

Character Endocrine gland Exocrine gland

1. Definition The glands whose secretions The glands whose secretions

are always inside the body
are called endocrine glands.
2. Secretions Hormones (e.g. Glucagon,
insulin, etc.)
3. Passage of secretions Travel through blood
come out of the body are
called exocrine glands.
Enzymes (e.g. trypsin,
erepsin, etc.) and other than
hormones (sweat, saliva)
Never released into blood

4. Ducts Absent, hence also called Present, hence also called

ductless glands duct glands
5. Types 2 types- purely and partly 3 types- holocrine, merocrine
endocrine glands ( see topic and apocrine gland (see topic
1.3) 1.2 )
6. Examples Thyroid gland, pituitary Sweat glands, salivary
gland, etc. glands, etc.

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1.2 Types of exocrine glands
a) Holocrine- Holocrine secretions are produced in the cytoplasm of the cell and
released by the rupture of the plasma membrane, which destroys the cell and results in
the secretion of the product into the lumen.Examples of holocrine glands include the
sebaceous glands of the skin and the meibomian glands of the eyelid.
b) Merocrine - A cell is classified as merocrine if the secretions of that cell are excreted
via exocytosis from secretory cells into an epithelial-walled duct or ducts and thence
onto a bodily surface or into the lumen. Examples are sweat glands, salivary glands,
etc.
c) Apocrine -Cells which are classified as apocrine bud their secretions off through the
plasma membrane producing extracellular membrane-bound vesicles. The apical
portion of the secretory cell of the gland pinches off and enters the lumen. It loses part
of its cytoplasm in their secretions. Apocrine glands are found primarily in the breast
of lactating mammals (i.e. the mammary glands are apocrine glands).

Fig 1.1: Different types of exocrine glands.

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 1.3 Types of endocrine gland
The endocrine glands are of two types.
1) Purely endocrine glands
These are those glands which devoted entirely to the secretion of hormones. They
include the hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenals, pituitary and pineal.
2) Partly endocrine glands
These are partly endocrine and partly exocrine in function, i.e. they are heterocrine.
They include the kidneys, pancreas, gonads, mucous membrane of alimentary canal and
placenta.
1.4 Hormones and Types
A hormone is a type of chemical signal. They are a means of communication between
cells. The endocrine system produces hormones that are instrumental in maintaining
homeostasis and regulatingreproduction and development. A hormone is a chemical
messenger produced by a cell that effects specific change inthe cellular activity of other
cells (target cells).
The endocrine and nervous systems often work toward the same goal. Both influence
other cells with chemicals (hormones and neurotransmitters). However, they attain their
goals differently. Neurotransmitters act immediately(within milliseconds) on adjacent
muscle, gland, or other nervous cells, and their effect is short-lived. In contrast,
hormones take longer to produce their intended effect (seconds to days), may affect any
cell, nearby or distant, andproduce effects that last as long as they remain in the blood,
which could be up to several hours.

Glands or Hormone name Nature of Functions

Tissue Hormone
Hypothalamus Corticotropin- Polypeptide stimulates synthesis and secretion of corticotropin from
releasing Hormone the anterior pituitary gland
(CRH)
Growth hormone Polypeptide stimulates synthesis and secretion of growth hormone
releasing Hormone from the anterior pituitary gland
(GHRH)
Thyrotropin Polypeptide stimulates and regulates secretion of thyrotropin from the
releasing hormone anterior pituitary gland and may modulate neuronal
(TRH) activity in the brain and spinal cord
Gonadotropin Polypeptide stimulates synthesis and secretion of follicle-stimulating
releasing hormone hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior
(GnRH) pituitary gland
Prolactin inhibiting Polypeptide inhibits secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary
factor (PIF) gland
Somatostatin Polypeptide inhibits secretion of growth hormone from the anterior
pituitary gland, inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon
in the pancreas, and inhibits secretion of gastrointestinal
hormones and secretion of acid in the stomach
Pituitary Adrenocorticotropin Polypetide stimulates growth and secretion of cells of the adrenal
Gland hormone (ACTH) cortex; increases skin pigmentation
Anterior Lobe Growth hormone Polypeptide stimulates growth of essentially all tissues in the body

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 (GH)
Thyroid stimulating Glycoprotein stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone and growth of
hormone (TSH) thyroid cells
Follicle stimulating Glycoprotein stimulates maturation of egg follicles in females and
hormone (FSH) development of spermatozoa in males
Luteinizing Glycoprotein stimulates rupture of mature egg follicles and production
Hormone (LH) of progesterone and androgens in females and secretion of
androgens in males
Prolactin (PRL) Polypeptide stimulates and maintains lactation in breast-feeding
mothers
Intermediate Melanocyte - Polypeptide stimulate melanin synthesis in skin cells to increase skin
Lobe stimulating hormone pigmentation; may also suppress appetite
(MSH)
Posterior Lobe Vasopressin Polypeptide regulates fluid volume by increasing or decreasing fluid
(Antidiuretic excretion in response to changes in blood pressure
hormone, ADH)
Oxytocin Polypeptide stimulates milk ejection during breast-feeding and uterine
muscle contraction during childbirth
Thyroid Thyroxine (T4) Amino acid stimulates cellular metabolism, lipid production,
Gland carbohydrate utilization, and central and autonomic
nervous system activation
Triiodothyronine Amino acid stimulates cellular metabolism, lipid production,
(T3) carbohydrate utilization, and central and autonomic
nervous system activation
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Polypeptide increases serum calcium concentrations by stimulating
Gland (parathormone) release of calcium from bone tissue, reabsorption of
calcium in the kidneys, and production of vitamin D in the
kidneys; inhibits reabsorption of phosphate in the kidneys
Calcitonin Polypeptide decreases serum calcium concentrations by promoting
uptake of calcium into bone tissue and excretion of
calcium in the urine
Adrenal Epinephrine Amino acid stimulates "fight or flight" response, increases heart rate,
Gland dilates blood vessels in skeletal muscles and liver,
Medulla increases oxygen delivery to muscle and brain tissues,
increases blood glucose concentrations, and suppresses
digestion
Norepinephrine Amino acid stimulates "fight or flight" response, increases heart rate,
constricts blood vessels, increases blood glucose
concentrations, and suppresses digestion
Dopamine Steroid responsible for feelings of pleasure and euphoria,
locomotion, learning, memory, and other emotions
Cortex Cortisol Steroid activates physiological stress responses to maintain blood
glucose concentrations, augments constriction of blood
vessels to maintain blood pressure, and stimulates anti-
inflammatory pathways
Aldosterone Steroid regulates balance of salt and water in the body
Androgens Steroid contribute to growth and development of the male
reproductive system and serve as precursors to
testosterone and estrogen

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 Estrogens Steroid Helps in the development of female secondary sexual
characteristics and in males, helps in maturation of the
sperm and maintenance of a healthy libido.
Pancreas Glucagon Polypeptide maintains blood glucose concentrations by stimulating
release of glucose from the liver and production of
glucose from amino acids and glycerol
Insulin Polypeptide stimulates glucose uptake and storage in adipose, muscle,
and liver tissues
Somatostatin Polypeptide inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion from the pancreas
and inhibits secretion of gastrointestinal hormones and
secretion of acid in the stomach
Pancreatic Polypeptide inhibits contraction of the gallbladder and secretion of
polypeptide exocrine substances from the pancreas
Ovaries Estrogens (estradiol, Steroid stimulate development of female sex organs and
estrone, estriol) secondary sex characteristics, maturation of ovarian
follicles, formation and maintenance of bone tissue, and
contraction of the uterine muscles
Inhibin Polypeptide inhibits secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone from the
(folliculostin) pituitary gland
Progesterone Steroid stimulates secretion of substances from the lining of the
uterus (endometrium) in preparation for egg implantation
in the uterine wall
Relaxin Polypeptide induces relaxation of pubic ligaments during childbirth to
facilitate infant delivery
Testes Testosterone Steroid stimulates development of male sex organs and secondary
sex characteristics, including facial hair growth and
increased muscle mass
Kidneys Renin Polypeptide regulates blood pressure and blood flow by catalyzing
conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I in the
kidneys
Erythropoietin Polypeptide Stimulates the production of mature red blood cells, to
maintain healthy oxygen levels in our tissues.
Liver, skin, Calciferols Steroid maintain serum calcium concentrations by increasing
kidney absorption of calcium and phosphate in the intestines and
reabsorption of calcium and phosphate in the kidneys;
mobilizes calcium from bone in response to parathyroid
hormone activity
Stomach Gastrin Polypeptide stimulates secretion of acid and pepsin in the stomach and
contraction of the pyloric region of the stomach near the
small intestine to increase motility during digestion
Duodenum of Cholecystokinin Polypeptide stimulates release of bile from the gallbladder into the
Small (CCK) intestine and stimulates secretion of pancreatic juices into
Intestine the intestine; may induce satiety
Secretin Polypeptide stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate from the
pancreas into the duodenum; inhibits secretion of gastrin
in the stomach, delaying gastric emptying
Gastric inhibitory Polypeptide inhibits secretion of acid into the stomach; stimulates
polypeptide secretion of insulin from the pancreas
Vasoactive intestinal Polypeptide stimulates dilation of blood vessels and secretion of water

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 peptide and electrolytes from the intestine; modulates immune
functions
Villikinin Polypeptide It accelerates movement of villi.
Enterocrinin Polypeptide stimulates the crypts of Lieberkuhn to release enzymes
into the intestinal juice.
Thymus Thymosin Polypeptide stimulates the development of T cells.
Gland
Pineal Gland Melatonin Amine regulates circadian rhythm (primarily in response to light
and dark cycles) and release of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from
the pituitary gland
Placenta Human chorionic Glycoprotein promotes the maintenance of the corpus luteum during the
gonadotropin (HCG) beginning of pregnancy
Human chorionic Polypeptide It modifies the metabolic state of the mother during
somatomammotropi pregnancy to facilitate the energy supply of the fetus
n (HCS)
Renin Polypeptide
Estrogens Steroid Stimulates growth of the myometrium which increases in
size throughout pregnancy and also promotes
development of the ducts within mammary glands through
which milk will be ejected during lactation
Androgens Steroid
Progesterone Steroid Prevent miscarriage by suppressing contractions of the
uterine myometrium during pregnancy
Multiple Somatomedins Polypeptide stimulate growth by mediating secretion of growth
Tissues (insulin-like growth hormone from the pituitary gland
hormone)
Prostaglandins Steroid regulate many physiological processes, including dilation
and constriction of blood vessels, aggregation of platelets,
and inflammation

Table-1 Hormones which secreted in human body

Types of hormones
Hormones can be categorised into three distinct groups according to their chemical
composition

1) Steroid hormones
Steroid hormones are lipophilic (fat-loving) – meaning they can freely diffuse across
the plasma membrane of a cell. They bind to receptors in either the cytoplasm or
nucleus of the target cell, to form an active receptor-hormone complex. This activated
complex will move into the nucleus and bind directly to DNA, acting as a
transcription factor for gene expression. Examples of steroid hormones include those
produced by the gonads (i.e. estrogen, progesterone and testosterone).
2) Peptide hormones
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 Peptide hormones are hydrophylic and lipophobic (fat-hating) – meaning they cannot
freely cross the plasma membrane. They bind to receptors on the surface of the cell,
which are typically coupled to internally anchored proteins (e.g. G proteins). The
receptor complex activates a series of intracellular molecules called second
messengers (e.g. cyclic AMP (cAMP), calcium ions (Ca2+), nitric oxide (NO) and
protein kinases), which initiate cell activity. This process is called signal transduction,
because the external signal (hormone) is transduced via internal intermediaries. The
use of second messengers enables the amplification of the initial signal (as more
molecules are activated). Peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, leptin, ADH
and oxytocin.
3) Amine hormones
Amine hormones are derived from the amino acid tyrosine and include adrenaline,
thyroxin and triiodothyronine. Amine hormones do not all share identical properties
and have properties common to both peptide and steroid hormones.

1.5 Mechanism of hormones action

On the basis of binding of hormone on their specific receptor, the mechanism of
hormonal action is categorized into two groups. They are-
1) Fixed membrane receptor mechanism
The hormones that are protein or amines in compositions such as Growth hormone,
ADH, oxytocin, Insulin, Adrenaline, FSH, TSH etc. shows this mechanism of action.
These hormones are water soluble and cannot passes through the lipid membrane and
they have their target receptor on the cell membrane. The receptors are fixed on the
cell membrane, so hormone can bind on the specific receptor. Binding of hormone on
specific receptor on target cell activates the enzyme Adenylcyclase in the cell
membrane and causes production of cyclic AMP (cAMP).cAMP act as secondary
messenger. It diffuse through the cell membrane and activates (Protein Kinase)
various enzymatic reaction to cause biochemical changes. After the target cell
responded to the changes, cAMP is deactivated by a group of enzyme
Phosphodiesterase.

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 Fig 1.2: Fixed membrane receptor mechanism of hormone action(e.g. FSH).
2) Mobile receptor mechanism
The lipid soluble hormones such as steroid hormones and fatty acids hormones can
easily passes through the plasma membrane. They have their receptor inside the cell,
freely floating in the cytoplasm. Binding of hormone to the specific receptor activates
the enzymatic activity of the cell for biochemical changes.Some hormones
(testosterone, progesterone, estrogen, cortisol, thyroxine) have their receptor localized
inside the nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex are carried inside the nucleus.
The hormone-receptor complex initiate transcription of the DNA to form specific
mRNA.mRNA initiate protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The protein (enzyme)
causes biochemical changes in the cell.

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 Fig 1.3: Mobile receptor mechanism of hormone action (Oestrogen).

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