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BioSci Lecture Reviewer

Chapter 3 2. Membrane channels


- Made of special protein
CELLS - Proteins that extend from one side of cell
Functions: membrane to the other
- Basic unit of life - Size, shape, and change in charges determins
- Synthesis of molecules (proteins, what can pass through
carbohydrates) - Ex. Na+ passes through Na+ channels
- Communication (exclusively)
- Cell metabolism and energy release
- Reproduction and inheritance DNA 3. Concentration Gradient
- One side to the other has different
CELL STRUCTURE concentration; one is higher and the other is
 Organelles – specialized structures in cells that lower.
perform specific functions. (e,g, Nucleus, - Lipid structure; lipid soluble can pass
mitochondria, ribosome) - Specific channel for diffusion for non-lipid
 Cytoplasm – Jelly-like substance that hold soluble
organelles
 Cell Membrane – outermost component of the 4. Carrier molecules
cell. - Binds to molecules, transport them across and
Function: selective barrier; enclosed cytoplasm drop them off
Extracellular – material outside the cell or - Ex. Glucose – cannot enter cell without carrier
environment; another cell. molecule; once inside the cell release and
Intracellular – Material inside the cell carrier goes back to its original site
(cytoplasm)
5. Vesicles
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE - Can transport variety of materials (secretory)
- Called Fluid Mosaic Model - Fused with cell membrane to release its content
- Made of phospholipids and proteins - Na+ channel can close (in and out of the cell)
- Phospholipids form a double layer or bilayer - K+ free or always open (leak vesicles)
- Phospholipids contains two regions : polar and - Ex. Hormones (produce inside the cell and
non-polar (phospholipids bilayer) release through secretory vessels)
 Polar regions
- “heads” DIFFUSION
- Hydrophillic (water loving) - Movement of molecules from areas of high to
- Exposed to water low concentration
- Water soluble
 Non-polar regions (fatty acids) Solution: solid, liquid or gas that contains one or
- “tails” directed towards the center more solutes
- Hydrophobic
- Water fearing Solute: substance added to solvent that dissolves
- Lipid soluble
Solvent: substance such as water that solute is
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE being added to.
 Cell membrane selectively determines what can
pass in and out of the cell. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
 Enzymes, glycogen and potassium are found in - Measures concentration difference at two points
higher concentration INSIDE the cell. - Greater the distance the faster the solute will
travel.
 Na, Ca, Cl are found in higher concentration
OUTSIDE the cell.
FILTRATION
- Movement of fluid through a partition with holes.
WAYS MOLECULES PASS THROUGH THE CELL
MEMBRANE
MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISM
1. Facilitated Diffusion
1. Directly through (Diffusion)
- Diffusion with aid of carrier molecule
- From higher to lower concentration
- Requires no ATP
- Ex. O2 and CO2 (small molecules)

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2. Active Transport Note: pores are used as communication between inside


- Moves substances from low to high the nucleus and cytoplasm.
concentration
- Requires ATP Inner membrane
- Ex. Sodium potassium pump (glucose and Na Space – gives the thickness Nuclear envelope
work together) Outer membrane

OSMOSIS Note: RBC- circulate; carry oxygen; together with


-diffusion of water across a cell membrane platelets does not have a nucleus except during its
younger phase.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE - Ribosomes found at the outer membrane of the
- Force required to prevent movements of water envelope.
across cell membrane - Chromatin – inactive (heterochromatin; dark),
- Force to prevent osmosis in continuing active (Euchromatin, light)

TYPE OF OSMOSIS SOLUTIONS  Nuclear envelope


L: Edge of nucleus
a. Hypotonic Solution
- Lower concentration of solutes outside the cell  Nucelolus
- Higher concentration of water outside the cell L: in nucleus
- Water moves into the cell F: produce ribosomes
- Swell or –lysis (burst)
- Hemolysis  Chromosome
L : inside the nucleus
b. Hypertonic Solution C: made of DNA and proteins
- Higher concentration of solutes outside the cell F: part of genetic make-up
- Higher concentration of water inside the cell - Tightly coiled
- Shrink (crenation) hemocrenation - 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes per
person)
c. Isotonic solution
- Equal concentration of solutes  Chromatin
- Water doesn’t move L: inside the nucleus
- Cell remains intact C: loosely coiled chromosomes

Endocytosis – foreign materials needs receptors  Ribosomes


- Process that brings material into cell using L: Attached to the RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum)
vesicles (cell eating) or cytoplasm
 Phagocytosis – cell eating F: produce proteins (fundamental nutrient from amino
 Pinocytosis – cell drinking acids)

Exocytosis – particles produse inherently by the cell; no Note: mRNA are found in the cytoplasm; segments of
receptors needed. DNA, transcription and translation are the 2 processes.
- Process that brings material out of the cell using
vesicles. TRANSCRIPTION – copy; exact
- Process by which DNA is read
CELL STRUCTURES - Occurs in ribosomes
- Produces mRNA (contains codons)
 Cytoplasm - Codons: set of 3 nucleotides bases that code for
L: Inside the cell a particular amino acid.
C: Jelly-like fluid Note: DNA splits into two and mRNA will be inserted.
F: gives cell shape and holds organelles in place
Cytosine – Guanine
 Nucleus Thymine – Adenine Nucleotides
L: center of the cell Uracil – Adenine
C: all cells contains nucleus at some point
F: House DNA

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TRANSLATION – interpretation; decoding a code  Cytoskeleton


- Process by which mRNA is converted into amino L: cell’s framework
acids (polypeptides) C: Made of proteins
- Produces protein F: Provide support
- Codon pair with anticodons - Hold organelles in place
- Anticodon – complementary to the sequence of - Enable cell to change shape
mRNA
TYPES OF CYTOSKELETON:
 RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum)
L: cytoplasm 1. Micrtotubules
C: membranes with ribosomes attached - Large diameter
F: site of protein synthesis - Provide structural support
- Form cilia and flagella
 SER (Soft Endoplasmic Reticulum)
L: Cytoplasm 2. Intermediate Filaments
C: membranes with no ribosomes - Medium diameter
F: site of lipid synthesis - Maintain cell shape

 Golgi Apparatus 3. Microfilaments


L : Cytoplasm - Smallest diameter
C: Closely packed stacks of membranes - Involved in cell movement
F: collect, sort, package and distribute protein and
lipids. Flow of Genetic Information
- Called Central Dogma
- Three stages:
 Secretory Vesicles  DNA replication
L: cytoplasm  Transcription
F: distributes materials out of the cell  Translation

 Lysosomes STAGES IN MITOSIS (maintain same number of


L : Cytoplasm chromosomes)
F: enzymes that digest foreign materials
- Apotosis: kills or get rid of unwanted cells; cells 1. Interphase (S phase)
that are unnecessary - Time between cell divisions
- DNA in strands (chromatin)
 Mitochondria - DNA replication occurs
L: Cytoplasm
C: Contains folds (cristae) 2. Prophase
F: Produces ATP - Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
- Centrioles more to the opposite ends
 Cilia
L: cell surface 3. Metaphase
C: Many per cell - Chromosomes align near the center of the cell
F: Move materials across cell’s surface (with spindle fibers)

 Flagella 4. Anaphase
L: cell surface - Chromatids separate to form 2 sets of
C: one per cell chromosomes
F: more cell ex. Sperm (motility) - Chromosomes more towards the centrioles
- Opposite poles
 Microvilli
L: cell surface 5. Telophase
C: shorter than cili - Formation of 2 daughter cells
F: increase surface area - Chromosomes disperse
- Intestinal cells - Nuclear envelopes and nuclear form.

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Chapter 4 4. Pseudostratified Columnar/ Ciliated columnar


S: Layer of tall, narrow cells appears stratified but isn’t
TISSUES F: secretes mucus and propel debris out of respiratory
- Group of cells with similar structure and function tract
plus extracellular substance (matrix) L: nasal cavity and trachea
Note: easily identified because of the different location of
Histology – study of tissues the nucleus.

Four basic types of tissues: B. Stratified


1. Epithelial
2. Connective 1. Stratified Squamous
3. Muscle S: several layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal
4. Nervous layer and progressively flattened toward the surface.
: can be keratinized and non-keratinized
F: Protects against abrasions, barrier against infections.
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUES L: keratinized – outer layer of the skin
: non-keratinized – mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus,
Characteristics: anus, vagina and corneas/
- Cell close together (very little extracellular
matrix) 2. Transitional
- Form most glands S: stratified cells that appear cuboidal when the organ or
- Have free surface tube is not stretched and squamous when the organ or
- Basal surface: attaches epithelial cells to tube is stretched.
underlying tissues F: Protection
- Apical surface: above L: Lining of urinary bladder, ureters and superior urethra.

Functions: 3. Stratified cuboidal


- Protect (ex. Skin) S: more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cell
- Act as barrier (Ex. Skin keeps bacteria out) F: absorption, secretion and protection
- Diffusion and Filtration (Ex. Lungs and Kidney) L: gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells and salivary glands
- Secretion (Ex. Sweat glands)
- Absorption (Ex. Small intestine) 4. Stratified columnar
S: more than one epithelial cells but the surface is
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES columnar
According to the number of cell layers and cell shapes: F: secretion, absorption and protections
L: mammary gland ducts, larynx
a. Simple – single layer
b. Stratified – multiple layer Embryonic Tissue
- Derived from the embryonic germ layers
A. Simple
 Endoderm – forms the lining of the digestive
1. Simple Squamous tract and its derivatives
S: a layer of flat, tile-like cells  Mesoderm – forms tissues such as muscle,
F: diffusion and filtration bone and blood vessels
L: Blood vessels (endothelium), lungs (pulmonary  Ectoderm – forms the outermost layer of the skin
alveoli), heary (endocardium), kidneys (Boman’s and nervous system
capsule) - Gives rise to the tissues in the body

2. Simple Cuboidal FREE CELL SURFACES


S: a layer of square shaped cells - A smooth, free surface reduces friction-lining of
F: secretion blood vessels
L: gland, ovaries, renal tubules of kidneys  Goblet cells – intermixed with the ciliated cells
are specialized in mucus producing cells.
3. Simple Columnar  Microvilli – cylindrical extension of the cell
S: a layer of tall, narrow cells membrane that increases surface area
F: secretes mucus and absorption  Cilia – propels materials on the surface
L: stomach, intestine and respiratory tract

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CELL CONNECTIONS - Reticular fibers – form a fiber of network; very


fine supports mushy organs
 Tight junctions – bind adjacent cells together - Elastic fibers – recoil
and form a permeability barrier
 Desmosomes – mechanically bind cell together  Ground Substances
(weave cells together) - Proteoglycans – hold water enabling connective
 Hemidesmosomes – mechanically bind cells to tissues to return to their original shape after
the basement membrane compression
 Gap junction – allow intercellular communication
 Fluid
GLANDS - Mesenchyma – embryonic connective tissue that
- A structure that secretes substances into a gives rise to six major categories of connective
surface, into a cavity, or into the blood. tissue.

 Endocrine Glands – do not have ducts SPECIALIZED CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES


- Secrete hormones directly to blood
 Blasts – germ; cells form matrix
 Exocrine Glands – have ducts  Cyte – cells; cells maintain
- Secretes are released onto a surface or into a  Clasts – breaks; cell breaks down
cavity
- Sweat glands CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Exocrine glands  LOOSE


- Simple: have one duct a. Areolar – packing material
- Compound: have ducts that branch repeatedly b. Adipose- energy storage; source of glucose
- Tubules: ducts end in small tubes
- Acinus or alveolus : ends that are expanded into  DENSE
a sac-like structure a. Dense collagenous – withstand great
Secretion types: pulling; great strength and stretch
resistance.
 Merocrine – no loss of cellular material (ex. b. Dense Elastic – stretching and recoiling like
Sweat glands) rubber band.
 Apocrine – part of the cell pinches off (Ex.
Mammary gland)  CARTILAGE (support)
 Holocrine – entire cell is shed (ex. Sebaceous a. Hyaline – covers end of bones and forms
glands) costal cartilages
b. Fibrocartilage – flexible and capable of
CONNECTIVE TISSUES withstanding considerable pressure;
- Consist of cells separated from each other by strongest.
abundant extracellular matrix. c. Elastic – rigidity with even more flexibility
than hyaline.
Functions:
1. Enclosing and separating  BONE (Mineralized matrix; forms most of the
2. Connecting tissues to one another skeleton of the body)
(ligaments and tendons)
3. Supporting and moving a. Canellous – more spaces than matrix; bloody;
4. Storing spongy; internal
5. Cushioning and insulating b. Compact – more matrix than spaces; external
6. Transporting
7. Protecting  BLOOD
- Liquid matrix
Extracellular matrix contains:

 Protein Fibers
- Collagen fibers – are flexible but resist stretching
(most abundant)

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MUSCLE TISSUE Chronic inflammation – when the agent responsible for


- Specialized to contract or shorten, making the injury is not removed or something interferes with the
movement possible healing process.

3 TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES: TISSUE REPAIR


- Substitution of viable cells for dead cells
1. Skeletal – meat of animals; constitutes 40% of a  Cable cells – divide through life and can
person’s weight. undergo regeneration
- Voluntary  Stable cells – do not ordinarily divide but can
- Multinucleated regenerate if necessary
 Permanent cells – little or no activity to divide; if
2. Cardiac – muscle of the heart killed, repair is by replacement.
- Connected to one another by intercalated disks
- Involuntary TISSUE REPAIR INVOLVES
- Striated  Clot formation
 Inflammation
3. Smooth – crude, primitive movement  Formation of granulation tissue
- Peristaltic action  Regeneration or replacement of tissues
- Forms the wall of hollow organs and also found
in the skin of the eye
- Involuntary, not striated, have a single nucleus

NERVOUS TISSUES
- Specialized to conduct action potentials
(electrical signals)
Neurons – responsible for conducting action potentials
Cell body – site of general cell functions
Neuroglia – support cells of the nervous system.

MEMBRANES

 Mucous membranes – line cavities that open to


the outside of the body, such as the digestive,
respiratory and reproductive tracts
- Have glands which secretes mucus

 Serous membrane – line tract cavities that do


not open to the outside of the body.
- No glands
- Serous fluid
- Pleural- lungs; pericardial – heart; peritoneal –
abdominopelvic

 Synovial membrane – line freely movable joints

Inflammations:

1. Heart – pericarditis
2. Lungs – pleurisy
3. Abdominopelvic – peritonitis

INFLAMMATION
- Isolate and destroy harmful agents

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Chapter 5  Merkel cells


- Touch receptors in association with sensory
INTEGUMENTARY nerve ending
- Consists of the skin, hair, glands and nails - Neuro epithelial

Functions:
 Protection LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
 Sensation
 Temperature regulation by controlling 1. Stratum basale
 Vitamin D Production - Basal layer
 Excretion of small amount of waste products - Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the
dermis
Three major regions: - Consists of a single row of the youngest
kerratinocytes
1. Epidermis - Cells undergo mitotic divisions every 19 days
- Outhermost region (superficial) - 10-25% are melanocytes
- Resist abrasion
- Reduces water loss 2. Stratum Spinosum
- Melanin granules and Langerhan’s cells are
2. Dermis abundant in this layer
- Middle region - Melanin is taken up by the keratinocytes and
- Bulk of skin accumulates on the “sunny side” to protect the
- Responsible for the strength of the skin nucleus from UV damage

3. Subcutaneous Tissue 3. Stratum Granulosum


- Hypodermis - Drastic changes in keratinocyte appearance
- Deepest region occurs
- Connects skin to the underlying muscle or base - Keratohyaline and lamellated bodies
- Not really part of the skin (waterproofing) accumulate in the cells of this
layer
EPIDERMIS - Above this layer the epithelial cells die because
- Composed of keratinized stratified squamous they are too far from the dermis
epithelium, 4-5 layers - Maturity – old – die = new generation
- Cell types include keratinocytes, melanocytes,
merkel cells and langerhan’s cells 4. * Stratum Lucidum
- Outer portion of the skin is exposed to the - Thin, transparent band superficial to the stratum
external environment and functions as granulosum
protectives - Still with keratinocytes; consists of a few rows of
flat, dead keratinocytes
CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS - Present only in the thick skin

 Keratinocytes 5. Stratum Corneum


- Most abundant cell type - Outermost layer of keratinized ells
- Produce the fibrous protein keratin - Accounts for the three quarters of epidermal
- Protect thickness
- 20-30 cell layers thick all dead
 Melanocytes - Millions rub off everyday totally new every 25-45
- Produce the brown pigment melanin days
- Found in the deepest layers of the epidermis Function:
- Waterproofing
 Langerhan’s cells - Protection from abrasion
- Help activate immune system - Rendering the body relatively insensitive to
(immunoprotection of our skin) biological
- Epidermal macrophages - Flakes of keratinocytes only

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SKIN COLOR HAIR


- Melanocytes produce melanin inside - Lanugo (fetal hair) is replaced near the time of
melanosomes and then transfer the melanin to birth by terminal airs and vellus hairs
keratinocytes - At puberty vellus hairs can be replaced with
- The size and distribution of melanosomes terminal hairs
determine skin color - Hairs have a growth stage and a resting stage
- Melanin production is determined genetically but - Contraction of the arrector pili which are smooth
can be influenced by UV light and hormones muscles causes hair to “stand on the end” and
- Increased blood flow produces a red skin color produces “goose flesh”.
(erythema), whereas a decreased flow causes
pale skin SEBACEOUS GLANDS
- Decreased oxygen content in the blood results - Soften skin when stimulated by hormones
in a bluish color called cyanosi. - Secretes an oily secretion called sebum
- Carotene an ingested plant pigment can cause - Acne is an active inflammation of the sebaceous
the skin to appear yellowish glands

DERMIS SWEAT GLANDS


- Second layer of the skin region containing - Secretes cerumen and milk
strong flexible connective tissues
Layers: Different types:
1. Merocrine sweat glands
1. Papillary layer - Produce sweat which cools the body
- Its superior surface contains peg-like projections - Most numerous in the palms and sole of the
called dermal papillae. feet.
 Genetically determine
 Responsible for fingerprints and footprints 2. Apocrine sweat glands – found in the axillary
- Contains blood vessels and genital areas
 With nutrients - Ducts empty into hair follicles produce an
 Remove waste production inorganic secretion that can be broken down by
 Aid in regulating body temperature bacteria to cause body odor.

2. Reticular layer 3. Ceruminous glands – modified merocrine glands


- Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness in the external ear canal that secretes cerumen
of the skin
- Dense irregular connective tissue 4. Mammary glands – specialized sweat glands
- Collagen fibers in this layers add strength and that secretes milk.
resiliency to the skin
- Striae (stretch marks) are caused when skin is
overstretched, the dermis ruptures and leaves
visible lines NAILS
- Elastin fbers provide stretch –recoil properties - Stratum corneum
- Elastin and collagen fibers are oriented more in - Protects distal parts of the digits
one direction than in others and produce - Appearance of tissue oxygenation (colors of the
cleavage or tension lines nails)

PARTS:
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
- Deep to the skin 1. Nail – thin plate consisting of dead stratum
- Hypodermis corneum
- Not really part of the skin 2. Nail body- visible part of the nail
- Stores fat and connects the skin to the 3. Nail root – part of the nail covered by the skin
underlying structures 4. Cuticle or eponychium – stratum corneum that
- Shock absorber extends onto the nail body
- Increases greatly as you gain weight 5. Nail matrix – nail roots extends distally
6. nail bed
7. Lunula – whitish, crescent- shaped area at the
base of the nail.

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BURNS

1st Degree – only epidermis is damaged


- Symptoms include localized redness, swelling and pain

2nd Degree – epidermis and upper region of the dermis are damaged
- Symptoms similar to 1st degree burns but blisters also appears

3rd degree – entire thickness of the skin is damaged


- Burned area appearance is gray-white – cherry red or black; there is no initial enema or pain (since nerve endings
are destroyed)

RULE OF 9

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