Running head: CHILDREN, CULTURE, AND EMOTION SOCIALIZATION 1

Children, Culture, and Emotion Socialization

Alyssa Anne Granger

Tarleton State University

CHILDREN, CULTURE, AND EMOTION SOCIALIZATION 2

Abstract

Emotion socialization in children is largely based on culture. United States children are more

open about their emotions and quick to anger whereas children from Asian lifestyles are more

inconspicuous with theirs. Research was conducted in order to demonstrate this theory by

numerous individuals and groups, however there are limitations including a society who does not

fit the Asian narrative of emotion socialization. These studies found the theory to be correct and

revealed the apparent contrast through focus groups consisting of European Americans (EA).

One group used the results of their questionnaire to create a multivariate analysis of variance

(MANOVA), which was conclusive with the original theory as well. Another research team used

an analysis of variance (ANOVA) test to determine their results when measure emotion

socialization practices (ESP). This team found the similar outcomes relating to emotion

socialization in Asian families. The evidence and research gathered shows reasoning behind the

differences in emotion socialization across cultures and how we view children in these specific

areas.

Keywords: emotion, socialization, children, culture, Asia, United States

CHILDREN, CULTURE, AND EMOTION SOCIALIZATION 3

Children, Culture, and Emotion Socialization

Emotion socialization is the idea of how humans display emotions, whether it is behaviorally

or cognitively, and how these emotions play into everyday life through deciding how to react in

one’s daily interactions with others. This concept is acquired over the development of the child

by observation of other’s conversations and behaviors. Those with high emotion socialization

tend to have a better understanding of their emotions and other’s.

There has been significant research containing evidence that emotion socialization is

different between cross-cultured children. Everyone emits expressions based on emotions;

however, it is how one uses the emotions in their circumstances that help explain the cultural

influence (Yu, Volling, & Niu, 2015; Cole, Shrestha, & Tamang, 2006).

Emotion socialization differs between cultures in children by the society’s expectations and

parenting styles in the specific region. The impact of emotion socialization in society is great in

that it influences how children behave and grow into adults with these same ideas in mind, then

impacting how they raise their children.

Defining Cultures and Getting Results

United States

The emotion socialization in the United States can be described by Yu, Volling, and Niu

as, “…Independence, assertiveness, and self-actualization…” (Yu, Volling, & Niu, 2015). North

American culture encourages open expressions like anger because it shows a form of passion,

freedom, and, as stated previously, independence (Cole, Bruschi, & Tamang, 2002). Society in

the States also discourages shame. Shame is viewed harmful to children’s self-esteem (Ferguson,

Stegge, Miller, & Olsen, 1999; Cole et al., 2002).

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The impact of society on parenting styles is an important factor in the development of

socialization. Parenting then influences society and both find a way to loop back and forth to

each other. In the United States, mothers, when parenting authoritatively, develop greater

responses from their child than fathers who also parent with the authoritative approach (Yu et al.,

2015).

This means that emotion socialization practices (ESP) are better able to work with

children who have this upbringing in Western culture. ESP accurately described by Yu et al.

(2015) says:

“Emotion socialization practices (ESP) have contributed to children's adjustment and

social competence in a variety of ways, including modeling and teaching children ways to

manage their experience and expression of emotion (Denham, Bassett, & Wyatt, 2007;

Eisenberg, Cumberland, & Spinrad, 1998)” (Yu et al., 2015).

Yu et al. (2015) also gave an ANOVA test with the results matching. Essentially, authoritative

mothers raise children who respond well to ESP in the U.S. ESP allows the child to really dive

into emotion socialization and receive a better understanding of their emotions, therefore making

this specific research very beneficial information.

To give evidence regarding the views of emotion socialization in Western American

cultures, a focus group was created in order to “…examine parents’ beliefs about emotions in the

family…” (Parker et al. 2012). Questions from the focus groups stemmed from these ideas:

“…Addressing topics such as whether there are any emotions that should and should not

be expressed in the family…whether or not there are differences in the ways in which

parents and children experience emotion; how children learn how to express emotions…

ways in which parents find out how their children are feeling…” (Parker et al., 2012).
CHILDREN, CULTURE, AND EMOTION SOCIALIZATION 5

It was found in EA parents when asked questions regarding their child’s negative emotions they

answered positively, usually stating expressions were always “okay” regardless of being positive

or negative. One father, Gary, remarked that he realized later in life that all emotions are positive

(Parker et al., 2012). EA participants also believed emotions were a choice and children can learn

to control their own feelings.

Asia

Asian cultures take on a very different role when discussing emotions. Not only is

parenting in Asian societies drastically different, the ideas behind purpose of the individual also

shift immediately from their Western counterpart. These beliefs about individual freedoms are

said to limit the amount emotion socialization.

In China, Yu et al. (2015) states that the Chinese have this point of view when it comes to the

individual, “…group over the individual and cooperation over competition…” (Yu et al., 2015).

Chinese communities also encourage subtle expressions as opposed to open expressions. Subtle

expressions do not raise attention to the self, which is the goal for this culture. Chinese children

also display more negative emotions and less sociability (Ahadi, Rothbart, & Ye, 1993; Chen et

al., 1998; Yu et al., 2015).

Another Asian community that displays the same ideologies of tolerance and egalitarianism

is a society in Nepal called Tamang. (Cole, Tamang, & Shrestha, 2006). Cole et al. (2006) says,

“Anger…carries the risk of interfering with…good humor and cheer.” (Cole et al., 2006) In

Tamang culture, shame as a child is encouraged as it affirms emotion for others.

Multiple investigations were conducted measuring and evaluating emotion socialization in

children in the Nepal community, Tamang, and the United States through observation of families

and family questionnaires. Cole, Bruschi, & Tamang (2002) used a MANOVA to assess the
CHILDREN, CULTURE, AND EMOTION SOCIALIZATION 6

significant difference in the two cultures with their given data. Cole et al. (2002) reported,

“Tamang children endorsed feeling shame (M = 2.76, SD = 1.42) more than did U.S. children (M

= 2.16, SD = 1.13), t(159) = 2.80…” (Cole et al., 2002). It has been speculated this was an

important factor in Tamang culture, to be shameful, and the results from the MANOVA help

solidify further questioning.

As for Asian cultures in parenting, outcomes are the opposite in factors for high ESP

compared to American culture. The father is a strong, dominate figure that guides his children in

areas of societal norms and academia (Chen, Liu & Li, 2000; Yu et al., 2015). The fathers in

Asian culture who minimize play life with their child and focus on the development of the child

for society, as opposed to the mothers, raise children who respond well to ESP.

The ANOVA test that was conducted acknowledged the children’s internalizing and

externalizing problems were positive in regards to the “…fathers’ supportive ESP…” (Yu et al.,

2015) Internalizing problems being (b= 2.04, SE = 0.98, p < .05) while externalizing problems

being (b= 4.07, SE = 1.11, p < .001) (Yu et al., 2015). These components are opposite in both

Western and Asian societies.

These results approved the theory in mind and have given ideas for the idea that children in

the Asian culture perhaps are lower in emotion socialization than children in the United States

due to the fact that individualism is not quite taken as a necessity, rather than more of a nuisance.

Limitations of Studies

A particular limitation of the case by Cole et al. (2002) published that in another society

from Nepal different from Tamang, Brahman, found that these children had very similar feelings

as the children from the United States. They stated specifically that, “Brahman and U.S. children

did not differ in appraising situations in terms of shame…” This therefore hurts the case of
CHILDREN, CULTURE, AND EMOTION SOCIALIZATION 7

differences between Asian and Western societies impact on emotion socialization. It is also

reiterated in Cole et al. (2006) that Brahman children feel anger just like American children

when their “…goals are thwarted…” (Cole et al., 2006)

Another limitation of these studies comes from Parker et al. (2012). This specific study

only took participants who were of the Christian religion. This limits the ideas that come from

the non-Christian parents in the country and if their ideas of emotion socialization are different in

the family.

The parents involved also limit this investigation as many of the fathers chose not to

participate in the discussion and focus group, therefore creating speculation among whether or

not the father has reasonable and influential feedback. It also provides lack of insight in the ideas

regarding two-person parenting and if those factors are influential on emotion socialization.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it can be said that children from the United States environment are higher

in emotion socialization due to the high predictability of expressions emitted to be positive,

while the Asian population may not be as high, considering their norm of concealed limited

feelings. Whether the influence of emotion socialization came from fathers of Asian families or

authoritative mothers in the United States, children are learning from these societies and

therefore creating a society on repeat.

Although the discovery of few limitations, it is clear from studies conducted and focus

groups performed that emotion socialization differs drastically between the Asian culture and

Western American society. These are indicators of why certain behavior occurs in each society

and how we can use this information to gain insight for the development of children in these

regions.
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