LectureNotesMM2TF2 2017 18

Thermo topic 1, Thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids
MM2TF2 THERMOFLUIDS
Thermodynamics section
Dr D.Giddings, Coates Building, B103, donald.giddings@nottingham.ac.uk
Structure of this part of the module
The overall aim is driven by the learning objectives:
LO1-Comprehend the concepts of practical thermofluid systems (knowledge and comprehension)
LO2-Represent applications of thermofluids in conceptual form by appropriate formulae

(comprehension)
LO3-Quantify the scale of thermofluid situations by appropriate use of thermofluid data tables
(application of knowledge)
LO4-Apply the conceptual principles of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics to practical situations
(application of knowledge)
LO5-Analyse complex thermodynamic and fluid systems from real applications (analysis)
The following topics will be covered:
1. Properties of steam, gases and liquids – 2 lecture hours, 1 seminar hour
2. Vapour power cycles – 3 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours
3. Refrigeration and air conditioning – 4 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours
4. Reciprocating compressors – 3 lecture hours, 1 seminar hour
5. Combustion chemistry – 4 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours
6. Convective heat transfer correlations – 2 lecture hours, 1 seminar hour
7. Heat exchangers – 3 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours
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MM2TF2 Thermodynamics, M3, 17/18
Topic 1. Thermodynamic properties and transport properties of steam and other fluids
Aim of this section
Several aspects of state have been studied in the first year of the course, but the properties upon
which state is so dependent, and the variation of property with temperature, have not hitherto been
looked at in depth. This section of the module seeks to expand on understanding the significance of
fluid properties, and on dealing with fluids which change phase.
Aim: learn how to find properties of fluids for thermodynamic analysis
Objectives: understand the concept of state, property, and phase; understand the difference
between thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids; extract and use data from saturated
water and steam tables sorted in order of temperature and pressure; extract data from superheated
steam tables; use linear interpolation to extract data from the tables which is between the tabulated
data points.
Fig.1. a convenient steam locomotive, from:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotive#mediaviewer/File:AutoCAD_drawing_of_a_Great_
Western_King.png
An enjoyable glass reciprocating steam engine is at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73txXT21aZU&list=PLUXfvjXFn-cwgW73q93398k8l2ZLP4mh5
Fig 2. A typical low pressure steam turbine from Alstom as used in a power generation station.
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1. A thermodynamic property describes the thermal condition of a fluid.
A fluid, whether gas or liquid, has molecular characteristics which give it a unique response to a
thermal stimulus, such as adding energy. These responses are described well by thermodynamic
properties, which usually vary with state.
From a thermodynamic point of view, where we want to use heat transfer (thermo-) to drive a
machine to produce work (-dynamics), it is important to understand the working fluid, which is what
receives the heat transfer, moves in a fluid way to a working surface, and then drives the external
surfaces of the machine to produce work in the outside world. Two common examples are the
steam engine and the steam turbine.
State.
Insulation at temperature, T
Pressure, p Energy, U
Temperature, T Entropy, s
Density, 
Viscosity, 
Pressure force, pA
Figure 1 thermodynamic state properties
It is important to remember what state means. It is the condition that a fluid finds itself subjected to
at a particular place and time. State is completely described by any two of the condition:
intensive properties: i.e. a thermodynamic property that doesn't change with amount of substance -
p,T, and all the specific quantities, h [J/kg], s [J/kgK], v [m 3/kg], u [J/kg], cp [J/kgK], cv [J/kgK], R [J/kgK]
and importantly, density [kg/m 3], (which are determined by the conditions at the boundary of the
fluid, and are independent of how much mass of it there is (because if mass dependent then we
consider only 1kg).
and/or
extensive properties: i.e. any thermodynamic property that needs the amount to be stated, i.e how
many kg, so total quantities for a mass of substance, H [J], S [J/K], V [m 3], and U [J/K] (which vary with
quantity of the fluid).
The figure shows that the properties are affected by the conditions maintained on the fluid. The
boundary of the fluid that we are looking at forms a thermodynamic system for analysis. In the case
in the figure it is controlled for heat by the perfect insulation layer (not achievable in practice) which
is maintaining a constant temperature of the fluid by allowing no heat transfer, and controlled for
work by the pressure maintained on the vessel walls, either by external fluid pressure or by
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mechanical stresses. The properties of the fluid are dependent on the condition caused by these
boundaries, but also upon the molecular nature of the fluid, which has to do with molecule size and
structure, which is as much varied as there are number of different fluids in the world.
Thermodynamic property
As state is determined by the boundary conditions as well as the properties of the particular fluid,
exact values of the properties usually vary with the state that the fluid is held in. Changing
temperature in particular has a significant effect on all thermodynamic fluids. Pressure change often
has a lesser effect than temperature on the properties, although it affects state significantly.
Therefore, conditions of heat flux and physical work on the boundaries of a fluid affect the state that
the fluid is in, as reflected in the properties, which are mainly described by temperature and
pressure, but can also be described by the other, material, properties at that state. And the
extensive properties are dependent on the material.
Phase
Phase of a fluid, meaning liquid, solid or gas, is affected by state, and there can be a change of phase
during a thermodynamic process (i.e. adding heat or work to the system). In particular for this
module it is important to understand the most important fluid on our planet - water. Changes
between liquid and gas state of water due to thermodynamic processes cause changes in the
properties of the fluid.
The following sections demonstrate how the available data can be used from the tables of data:
G.R.C. Rogers and Y.R. Mayhew, Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids, Fifth Edition.
2. Availability of property information
Fluid material properties have been thoroughly analysed by prior research and data is available in
several forms. The significance of this is that you don't have to measure the property when you need
to know it for all common materials - if you know the state of the fluid, e.g. T and p, then you can
find properties for the fluid. This data can be found in tabulated written data, and on-line resources,
which, although not so accurate, are useful for preliminary calculation.
Tabulated data for water and steam
For the following, you will need the Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids booklet by
Rogers and Mayhew, which is available in limited supply in the library, but is also available from the
book shop.
For water and steam the data have been meticulously investigated in the past because of the
significance of steam power processes, such as steam turbines which power most large electricity
generation installations globally. The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam
(IAPWS for short, which can be found at http://iapws.org/ and the really keen might find interesting
the formulae that have been put together on http://iapws.org/relguide/IF97-Rev.html ) have done
very detailed interpolation with increasing accuracy on the available steam experimental data.
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3. Inspecting the saturated water and steam tables on p.2 and p.3 and on p.4 and p.5
Immediately, we need to inspect the data available, and this is the point of this part of the module –
for a particular condition of a working fluid, we need to be able to get its properties. We start with
saturated water and steam, i.e. water which is at boiling point and either in liquid or vapour phase.
On p.2, the temperature is varied on the left hand column and several properties of water and steam
are stated.
Saturated means either a state where vapour is just at the point of starting to condense to the liquid
phase, or liquid is just at the point of starting to boil and produce vapour.
Variation of saturation pressure with temperature
Look at the variation of pressure with temperature: for example when the temperature is 100C,
what is the pressure in the pressure column?
Enter the pressure here:
Think about what this means.
Write what it means here:
Alternatively, what is the pressure when temperature is 30C?
Enter the pressure here:
Given that this is so much less than at 100C, what do you think it means?
Write what it means here:
This pressure is the saturation pressure, which is the pressure at which the water will boil. That is, if
the pressure is saturation pressure for 100C, then water will boil at that temperature. Likewise, the
lower temperature water will boil at its saturation pressure.
Subscripts are really important in representing data quantities
The subscript 'sat' or simply 's' indicates saturation condition on these tables. Similarly, subscript ‘g’
generally means a gas or vapour state is being referred to. And subscript ‘f’ means liquid state.
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Variation of specific volume with temperature
Look at the column for specific volume, vg, and inspect the table on p.10 for further properties of
water and steam, for vf.
Thinking about the units, what does specific volume mean? Considering the units, what is the
property represented by the inverse of the specific volume? And what do the subscripts 'g' and 'f'
indicate? Why is it that vg is so large when the temperatures get lower?
Write what they mean here:
Vapour and liquid have different response to pressure
Saturated liquid and saturated vapour both have a specific volume dependent on temperature.
Liquid volume is not much affected by pressure applied to it - liquids are incompressible. But the
vapour pressure produces a volume of vapour if the pressure is reduced to the saturation condition.
Consider what happens if the pressure is reduced below the saturation pressure for water at a
particular temperature?
Write what happens to the liquid here:
It is possible to use a vacuum pump on water in a rigid vessel. So if water at 40 C is

subjected to a vacuum pressure of 5 kPa by a vacuum pump which sucks vapour from above
the liquid in a rigid vessel, what will the response of the liquid be?
Pump
The liquid will in fact boil as soon as it is exposed to the lower pressure, because the saturation
pressure is maintained by the vacuum pump. The liquid must exist in equilibrium with the new
pressure, and there is no alternative but to drop to the temperature at which the saturation pressure
is 5 kPa, i.e. 32.9C.
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Energy content of steam and water
Look at the columns hf and hg on p.2 of the booklet. These represent the enthalpy, which is thermal
energy stored by the fluid at a particular temperature, with subscripts f and g having their meanings
as above.
At 100C, work out the difference between h f and hg.
Write the difference here:
This is the energy required to boil 1kg of water from liquid at 100C to vapour at 100C. Note that your
difference is the same as the value in the column h fg; the subscript ‘fg’ here refers to the difference
between the enthalpy of saturated liquid, h f, and that of saturated steam, hg.
How much energy is required to boil 200g of water for a cup of tea from tap water at 10C?
Write the calculation here:
Given that this is done by a 3kW kettle, how long does it take to boil, assuming that the kettle does
not take any energy to heat?
Write calculation here:
It is important to realise that in raising water to boiling point, we do not boil it to vapour, so making a
cup of tea does not consume so much energy really. It is also important to realise that we have
assumed that the kettle has zero thermal mass, and that it takes no energy to heat it as it heats the
water.
What energy would be required to boil the 200g of water from 10C to vapour at 100C?
Write the calculation here:
And time to do this:
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When liquid boils, it takes in significant energy. But it stores this energy, ready to give it back when it
condenses. This is particularly important for this module since power from steam is a central theme
for this year. The large majority of terrestrial power generation by humans uses steam cycles using
steam raised by heat sources, which is then used in steam turbines.
Sorting data by pressure instead of temperature
p.3 of the tables shows the same data for water and steam sorted by pressure. It is interesting to see
how things look when it is turned around like this. Instead of having 100C, our expected boiling
point, it is now not there, and we see that at 1bar, water boils at only 99.62C. All the other columns
of data are in the same order as the table by temperature. The pressure data also extends over the
page on to p.4 and p.5 for higher pressure steam all the way up to the supercritical point, 221.2 bar
and 374.15C.
Interpolation of data
There is a question of what to do when a data value you want is not stated. In our tables of
saturated water and steam, this is not a big problem mostly, since the data is well populated with
values, but suppose we only had data tabulated every 10C. What would be done then? This is a
common situation in the data that we will be using this year.
Here is a plot of ps from 0.01 to 100C.
Water saturation pressure

1.2
1
Saturation pressure, bar
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
temperature, C
Figure 2 Graph of saturation pressure of pure water with temperature.
From the graph it can be seen that a reasonable way to get data at temperatures in between the
given temperature points is by drawing a straight line between the data points and marking on that
line the point at which the temperature line crosses it, then read the corresponding saturation
pressure for that point.
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Rather than drawing a graph to do this, it can be done by straightforward equation of a line in the
form (y-y1)/(y2-y1)=(x-x1)/(x2-x1), or in terms of the variables considered, for the particular example of
65C:
(ps65C-ps60C)/(ps70C-ps60C)=(65C-60C)/(70C-60C)
which becomes:
ps65C=1/2.(ps70C-ps60C)+ps60C
ps65C = 0.5*(0.3116-0.1992)+0.1992 = 0.2554 bar
Compare with the value given actually in this case (yes, it was all for nothing because we already had
it, but that wasn’t the point – we now have a technique when it does happen that the data is not
there) which is 0.2501 bar – so not a bad representation.
This principle of interpolation can be used on any tabulated data in the Thermodynamics tables. In
fact the source of the tables is from much more complex multi-dimensional interpolation based on
the experimental data points collected carefully by scientists. See the website for the IAPSW.
4. Superheated steam
Consider trying to boil water in a rigid walled pressure vessel. If the pressure vessel is full of water,
3
then it won't be possible to make the water boil, because the density of the water is 1000kg/m , and
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if the water were to boil then it would have to become vapour at 1000kg/m - which would be
supercritical, a point above which the fluid has properties of liquid and gas at the same time, and at
very high pressure. However, if we consider boiling water from a vessel with an exhaust port with a
pressure sensitive valve, what then? We could set that valve to any pressure we like and if the
pressure exceeds that pressure, then contents will erupt out of the vessel through the valve.
Throttle
to reduce
p
Heat, Q
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Thinking about this unusual pressure vessel, what would happen if an amount of water was put in
the bottom of it and heat were applied to make it boil, and the pressure valve were set at 1 bar
(which is 0.1MPa)? The water would gradually boil off until there were no liquid water left in the
bottom of the vessel, only steam at the temperature of the vessel.
But if heat were applied beyond this point, what then? Because there is no water liquid in the
vessel, there is now no restriction on the temperature in the vessel, and the steam in the vessel,
being dry, can warm up like a gas. This is then superheated steam.
A rigid walled pressure vessel has a pressure sensitive valve set to 1 MPa (which is 10 bar). Water in
the vessel is boiled away until there is just steam in the vessel, and yet more heat is transferred into
the vessel. What is the saturation temperature of water, and what is its specific enthalpy, at 1MPa?
Write your thinking and answer here:
Further heat is added until the temperature is 200C. The difference between the saturation
temperature and the actual temperature is called the amount of superheat. What is the amount of
superheat? And what is now the specific enthalpy of the vapour, which is now called superheated
vapour?
Write your answer here:
Interpolating superheated tables
The principle of interpolating tabulated data described previously is very useful with superheated
steam, when later on it becomes a puzzle to work out what changes have occurred in a steam cycle.
What is the enthalpy of steam at 4MPa (40 bar) and at 525C?
Write your calculation here:
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What is the entropy of the steam at 4MPa and 525C?
If the entropy is kept at this value, but a process is done to the steam, which reduces its pressure to
0.4 MPa, use interpolation to find the enthalpy of the steam at 0.4MPa and at the same entropy as
the steam at 4MPa and 525C.
5. Steam wetness
If the pressure is further dropped to 0.1MPa (1 bar), at the same entropy value, then the steam
enters the saturated state, and there will be a mixture of dry steam and microscopic droplets, which
is referred to as wetness. How do we know it is wet? Look at the entropy value for saturated vapour
at 1 bar: it is 7.359 kJ/kgK, which is higher than the value we are looking for; look at the value for
entropy at saturated liquid condition at 1 bar, it is 1.303 kJ/kgK, which is higher than the value.
Therefore it is somewhere between saturated liquid and saturated vapour, which is in fact a sample
which has some vapour and some droplets so that the mean value of the sample is the value
between. And that requires a particular proportion of droplet, called the wetness.
It is important to be able to determine how wet the steam is, and this is done by referring to its
dryness, i.e. the proportion (by decimal value) of steam which is dry. This is given the symbol 'x' by
standard practice. In the example here, the wetness can be worked out by putting x into an equation
for entropy.
We know the actual entropy; we know the liquid entropy, s f; we know the vapour entropy, sg. The
actual specific entropy (i.e. entropy per kg of the steam) is the combination of the fraction of dry
steam (x) entropy quantity and the fraction of wet steam (1-x) entropy quantity; i.e. s=xs g+(1-x)sf.
From this you can get x.
Show your calculation of x for this case here:
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6. Graphical representation of properties
Graphs representing the state of water and steam are useful for assisting thinking about work-cycles
involving steam as the force generator. It is natural to consider the pressure of the steam, since
pressure acting on an area produces a force, and where there is significant pressure differential over
a machine, then it will produce more force. In the course of this module the main graphs to be
considered are those relating:
enthalpy and entropy of steam;
pressure and enthalpy of refrigerant R134a;
temperature and entropy of steam.
These will be presented as they are met, but are dependent on the data as seen in the tabulated
data.
7. Transport property
The molecular characteristics of the fluid also affect how it moves, since a fluid in motion has to do
so in relation to the surrounding fluid and bounding walls.
Viscosity
Viscosity, which in all fluids varies significantly with temperature. For example, modern multigrade
car oil is described by its viscosity at different temperatures (multi-viscosity values dependent on
temperature), i.e. 5W30 means specific viscosity at a low (the ‘winter’ grade 5W) and high (the
viscosity at 100C) temperature). The actual viscosity does not bare a relation to the number
indicated by the grade. This can be seen at the website of Kew Engineering:
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Figure 1 Viscosity changing with temperature for various grades of multigrade motor oil from
http://www.kewengineering.co.uk/Auto_oils/oil_viscosity_explained.htm
The units of viscosity here are cSt, which is centi-Stokes. 1 St = 10 -4 m2/s and therefore 1 cSt is
1/100th of this, i.e. 10-6 m2/s. The units are those of kinematic viscosity, , i.e. viscosity independent
of density.
Commonly viscosity is expressed as dynamic viscosity, , i.e. viscosity with the density included:
= [kg/ms]
The viscosity of water is in the order of 10-3 kg/ms, and air is in the order of 10 -5 kg/ms. Viscosity and
transport properties are interesting from the point of view of heat transfer as distinct from
thermodynamics. Heat transfer is a process which is important to thermodynamics, but it can be
treated as a separate subject at this stage.
Thermal Conductivity
Conductivity of a fluid determines how well it dissipates high temperature regions to cooler
surrounding areas.
Thermal conductivity, k [W/mK] is given for water (subscript f) and steam (subscript g) on p.10 and
values are stated in the order of 10-6 kW/mK (i.e. multiply by 1000 to get W/mK) in order to show
that water vapour has a conductivity 3 orders of magnitude less than liquid. On p.16 conductivity of
dry air is given, this time in the order of 10 -5 kW/mK (i.e. multiply by 1000 for W/mK), and the
magnitude is about twice that of water vapour. On p.23 conductivity of various liquids is given
including some liquid metals, and finally on p.24 the conductivity of the atmosphere at various
heights is given.
State the conductivity of water liquid and vapour at 75 C in W/mK.
State the conductivity of dry air at 350K in W/mK.
State the conductivity of hydrogen at 400K in W/mK.
State the conductivity of atmospheric air at a height of 10000m in W/mK.
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Questions to practice properties of fluids calculations and table reading.
1. Define what extensive and intensive mean regarding a property of a fluid.

2. Find the saturation pressure for water when the temperature is 42C and 65C.
3. The atmospheric pressure at 4000m elevation above sea level is found on p.24 of the tables.
What is the saturation temperature at this height? You may need to interpolate on p.3 of the
tables.
4. Find the specific volume of water vapour when the pressure is 1.9 bar, and 30 bar. What is
the density of the water vapour at these pressures. And what temperature would the water
have to be in order to liberate this steam? You will need to refer to p.4 of the tables for this.
5. Why does the table on p.5 end at such a very specific pressure and temperature?
6. What will happen to water when it is at 20C and the pressure above it is reduced to 0.2 bar?
7. What will happen to water when it is at 40C and the pressure above is reduced to 0.04 bar?
8. Find the enthalpy of water liquid when the temperature is 10C and 40C.
9. Find the enthalpy of water vapour when the temperature is 20C and 70C.
10. How much energy is required to condense 200g of water in a chamber at 0.04 bar?
11. How much energy is required to bring to the boil a drum of 200 litres of water from 24C?
12. How much energy is required to boil to steam 50 kg/s at 160 bar from 70C?
Use the superheat tables on pages 6, 7, and 8 of the tables for the following:
13. What is the entropy of steam at 80 bar and 500C?
14. What is the entropy of steam at 80 bar and 525C (by interpolation)?
15. If the steam at 80 bar and 500C is reduced to 20 bar by an isentropic process (i.e. the
entropy remains unchanged), what is the temperature of the steam at the end of the
process?
16. If the steam at 80 bar and 525C is reduced to 9 bar by an isentropic process, what is the
enthalpy of the steam at the end of the process?
17. If the steam at 9 bar is further reduced to 1 bar by an isentropic process, what is the dryness
fraction of the steam produced at the end of the process, and what is the temperature?
18. Using a spreadsheet produce a plot of temperature vs. specific volume for saturated water
and saturated steam. The volume axis should be logarithmic. This should show the
saturation line defined by specific volume.
19. Using a spreadsheet produce a plot of temperature vs. specific entropy plot for saturated
water and saturated steam. This should show the saturation line for specific entropy.
20. Calculate the kinematic viscosity of water liquid and vapour at 75C. What do you notice
about the comparison of vapour and liquid when expressed in this way as opposed to
dynamic viscosity? Hint: you need density via specific volume.
21. Interpolate the conductivity of dry air tables to find the conductivity at 88C.
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Thermo topic 2, Vapour power cycles
Topic 2. Vapour power cycles – or getting work from steam engines
Aim of this section
Most of the world’s power is generated by steam vapour power cycles – whether by traditional coal
(which has been burned since day 1 of networked power), gas, nuclear, of concentrated solar
thermal. This section introduces the analysis of the basic cycles used and the principles of the
thermodynamics underpinning them.
Aim: learn to apply steam state properties into steam power generation cycles
Objectives: understand the principle of work from heat; understand the Carnot cycle principle;
understand the metrics of steam power cycles – isentropic efficiency, work ratio, thermal efficiency,
specific steam consumption; understand the basic vapour power cycles – Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle
and Rankine cycle with superheat; use the Mollier diagram; calculate turbine work, heat into cycle
and pump work to derive the metrics of steam power cycles.
1. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics: ‘heat is work’.
That is to say, heat is equivalent in terms of being an energy quantity, to work. Energy is conserved.
Comparing the steady flow energy equation (SFEE) with the Bernoulli equation p = ½ U2 + gz,
which derives from Navier-Stokes equations, it can be seen that there is a velocity head term and a
pressure head term in the Bernoulli equation, which in the pressure form of the equation here are
directly in the SFEE. That is because they too are forms of energy – kinetic and potential energy.
Heat and work have to do with transfers of energy. That is why they are on the left hand side
separately – Q defines the amount of thermal energy transferred to the fluid, and W defines the
amount of mechanical work done on the fluid. When these external energy transfers are made, the
fluid responds by a thermal energy change (h), a kinetic energy change (C 2 where C is velocity here)
and a potential energy change (z where z is a height). Navier-Stokes equations have an energy
equation, which contains these terms as well as their convection and diffusion as in the momentum
equation.
Units are: [N/m2 = kg.m.s-2.m-2 = kg.m-1.s-2] multiply by volume rate and the units become, N/m 2.m3/s
= Nm/s. Units of power, i.e. Fd/t = Nm/s. Therefore the SFEE is the Bernoulli equation with addition
of the energy content of the material and whatever energy is transferred across the boundary. K.E.
and P.E. are negligible compared to thermal energy in this topic, so the Bernoulli equation part is
negligible – it reduces to energy content. e.g. enthalpy change for 1C change of 1kg of water is 4180
J. Energy change lifting 1kg water 10m is 100 J; energy change to accelerate to 10m/s is 50 J.
2. Principle of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
A heat engine is a system operating in a cycle and producing a net quantity of work from a supply of
heat. A heat engine can be presented as:
Source of high temperature thermal

energy
Heat engine extracting work by
using the thermal energy
Source of low temperature thermal

energy
The cycle efficiency is defined as:
η = useful energy out/energy supplied = Work done/Heat supplied = W out /Qhigh < 1
The 2nd law states that Qlow>0, i.e. some heat must be rejected and η must be <100%.
Remember that heat transfers across boundaries – if a real engine were not given a place to dump
the waste heat, then obviously it would overheat, but ultimately it would stop working, and it
wouldn’t be able to produce work. The second law insists on heat being rejected by a real engine.
a) If a system is taken through a cycle and produces work, it must be exchanging heat with at
least two reservoirs at different temperatures – a heat source and a heat sink.
b) If a system is taken through a cycle while exchanging heat with only one reservoir, the work
done must be either zero or positive, i.e. work is going into the system – a refrigerator.
Notice the direction of the heat transfer

arrow – into a hot reservoir
c) Since heat can never be converted continuously and completely into work, but the reverse is
true, work is a more valuable form of energy transfer than heat.
These statements are about what can be done with the machine due to the system it contains.
To produce work you require hot and cold. With only one reservoir you can pass in work, but not
out. Hot can be up to whatever you want – in Tokomak fusion reactor 100 million Kelvin. Lower
limit is fixed at 0K – at which point nothing moves – all atomic motion ceases.
3. Flow processes in real devices
Compressor – it works by using mechanical work from a motor of

some kind to drive a shaft which has on it a number of compressor
blades, which spin on the fluid and drive it through successive
stages; it is used for gases and vapours. Not liquids. The fluid
enters cold and at low pressure and leaves hot and at high
pressure.
Turbine works in the reverse sense to a compressor – the

vapour or gas enters at high temperature and pressure
and leaves at low temperature and pressure. On its way
through the turbine it passes over turbine blades which
are like windmills in the fluid stream, each one taking
successively more energy out of the fluid.
Throttle – is a constriction on the flow. It involves a

pressure drop but is at flow rate such that kinetic energy
change is insignificant – most contained flows which are
well away from sonic velocity fit this description. In this case the change of
enthalpy is neglible – there is an exchange between u and pv internally, but
little thermal energy enters as heat due to the small surface area and the short
residence time (flow time spent in the throttle).
Pump - Pumps are used to deliver a volume of pressurised liquid. Relatively

little thermal energy increase in the liquid (little work done) and the pressure energy for
an incompressible fluid is negligible.
Condenser – uses relatively impure

Low pressure steam in water (‘cold water in’ on diagram) to
pass into a sealed heat exchanger,
where it exchanges heat with ‘low
pressure steam’ from a vapour
Warm water out
power cycle to make it condense to

Cold water in
water, which is then fed back into

the cycle.
Boiler – heat exchanger for raising

steam in tubes which pass back and
forth through a hot reactor vessel.
Condensed water out Water enters the higher tubes and
leaves the lower tubes to reduce
Cooled fluid – flame or reactor outflow temperature gradients. In a power
station coal boiler, there are tubes in
the walls of the reactor vessel which
are used to heat the water, and the
Cold water in
Steam out
tubes across the flow are used to

further heat the water to superheated
steam.
Compressor and turbine are constant

entropy machines for gas compression
or work from expansion. A constant
Hot fluid in – flame or
reactor entropy process is one in which there
is no heat transfer and no frictional
losses – so that it is reversible. The
change in enthalpy is the work in for compressor and out for turbine, assuming there is no heat
transfer. No heat transfer can be nearly achieved by good insulation, and no friction can be achieved
by good design of large scale machines, so mechanical friction is negligibly small compared to work,
and so the blade design is optimal for reduction of turbulence. The boiler and condense are heat
exchangers allowing two separate and different temperature fluids to exchange heat.
4. The best efficiency possible – the Carnot efficiency
The 2nd law implies that for a reversible heat engine operating between two reservoirs, the
efficiency depends only on the temperature of the reservoirs. Since efficiency, η = W out/Qhot
= (Qhot-Qcold)/Qhot
= 1-Qcold/Qhot
It follows that Qcold/Qhot is a function of these two temperatures only.
The choice of function is arbitrary. The one used is
Tcold/Thot = Qcold/Qhot
in general T/T0 = Q/Q0 , so that
η = 1-Tcold/Thot
state ‘0’ is a reference state, and T scale must be absolute, i.e. K, because it is a ratio. This is a very
important measure. It is determined by the temperature of each of the reservoirs. It shows that the
wider the temperatures are apart the better the efficiency of your machine. The most efficient
machine will exchange with absolute zero! This efficiency is called the Carnot efficiency, and
represents the maximum work that can be obtained from a pair of thermal reservoirs.
5. Vapour power cycles
The Carnot efficiency is most simply illustrated in Vapour Power Cycles:
(2) (3)
(4)
(1)
Example: Steam plant, boiler temp = 700K and condenser temp = 300K, what is the Carnot
efficiency?
This shows that the maximum ever achievable is quite low. This is the ‘100%’ for this system. The
elements of this power producing process are what is in a power generation station.
The lower temperature limit and associated maximum output give rise to the idea of ‘availability’ of
energy. Raising the lower temperature limits the availability of the energy for work. This Carnot
efficiency can be used to tell us how much you might get out of your system if you had a perfect
process and tells us how available the high temperature thermal energy in the hot thermal reservoir
is.
The vapour power cycle deals with the process of power production where:
a. The working fluid is a condensable vapour

b. The power cycle consists of a series of steady flow processes; 1-2 pumping, 2-3 boiling and
heating; 3-4 turbine expansion for work; 4-1 cooling to condense back to liquid.
The analysis is simplified by the assumption that K.E and P.E changes are negligible compared with
the change in enthalpy. SFEE for change of state between points: Q + W = hin - hout
6. Entropy
Steven Hawking describes how a drinking glass has low entropy; it is in an ordered state. There are
only few ordered states with low entropy. Smashing the glass provides a route to many possible
disordered states which have high entropy. To establish an ordered state again would take far more
work than the work to produce the disordered state. Entropy defines the amount of disorder in the
energy contained by the system. Increasing entropy implies loss of energy to chaotic work and heat
which is lost and no longer useful.
Going round a cycle, there will be either no change in the integral (just like all other properties) or
there will be a decrease:
∮ δQ
T
dQ
≤0 and ( )
T
=dS
INT,REV
The change of entropy of a working fluid in an internally reversible process is defined as:
2
Δs=s2 −s1 =∫
1
( dQT ) int,rev
[ J/kgK ]
Considering a cycle involving an irreversible process, 1-2, and an internally reversible process, 2-1:
2 1 2 2
∫ dqT +∫ dQT( ) dq
≤0 so ∫ + s1 −s2 ≤0 and hence s 2 −s 1 ≥∫
dq
1 2 int,rev 1 T 1 T
The right hand side is the entropy transfer due to the process; there is entropy generation in
addition to the process entropy. Sgen is due entirely to irreversibilities. The inequality shows that
there is not only reversible entropy due to heat transfer, but extra entropy s gen due to other disorder
is the system.
The property of entropy is defined from the second law
dqreversible = T.ds
Consider this to be the heat transfer equivalent of
dwreversible = -P.dv
dqreversible is the minimum heat transfer required to get between two states.
dqreversible = Tds applies for any reversible process undergone by a closed system.
7. Isentropic Efficiency
Open-system machines (axial flow turbines and compressors) operate under near adiabatic
conditions. If the friction of fluid and mechanical factors can be reduced, then it approaches
isentropic. Isentropic efficiency is used to characterise the performance of many open-system

machines. For a turbine, the isentropic efficiency is:
W out Actual work

ηisentropic −turbine = =
W out−isentropic Reversible adiabatic work
For a compressor it is similar, but obviously the reversible work in to the machine will be less than
the actual, so the fraction is the other way up:
W ¿−isentropic Reversible adiabatic work

ηisentropic −compressor = =
W¿ Actual work
In this module we are only concerned with turbines, so the compressor equation won’t be used until
more advance thermodynamic modules.
The isentropic work out of a turbine is more than you actually get from the energy transferred out of
the fluid, and the isentropic work in to a compressor is less than you have to put in to drive the
compressor i.e. the useful increase in energy to the fluid is less than the isentropic possible amount.
Energy of the fluid is of course measured as the enthalpy.
Isentropic efficiency is stated by the manufacturer of the turbine/compressor. It determines how

much energy is produced/required.
In section 5, the figure shows a vapour power cycle; suppose the steam going into the turbine
is at 500C and 40bar. Assuming an isentropic expansion through the turbine, what is the
enthalpy leaving the turbine at 4 bar?
If the isentropic efficiency is known to be 90%, what is the actual enthalpy at the exit of the
turbine at 4 bar?

8. Steam properties and representation in graphical form
Critical point
The relation of Q, T and s results in a useful graph, the T-s diagram which represents the internally
reversible heat transfer. The heat transfer for the reversible case is useful because it is the statement
of the perfect case, i.e. the limiting heat transfer required in a heat engine, to which the actual heat
transfer can be compared. The reversible heat transfer does not show the entropy generation
associated with a real heat engine.
Isentropic processes involve no heat transfer and area under the curve is zero – it is a vertical line.
The zero in the graph here is arbitrary – a useful zero point at zero C. The domed line is the limit of
the region where vapour and liquid can exist together. To the left of the left hand side is only liquid
water, and to the right of the right hand side is only superheated steam. The top of the dome is the
critical point.
The T-s diagram for steam above has some constant pressure lines drawn on it. The pressure lines
are horizontal through the central vapour-liquid mixture region under the dome, and then follow the
contour of the saturated liquid side of the dome (the left hand side from the critical point at the
apex).
Entropy for water is assigned as zero at zero centigrade for convenience. By the Third Law of
Thermodynamics (!!!) the absolute value of entropy of any substance is zero at zero K. Despite this,
use of a reference state is helpful.
This diagram is particularly useful for considering processes in vapour power plant.
9. Thermal efficiency
A heat engine will use a certain amount of thermal energy which it will extract from a fuel – which
might be coal or gas combustion, nuclear fuel reaction, solar thermal energy. The work produced by
this will be less than the fuel energy by principle of the second law. An overall efficiency is defined,
which compares how much work you get out to how much fuel you use:
W out
ηthermal =
Q¿
Looking at the vapour power cycle in section 5 above, the thermal efficiency is:
W out−¿W ¿
Q¿
ηthermal =¿
The Qin is the externally applied heat.
From the figure in section 5, suppose the work out of the turbine is as in the question in
section 7. Use the formula for work in a pump: W=v(p out – pin) to find the work done per kg
to pump water from 4 bar up to 40 bar. Calculate the work out of the turbine per kg of
steam, and the heat to raise the water from 30C to the superheated state at entry to the
turbine. Now work out the thermal efficiency of the vapour power cycle.
Write your calculation of pump work here:
Write your calculation of turbine work here:
Write your calculation of heat input here:
Write your calculation of thermal efficiency here:
10. Work ratio
It is important to compare the work cost of the pump to pressurise the water going into the boiler to
the work out of the turbine.
turbine work out− pump work ∈ ¿

turbine work out
net work output
rw = =¿
gross work output
Which from the numbered figure in section 5 is:

net work output ( h3−h 4 )−( h2−h1 )

rc= =
gross work output ( h 3−h4 )
The thermal efficiency of the cycle is not useful on its own – we want to know how much work we
can get out of the process. Work ratio tells us how much work cost we have to run the system. The
liquid water has to be pressurised before it is boiled off to steam. Liquids have less work due to no
specific volume change as p increases.
Use the calculation results from section 9 to work out the work ratio in that case.
High rw values are desirable, which indicates low sensitivity of efficiency to irreversibilities. Modern
steam plants have rw 0.98, whilst for gas turbine cycles, using the Brayton cycle, rw  0.45. This
major difference is due to high compression work involved with gases.
11. Specific steam consumption
It is useful to know how much steam you need to put through to get a required power. This affects
the size of the power plant. The measure used is the specific steam consumption, SSC, which
compares the steam used per unit of energy. The unit of energy used is the kWh (kilo-Watt-hour)
which is the energy used by consuming 1kW for a 1 hour period, which is 1000W3600s = 3.6MJ.
The formula used is:
ḿ steam
SSC=
Ẃ net
For the previous calculation in sections 9 and 10, calculated the SSC
SSC at Ratcliffe is approximately 150 [kg/s]3600[s/h]/500,000[kW] =1.08 kg/kW.h.
A low S.S.C is good and implies the need for a smaller plant (that is lower capital cost).
12. The development of vapour power cycles

The technology applied in power stations increases the work produced for the size of plant and the
amount of work that can be produced from the heat available. The following theory explains Carnot
cycle, the Rankine cycle, and superheating. Further improvements can be made, but they are the
subject of subsequent lecture modules in thermodynamics.
Carnot cycle
The idea of using steam to produce power was studied by Sadi Carnot, a French military engineer,
during the 19th Century. His idea was to use a condensable vapour with isothermal processes for
heat transfer, and isentropic processes for work transfer. Transferring heat at one temperature is
known from the second law to be the best you can do with a given high temperature; transferring
work isentropically is known to be the best work transfer that can be done. Referring to the figure,
the rectangle under the dome on the T-s diagram for steam shows how the cycle works in principle.
Heat is transferred at constant T because of phase change. The process is best shown on a T-s
diagram because of the isentropic processes.
Carnot cycle plotted on T-s diagram. Cycle is contained entirely
underneath the saturated liquid/vapour ‘dome’
The thermal efficiency of this cycle is the Carnot efficiency.
T min
η =1-
T max
The Carnot cycle is impractical – the turbine (3-4) will expand the vapour in the mixture region and
form droplets because it is in the wet region of the steam, and the droplets will impact on the blades
causing erosion in time; it is difficult to ensure that you condense to the exact point, 1, since it is not
fully condensed back to liquid but is required for the saturated liquid after the pump, at point 2, if an
isentropic pumping process is to be used, and the compressor work (1-2) is quite high, reducing
efficiency and reducing the work ratio. The compressor work has to be calculated by working out the
enthalpy change of the wet steam across the compressor pressure change.
If the cycle is reversed it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle. All the arrows or processes are
reversed in that case.
Rankine cycle
In this cycle, the condensation (4-1) is allowed to continue to the saturated liquid line, as shown in
the figure on the next page. The feed pump is then used to compress condensed liquid to the boiler
pressure. The pressure change is in the order of 100 bar or 10,000,000 Pa, which is 10 MPa.
The work in the pump is much less than compressing a vapour because the specific volume is firstly
much smaller and secondly it is constant during pumping.
The work in a constant specific volume process is:
W = ḿ´ v Δ p
As in the previous pump work calculation, where the mass flow rate now multiplies on the specific
volume, v, and the pressure change, p, in the pump.
The thermal efficiency falls because the Carnot efficiency is reduced since not all heat is added at the
higher temperature (some is added from point 2 up to the horizontal section of the process at the
high temperature between 100C and 225C on the figure), but this is unimportant with regard to the
work output increase. SSC is also lower due to more work out during the cycle. Rankine cycle
increases the work ratio, because 1 and 2 are virtually coincident and W in is therefore very small. So
despite the efficiency falling because not all heat is added at the higher temperature, this is
unimportant with regard to the work output increase.
Rankine cycle plotted on T-s diagram. Extend the condensation

to the saturated liquid line (left hand side).
Rankine cycle with superheat
Once the steam is out of the boiler the steam is driven down the tubes towards the turbine. This
provides an opportunity to add some extra external heat but heating the tube on its way to raise the
steam to a superheated state rather than saturated only. An extra point, 3a, appears on our cycle as
shown on the figure above, which has a higher energy value than the saturated steam at exit from
the boiler, point 3. The use of modern materials allows T 3a values up to 650°C. The Carnot cycle is
limited to Tmax £374.15°C (the critical temperature for H2O). In a superheat cycle some heat is
supplied at T>Tsat, raising the average temperature and thus increasing the efficiency.
Rankine cycle with superheat plotted on T-s diagram. Add heat

beyond the saturated vapour line (right hand side).
The other advantage of superheating is that the dryness fraction at exit from the turbine (4) is higher
than in the Rankine cycle and consequently the turbine suffers less erosion by droplet impact.
The real process in the turbine becomes important at this point. The isentropic (constant entropy,
nd
reversible adiabatic) process 3a-4’, suffers an increase in entropy by 2 law in reality, and arrives at
the same pressure line as 4’, but with increased entropy, at 4. The dotted line indicates an irreversible
process and apostrophe on 4’indicates an ideal point. In this course, this is important – it is
calculated by using the isentropic efficiency. As in section 7 above.
13. Making calculations on steam easier – the Mollier diagram
The Mollier chart, which is a chart plotting steam enthalpy, h, vs. entropy, s, for varying T and p, is
used to find the state of steam at entry and exit from turbines. The annotated version over the page
shows the meaning of the lines on the chart and the one following is an A4 print of the e.on Proates
plot of this data, reproduced by kind permission.
It is a useful chart because the ideal process is isentropic – constant entropy – i.e. vertical line from
one p and T to a lower p. Isentropic efficiency can then be used to find the true exit state at the
same pressure.
This is used to find the actual work produced by the turbines in the steam cycle.
Use the Mollier diagram to work out the enthalpy of steam when it has passed from 20 bar,
400C through a turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 0.9 to a pressure of 1 bar.
Write your working here using the chart over the page:
Exercise questions for vapour power cycles

1. Calculate the Carnot efficiency for a power cycle using max temperature
2000K and min temperature 300K.
2. If 50 kg/s of coal is consumed in a power station using the temperatures
of question 1, and the coal releases 30 MJ for every kg burned, what is
the greatest possible work that can be extracted from the station?
3. What are the two main reasons why all of this work cannot be
generated?
4. A steam turbine receives steam with specific enthalpy 3214 kJ/kg, and at
the outlet of the turbine the specific enthalpy of the steam is 2600 kJ/kg.
The process is isentropic. What is the heat transfer in the process (hint:
note the very specific meaning of of the process type)? And what is the
work from the heat engine if the mass flow of steam is 5.5 kg/s?
5. State the meaning of ‘dryness fraction’ with regard to steam cycles.
6. What is the change in enthalpy for steam passing through a turbine from
10 bar, 250C to a condenser at 0.1 bar for an isentropic process? (You
will need to calculate the dryness fraction of the steam leaving the
turbine because the steam is wet.)
7. A turbine receives steam at 550C and 200 bar. Assuming an isentropic
expansion through the turbine to a pressure of 40 bar, what is the final temperature?
8. The turbine in question 7 expands to 40 bar and the actual temperature at outlet from the
turbine is 330C. What is the isentropic efficiency of that turbine?
9. A power station uses the Rankine cycle between a boiler with feed-water at 160 bar and
condenser which is at a pressure corresponding to the saturated water vapour at 30C and is
considered to be isentropic in operation.
a. What are the pressure and specific enthalpy of the saturated water in the
condenser?
b. What are the temperature and specific enthalpy of the saturated steam in the
condenser?
c. If the mass flow rate of the water is 105 kg/s, what is the heat input to the steam in
the boiler?
d. What is the work done in the pump?
10. The Rankine cycle of question 9 is modified with a superheat steam pipe circuit prior to entering
the high pressure turbine taking the temperature up to 550C. The steam from the cycle passes
into the low pressure turbine at 30 bar, and 300C, and exhausts from the low pressure turbine
at the pressure of the condenser. Given the isentropic efficiency of the low pressure turbine is
85%, what are:
a. specific enthalpy at HP turbine entry
b. specific enthalpy at entry to LP turbine
c. specific enthalpy at turbine exit
d. the steam quality at exit?
11. Given the pump work in question 9d, and the work produced by the HP and LP turbines from the
enthalpy changes in question 10, what is:
a. specific steam consumption

b. work ratio
Thermo topic 3, Refrigeration and air conditioning
MM2TF2 THERMOFLUIDS
Topic 3. Refrigeration and air conditioning
Aim of this section
Keeping cool is desirable in many situations of interest to the human race and essential in others.
Refrigeration has history stretching back to ancient China and other ancient civilizations. Early
attempts involved simply fetching ice from snow peaked mountains, keeping it as insulated as
possible during transit, until it could be placed in an underground storage room to keep food cold.
Food stuff, potable liquids require refrigeration to enhance flavour and to preserve against bacteria
action to prolong the ‘use-by’ date. Beer is served at 8C; lager at 5C; ice cream and other frozen
foods at -20C. In addition to our desire to prolong food usefulness and enhance its flavour,
refrigeration is used to keep vaccines sufficiently cool to preserve their life and to preserve corpses
before funeral services can be conducted. Refrigeration is used in industrial processes also.
Refrigeration also enables control of the local atmosphere in confined spaces, and this can be useful
for humans in hot environments and for computers, which require their diodes to be cooled just as
humans need their cells to be maintained at 37C. In tropical countries it is soon obvious on arrival
that air conditioning is as needed there as central heating in colder climates. Therefore the engineer
needs to understand and apply refrigeration techniques in a large variety of situations and the use of
refrigerant fluids to produce the refrigerant effect and of the properties of air to determine the
amount of cooling required to control the atmosphere are essential for this.
Aim: learn to calculate and describe the processes of refrigeration and air conditioning.
Objectives: describe the refrigeration circuit as a reversed Carnot cycle and as a heat pump;
understand the importance of selecting an appropriate refrigerant; find the properties of the
refrigerant R134a from the tables and use them to make refrigerant effect calculations; interpret the
data from a p-h diagram for a particular refrigerant; calculate coefficient of performance; describe
the meaning of air conditioning in terms of controlling temperature and humidity; describe and
calculate relative and absolute humidity in terms of saturation pressure of water vapour; describe
the meaning of hygrometry/psychrometry and of the psychrometric chart; calculate dew point;
describe the purpose and action of wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers; calculate the refrigeration
load required to cool a continuous mass flux of atmospheric air for humidity control.
1. Refrigeration effect
The Carnot cycle was derived to

produce power – as
demonstrated in the vapour
power section. If the cycle is
reversed, and power is delivered
to the cycle, then the effect is to
transfer heat in the reverse
direction – from cold to hot (as
illustrated in the schematic
diagram of a reversed heat
engine)!
In practice this is done using a

positive displacement
compressor (which raises the pressure of a superheated vapour and drives it against the pressure
gradient) as shown in the sketch. The vapour arrives at a WARM reservoir, at a greater temperature
than that reservoir and can therefore exchange heat with it. As it loses thermal energy the vapour
converts to a liquid with the production of heat transfer at a constant temperature – the saturation
temperature of the refrigerant fluid at that pressure – this is condensation and the section of pipe in
which it happens is called the condenser heat exchanger. From this point, the subcooled liquid at
the high pressure can be expanded (i.e. its pressure is reduced so that it can get bigger), and this is
done by allowing it to pass through a constriction, or throttle. Its pressure immediately is reduced
and the saturation temperature correspondingly reduces. This results in some instantaneous boiling
in the fluid as it converts some of its thermal energy level above the saturation level to latent heat of
boiling. At this point a level of equilibrium is established until the two phase flow, mostly liquid with
a small amount of vapour, arrives at the COOL reservoir. The temperature of the reservoir is greater
than the saturation temperature of the fluid at this low pressure. Therefore heat transfer can once
again occur as the liquid content of the refrigerant boils off to vapour. This is evaporation and the
section of pipe in which it happens is called the evaporator heat exchanger. By the end of the
heating process in this cold heat exchanger, the refrigerant is still at a lower temperature than the
reservoir, but is at a superheated state.
It is important to remember that this all depends on saturation pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant contained in the tubes of the machine in this cycle. And temperature is a relative scale –
a low temperature does not appear cold necessarily to the refrigerant depending on its saturation
temperature at the pressure it is held at.
This device is called a heat pump, because it uses work to extract heat from a cold source and deliver
it to a hot sink.
2. Refrigerant fluids
Any thermodynamic fluid can potentially be used as a refrigerant fluid; but there is a caveat.
Refrigerants are appropriate only over limited ranges of temperature and pressure. So water might
be used as a refrigerant, but it would be at temperatures in the order of hundreds of degrees
centigrade. Carbon dioxide, CO2 is used as a refrigerant; butane has been used as a refrigerant but
obviously has disadvantage of being potentially explosive – the effect is well known to those who
camp with a butane camping stove in cold weather. Refrigerants in practical refrigerators are
selected from fluids which have low saturation temperatures over a reasonable pressure range. The
pressure range is usually in the range 0 to 20 bar, and the boiling temperature can vary usually
between -30C and 10C, and the condensing temperature can vary between 50C and 100C.
The tables of thermodynamic data

contain three potential refrigerants –
ammonia (R717), dichloro-difluoro-
methane, CF2Cl2 (R12) and tetra-
fluoro-ethane, CH2F-CF3 (R134a). R22
is now not permitted as a refrigerant
in new installations as of January 2015
because of its destructive effect on
the atmosphere. Ammonia is not
commonly used. R134a is a common
refrigerant.
The figure shows the T-s diagram for

R134a with a refrigerant cycle plotted
onto it. Notice how similar the cycle is
to the Carnot cycle for vapour power, but that the arrows show it cycles in the opposite direction.
Where there was a turbine in vapour power, there is no a compressor for raising the pressure of the
superheated vapour on the right hand side; on the left, a throttle, which has a constant enthalpy
value shows a slight increase in entropy – the irreversibility.
Example: use the tables to find the enthalpy change of refrigerant R134a at -30C from where it
emerges from the throttle with the same enthalpy as the condenser exit, which is saturated liquid at
50C, up to 10K of superheat.
3. The pressure-enthalpy diagram
For refrigeration cycles, a convenient chart for calculations is the p-h diagram because it efficiently
yields information about the enthalpy changes in the evaporator and condenser – which is the
primary point of interest since the heat pump is responsible for transferring thermal energy from one
place to another. The chart in the adjacent figure shows the following features which need to be
identified:
 the vapour dome, which leans slightly to the right and has a maximum pressure of 13 bar
 constant temperature lines, which are vertical in the liquid region, horizontal in the mixture
region and curve steeply downwards in the superheated region
 a typical refrigeration cycle is shown –
a) compressor raising the
pressure from 2 bar up to
13 bar with corresponding
enthalpy increase of 401 to
447 kJ/kg
b) condenser at 13 bar and Tsat
of 50C, entering with 20K
of superheat, i.e. at 70C,
and leaving super-cooled
by 10K at 40C, with
enthalpy 256 kJ/kg
c) throttle from 13 bar to 2
bar at constant enthalpy
d) evaporator at 2 bar and Tsat
of -10C in the mixture
region, starting with dryness of 0.34, and evaporating to the saturated vapour line
and beyond that superheating by 10K to 0C, with an enthalpy of 401 kJ/kg.
Example: confirm that the dryness after the throttle in the process described above is 0.34.
Example: the enthalpy change in the various components gives the energy transfer as W or Q
depending on the component. What flow rate of R134a is required to produce 2kW of cooling at the
evaporator and what is the work by the compressor in that case?

-Performance measurement – the coefficient of performance.
The performance of a heat pump is determined by the amount of useful heat transfer it does for a
given amount of work from the compressor. This is often greater than 1, and so referring to it as
efficiency is awkward. The measure used is called the coefficient of performance or CoP.
Q EVAP
CoP R =
WC
Q COND
CoP HP=
WC
CoP HP=CoP R +1
Example: calculate the CoPHP for the refrigerator cycle in the previous example.
Twarm is the temperature of the

4. The nature of the cycle
surrounding of the condenser, i.e.
The condenser. the other side of the heat
exchanger
Vapour enters condenser at
temperature above ‘Twarm’ and
Tsat-high-p
exchanges heat, Qout out of
condenser to cool the vapour. The
vapour condenses when it reaches
Tsat until all is condensed. Tsat
needs to be a few degrees above
the T of the hot reservoir, Twarm, to
work properly.
The throttle.
The condensed and slightly sub cooled liquid passes through

the throttle. This reduces the pressure of the fluid and
therefore the Tsat reduces to a point below the cool reservoir
(which contains the evaporator) temperature T cool. We know
that the throttle is short and should be well insulated (it often
is NOT at all well insulated!!), and so Q is zero. There is
Q̇+Ẇ= ṁΔh = 0
obviously no work – no paddles, pistons, hands etc. Use the SFEE, where Q and W are rates of
heating and power input and m is the mass flow rate. It is easy to see that if Q and W are zero, then
the enthalpy entering is the same as that leaving. Physically this is a LOT harder to understand
because of the complex fluid dynamics going on. Further, because the temperature of the ingoing
liquid was higher than the new saturated vapour pressure, the liquid must cool itself down. There is
no Q from the outside, so the cooling comes from the liquid – it boils until the temperature is the
new saturation temperature at the lower pressure. The refrigerant is now in the mixture region and
has a low dryness fraction.
Example: R134a liquid having enthalpy h=100 kJ/kg pressure drops from 7 bara, 27C to 1.3bara (as
on chart p.49 throttle process), -20C. What is dryness fraction, x?
The evaporator.
As it enters the evaporator, liquid is at Tsat

and with the temperature of the Throttle Tsat, low-p Tsuperheat,out
surrounding being higher than Tsat the process
liquid boils at constant temperature until
the saturated vapour state. By the time it
reaches the end of the evaporator, all is
evaporated and the vapour gains a little
superheat.
The compressor.
Superheated refrigerant vapour leaving the evaporator is drawn into the compressor, which is a
reciprocating device – like the air compressor in previous notes – which compresses the vapour from
superheated cold, low pressure vapour to superheated hot high pressure vapour.
5. Air conditioning
There are two types of air – dry air and atmospheric air
– and the difference between them is water vapour. Dry
air is composed of nitrogen, N2 and oxygen, O2 in
approximate proportions by mass: 76.7% N2 and 23.3%
O2; by volume, 79% N2 and 21% O2 as previously noted in
the combustion notes. Humid or atmospheric air depends on the saturation pressure of water
vapour at the temperature of the air. Water boils at 100˚C (b.p.) at a pressure of 1 atmosphere
(1.01325 bar), and for lower pressures, saturation temperature is correspondingly lower. Water can
evaporate into the air until its partial pressure equals its saturation pressure.
6. Water vapour and

partial pressure.
From the Gibbs-Dalton Law

of partial pressure the
pressure of a mixture of
gases, p, is equal to the sum
of pressures of individual
constituents, their partial pressure, when each occupies a volume
equal to that of the mixture at the temperature of the mixture. The
figure shows how molecules of different gases mingle in the
mixture. At lower temperatures, ps is correspondingly lower. At the lower temperatures, free surface
water can evaporate until the partial pressure in the atmosphere is p s. After this point, only equal
exchange of vapour between atmosphere and free liquid water surface occurs. The figure shows that
water molecules can evaporate from the water surface and condense back into it.
The saturation pressure of water is reasonably flat at terrestrial temperatures, but then rises sharply
at 60C. This means that the higher the air temperature is, the greater the amount of water the
atmosphere can carry as water vapour. This is the humidity of the air.
7. Psychrometry and Hygrometry
The study of atmospheric air, i.e. air and water vapour mixtures is called psychrometry or
hygrometry. This is relevant to air conditioning plant, and cooling tower analysis, because the
humidity affects on the one hand the amount of moisture needs to be removed from the air for
comfort at a particular temperature, and on the other hand it affects how much cooling of warm
water in the condenser heat exchanger of a power station can be done.
8. Relative humidity
Relative humidity, symbol  (Greek letter phi), is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour
actually in the atmosphere, ps, and the saturation pressure of water vapour at the temperature of
the atmosphere, previously indicated by psat in the tables, but for the purposes of air conditioning
only this is represented as pg.
ps
ϕ=
pg
Example: for 20C air, if the value of ps is 0.01 bar, what is the relative humidity?
9. Specific humidity
Specific humidity, symbol  (Greek letter omega), is the ratio of masses of water vapour to dry air in
a given volume, V. The previous example is exactly the point, but expressed as an equation it is:
ms
ω=
mdry −air
and since each of vapour and dry air occupy the same volume at their partial pressures, by the law of
partial pressures, then it is useful to express this also as:
ms
V v dry−air
ω= =
mdry −air v vap
V
where lower case v means specific volume.
It is useful to define specific humidity in terms of partial pressure. Water vapour can be regarded as
an ideal gas when the partial pressure is below about 20 kPa (corresponding to p s for 60C). If both
are treated as perfect gases, then:
ms p
ps V =ms Rs T → = s
V RsT
where Rs is the specific gas constant for water vapour and:
ma p
= a
V Ra T
where Ra is the specific gas constant for air and:
R a ps 287 p s 0.662 p s
ω= = =
R s p a 461 ( p atm− p s ) p atm− p s
This is a useful formula for calculating the absolute amount of water vapour in atmospheric air. Note
subscript s is for vapour here – in the tables it is saturation pressure – different and not to be
confused.
Example: Calculate the maximum mass of water that can be supported in air at 20C and 1 bar.

10. Dew point
If the temperature of the air falls until the saturation point or 100% relative humidity occurs, the air
is at the DEWPOINT temp.
T dp=T sat , ps=T g
it is the temperature at which air becomes saturated when cooled at constant pressure. Since the
moisture will not condense out of the air until the dew point is reached,  = constant and ps is
constant during cooling down to the dew point.
The saturation point is when ps=pg=psat which is found from thermodynamic properties tables at the
temperature of interest. Conversely if we know p s, we can find the temperature at which p s=psat to
give the dew point temperature corresponding to that vapour pressure.
Example: For the previous example, find the dew point temperature.
11. Wet and dry bulb thermometers for hygrometry
Having equations to represent humidity is useful, but not

much good without a method to measure the partial
pressures or the mass of vapour in the air. This can be done
by using the characteristic of water liquid evaporating faster
in dryer air, and a method was devised from the known
cooling effect of using porous jugs to store water – from
which water would permeate the porous clay to the surface
of the jug at a slow rate and then evaporate from the surface
causing cooling down to the dew point. This observation was
used on the wet bulb thermometer in order to represent how
dry the air is. The dryer the air is, the greater the difference
between the wet bulb thermometer temperature and the dry
bulb.
The arrangement for measuring humidity is shown in the

figure. If humidity is less than 100%, water will evaporate from the sock and cause the temperature
of the bulb to drop and the thermometer to register a lower temperature than the dry bulb. This
temperature relates to the relative humidity. There is a cloth sock around the bulb of the wet
thermometer that is soaked in water from a reservoir that it draws water up from. A calculation can
be done to determine the exact relationship – see Cengel and Boles book on Thermodyanamics. A
spreadsheet can be calculated based on this theory to determine the relative and specific humidity
from the wet and dry bulb temperatures (see Moodle).
Psychrometric chart
Using the spreadsheet for

the calculation of wet
bulb/dry bulb relationship
to humidity, a detailed chart
can be plotted, the
arrangement for which is
plotted in the figure, and a
separate copy on A4 is
provided.
The figure is an accurately

drawn schematic of the
psychrometric chart
showing the various
measurements that can be
made from knowing any
two properties on the chart.
Usually wet and dry bulb temperature are known. The full chart (A4 copy of the CIBSE psychrometric
chart is shown on the following page with notes) shows the condition of the air for a given pair of
wet and dry bulb temperatures with a fuller set of information including enthalpy of the mixture.
Example: what is the rh if the db is 30C and the wb is 20C?
What is the specific humidity if it is 100% humid at 30C?
What does this tell you about the relative masses of air and water at 30C?
What is the enthalpy for a 50% rh at 20C db?

12. Air conditioning plant
Air conditioning is adjusting the temperature and humidity of the air. Refrigeration is used to reduce
humidity. It is important to be able to calculate how much refrigeration is required to get the desired
air condition. Air to be conditioned is sucked in, cooled down to cause decrease in humidity. This is
done by causing a temperature drop to below dew point. The figure shows a schematic diagram of
the process.
1 to 2 Work input from fan – a relatively small amount of work due to the low pressure across it.
2 to 3 Heat rejected, mixture saturates, liquid water is drained to 4 – a relatively large amount of
thermal energy exchange in the heat exchanger between the refrigerant on the inside of the tubes
and the air on the outside of the tubes.
3 to 5 Heat supplied to give desired humidity (ø) at temperature T; again a relatively high amount
of thermal energy exchange between the heating coil and the air.
Air is heated up after the cooler to make it comfortable before being issued to the room.
Enthalpy change of the dry air/water vapour mixture between each of the sections is equal to the
energy required to
cause that change.
Use the steady

flow energy
equation (SFEE) in
order to calculate
the energy
transfers required
to and from the
air, but also to and
from the
refrigerant that is
used in the cooling
section.
Considering only the cooling section, the SFEE can be written as follows. Thermal energy of moist air
entering, plus the heat transfer into the air equals the thermal energy of moist air leaving the section
plus the thermal energy of the condensed liquid moisture leaving the section:
ḿa 2 h a 2+ ḿs 2 h s 2+ Q́2−3= ḿa3 ha 3 + ḿs 3 h s3 + ḿc 4 hc 4
For this section of the air conditioning unit, enthalpy of water vapour plus dry air at section 2, has
heat taken out between 2 and 3. At 3, there is the same mass of dry air, but some moisture has fallen
out on the cooling unit (fridge coils!) to the drain. So we have same mass of dry air with different
enthalpy (calculable by dry air temperature and c p of dry air in tables), and we have a (smaller)
amount of water vapour with the air. We also have an amount of condensate – the condensed water
vapour on the cooling coils.
Example: For the cooling section shown in the figure and the following conditions: m a,dot is 0.5 kg/s,
specific humidity is 0.01 kg/kg air, therefore 0.005 kg/s is m s2. Ingoing temperature 30C, what is the
heat transfer required to reduce the specific humidity to 0.006 kg/kg air specific humidity? What is
pa and ps at exit?

Refrigeration examples:
1. A mountaineer boils water on a 4,000m mountain top?
What is the atmospheric temperature there? What
temperature would a cup of tea be there?
2. What pressure is required in a freezer compartment
evaporator coil using refrigerant R134a if the temperature is
to be maintained at -20C?
3. What are the enthalpy and entropy when the R134a is all
liquid and then when it is all vapour? What does the
change in entropy between the two states tell you?
Tensing Norgay and Edmund Hilary
4. Assuming a mass flow rate of R134a of 20g/s, and
making use of the SFEE, what heat transfer rate occurs in the evaporator if the refrigerant
leaves at saturated gas condition (i.e. just all vapour, with no superheat) and enters at
saturated liquid condition (i.e. just all liquid and no sub-cooling)?
5. Plot the following cycle on the R134a refrigerant p-h diagram, observe the saturation
temperatures in the condenser and evaporator, and deduce the work in by the compressor,
the heat transfer in the condenser and the evaporator, and the coefficient of performance.
The brave may also look at finding the increase in entropy in the compressor and the change
in specific volume of the refrigerant in the compressor.
a. evaporator pressure 2 bar gauge
b. condenser pressure 13 bar gauge
c. compressor exit temperature 80C
d. condenser exit temperature 37C
e. evaporator exit temperature 15C
Given the flow rate of refrigerant is 18 g/s and the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar exactly.
6. Looking at pressure and corresponding saturatation temperature range in the chart for the
refrigerant Forane 141b (below), why is this refrigerant more suited to air conditioning in hot
countries rather than domestic refrigeration?
Refrigeration
solutions.
1. For the atmospheric temperature, you need the ‘International Standard Atmosphere’ table
on p.24 of the tables. Looking at 4,000 m for z, the height above sea level, the corresponding
temperature is 262.2K or -10.8C.
Note the atmospheric pressure at this height is also indicated, as p in bar, as 0.6166 bar, or
61,666 Pa. This pressure determines the temperature that water boils at on the mountain
top. When the temperature of the water has a saturation pressure corresponding to this,
then the water will boil. So looking at the saturated Water and Steam table on p.3, we see
that for 0.6166 bar, the saturation temperature, T S is about 86C – you could interpolate for a
more accurate temperature if you wish.
2. The idea of the evaporator coil here is to maintain a boiling refrigerant inside the coil at the
temperature required in the freezer compartment. Boiling occurs when the pressure of the
refrigerant is the saturation pressure, at which boiling occurs at the saturation temperature.
This information is presented in the tables on p.15 to be 1.3272 bar. Alternatively looking at
the p-h diagram for R134a, the temperature line corresponding to -20C passes through the
vapour-liquid mixture region (under the domed curve) when the pressure is between 1.3 and
1.4 bar.
3. From the tables on p.15, the enthalpy of saturated liquid (i.e. when the entire sample of
R134a is just liquid at the saturation temperature) is indicated by h f [kJ/kg] and enthalpy of
saturated vapour (when the sample is all just vapour at the saturation temperature) is h g
[kJ/kg]. At -20C, from the tables hf = 173.67 kJ/kg and hg = 386.44 kJ/kg. Notice that if we
used the p-h diagram instead, then h f = 75 kJ/kg and hg = 285 kJ/kg – the reason for the
difference is the arbitrary selection of the zero for h, as stated at the bottom of the table.
The difference in both cases can be easily verified to be the same, i.e. 386-174=212 kJ/kg and
285-75=210 kJ/kg. The change in entropy between the two states is, from the tables, s f =
0.9003 kJ/kgK and sg = 1.7408 kJ/kgK i.e. and increase of entropy from liquid to vapour of
0.84 kJ/kgK – there is more disorder in the vapour state.
4. There is an error in the question here – of course in an evaporator, the flow goes the other
way from saturated liquid to saturated vapour. In that case, the enthalpy change was as in
question 3, 210 kJ/kg; given the mass flow rate there are 20 g per second flowing through
the evaporator, and the enthalpy change rate in the evaporator is 0.02210 = 4.2 kW.
5. The process is plotted as shown in the figure.
The saturation temperatures are: condenser 53C; evaporator 0C (zoom to 200% to see clearly).
Work in the compressor is the enthalpy change in the compressor (blue line process). That is 355
kJ/kg less 310 kJ/kg, which is 45 kJ/kg. The heat out of the cycle in the condenser is the green line,
and has enthalpy change is 350 – 150 kJ/kg = 200 kJ/kg. The heat into the cycle in the evaporator,
blue chain dashed line, is 310-150=160 kJ/kg. The rate of work and heat transfer given that only
18g/s of refrigerant flows through the cycle is 0.01845=0.81kW, 0.018200=3.6kW, and
0.018160=2.88kW in the respective parts of the cycle. Note there is no enthalpy change in the
throttle, red line. The coefficient of performance is the useful output compared to the work done in
the compressor; for a refrigerator it is the evaporator that is of interest and COP = 160/45 = 3.55; for
a heat pump it is the condenser and COP = 200/45 = 4.44.
For interest the change in entropy in the compressor is 1.77 to 1.8 kJ/kgK, and the change in specific
volume is 0.07 to 0.015 m3/kg.
6. Looking at the chart, a similar pressure range (1-15 bar) has saturation temperatures
between 30C and 140C. Therefore the condenser temperature can be made to be
significantly higher than any atmospheric temperature and is therefore able to cool down
even in a desert environment.
1.
Air conditioning examples.

1. What are the relative and specific humidity
today? Both outside and in the room (this
requires wet and dry bulb temperatures) .
2. An air conditioning unit draws in 0.5kg/s of
atmospheric air at 30C and specific humidity
0.012. What is the mass flow rate of water
vapour in the air?
3. Using the formula relating specific humidity to
partial pressure of the water vapour and the
atmospheric pressure, and assuming 1
atmosphere atmospheric pressure, what is
the partial pressure of the water vapour in Refreshing: Boris Johnson on one of the new air-
question 2? conditioned Tube trains
4. Find the pg of water in question 2. What is the relative humidity of the incoming air?
5. Find the dew point corresponding to the pressure p S in question 3. Sketch at T-v diagram
showing the process that the water vapour in the atmospheric air from question 2 must go
through in order to form dew.
6. Do the calculation shown in the notes on air conditioning cooler section.
a. Calculate pS2 and pS3 using specific humidity-vapour pressure formula.
b. Calculate mass flow rate of dry air and of water vapour at entry to and at exit from
the cooler.
c. What is the dew point temperature corresponding to p g = pS3?
d. Find CpAIR from the tables at the appropriate mean temperature.
e. Find, from the tables, the specific enthalpy of liquid water at the dew point
temperature, and of the vapour at points 2 and 3.
f. Use the SFEE across the cooler to find Q̇ .

3
7. In question 2, what if it had been 0.5m /s instead of kg/s, what would the relative humidity
be, and what would the mass flow of air and water vapour be?
8. Recalculate the lecture example with these new values.
How to plot your own psychrometric chart.

Using an excel spreadsheet, plot part of the psychrometric chart shown in the notes.
f. Use a total atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar, find p sat otherwise known as pg, for
several dry bulb temperatures in the range, convert p sat to specific humidity and plot the
100% curve.
g. Find ps corresponding to 50% and repeat, and then again for 20%.
Refer to the spreadsheet on Moodle if you are interested to see how the wet bulb is put on.
1.
Air conditioning solutions:

1. The wet and dry bulb outside on that day (12 th October 2009) in Nottingham at about 8.30
a.m. were 6.4°C and 8.4°C. Inside the lecture theatre at the same time, they were 13.2°C
and 19.5°C. We can use the psychrometric chart to plot these two points and produce the
relative and specific humidities.
From this the outside conditions are  = 0.005 and  = 75%, and inside  = 0.007 and  =
50%. Note that although the external relative humidity is high, when this air approaches the
skin, the temperature of the air rises as it receives heat from the skin, and since the air
cannot increase in humidity unless some moisture is added, the state point of the
atmospheric air will move horizontally right on the chart and the relative humidity drops as it
crosses the lines of RH.
2. 0.5 kg of atmospheric air with a dry bulb temperature t DB of 30°C and a specific humidity, ,
or 0.012. Use the formula for  in terms of mass fractions of water and air,
ṁW
ϖ=
ṁDRYAIR
and that the sum of the mass flow rates of dry air and moisture is known,
ṁ DRYAIR + ṁW =0 .5 kg/s

These are simultaneous equations and solve to produce,
ṁ W =0 . 0059 [kg/s].
0. 622 p S
ϖ=
3. Use p−p S as instructed in the question. Note carefully that here, pS is NOT
saturation pressure, but just the peculiar case of air conditioning in which the subscript
represents partial vapour pressure.
We need pS. 1 atmosphere is known to be 1.01325 bar (see back page in tables for
properties of air). We can use any pressure units because the equation is in terms of
pressure only and is dimensionless overall.
0 . 622 pS 0 .622 pS
ϖ= = =0 . 012
p− p S 1. 01325−p S
0 .622× pS =0. 012×1 . 01325−0 . 012× p S
0 .622 pS +0 . 012 p S =0 . 01216
0. 01216
pS = =0 . 0192 bar
0. 634
4. Note carefully that here, pg IS saturation pressure of water vapour, i.e. the pressure at which
it will spontaneously boil, because this is the peculiar case of air conditioning in which
saturation pressure is represented by subscript g, short for ‘gas’ perhaps. In this case, for
30°C dry bulb temperature, the corresponding saturation pressure for that saturation
temperature is from the tables

At 30°C, pSAT = 0.04242 bar. The relative humidity,  = pS/pg = 0.0192/0.04242 = 0.453. That is
45.3%.
5. Find dew point temperature for pS = 0.0192 bar. Look to the table, from which we see it
occurs at approximately T = 16.5°C.

6. a) using
0 . 622 pS 0 .622 pS
ϖ= = =0 . 01⇒ pS 2 ⇒ 0. 01×1. 01325−0. 01 p S 2 =0 .622 pS 2
p− p S 1. 01325−p S
0 . 01013=0 . 632 p S 2 ⇒ pS 2 =0 . 016 bar
pS3 must be 100% , pg = pSAT = pS3
0 . 622 p S3 0. 622 p S 3
ϖ= ⇒0 . 006= ⇒0 . 00608−0. 006 pS 3 =0 . 622 p S 3
p− p S 3 1 . 01325− p S 3
⇒0 . 00608=0. 628 pS 3 → p S 3 =0 .0097 bar
b) atmospheric air mass flow rate at entry is given as 0.5 kg/s. We know
ṁ W
ϖ= =0 . 01
ṁ DRYAIR and
ṁ DRYAIR + ṁW =0 .5 kg/s  ṁW =0 . 005 kg/s and
ṁ DRYAIR =0 . 495 kg/s.
At exit ṁ DRYAIR =0 . 495 kg/s still – it can only go out one way. We know that  = 0.006,
ṁW
ϖ= =0 .006 → ṁW =0 . 003 kg/s
and therefore we say 0. 495 .
c) at pS3, tSAT ~ 6.5°C from tables of saturated steam and water.
d) The mean temperature of 6.5°C and 30°C is 18.25°C or 291K. Using the data for dry air
at low pressure,
Cp,air)291K could be interpolated for accuracy, but we’ll just say it’s about 1.0045 kJ/kgK
here.
e) Saturated water and steam table is required again,

This version of the table is a bit crude on temperature since it wants p first, so look at the
version of the table that puts T first instead for accuracy,
from which it can be seen that hf of liquid water at 6.5°C is about 27 kJ/kg, hg at 6.5°C is 2485
kJ/kg and at 30°C,
hg at 30°C is 2555 kJ/kg.
f) Use the SFEE, which is the statement of the First Law (conservation of energy) for moving
fluids, and ignore the terms from kinetic and potential energy as negligible, Q+W=H. In the
air conditioning unit between 2 and 3, there is no fan or other working device, so W=0. We
need the change in enthalpy of the fluids in the section 2 to 3 in order to work out the heat
transfer to cause it.
ṁCOND h f ,COND
Referring to the schematic, the enthalpy flows in at 2 and out at 3 and through the
condensate collection chute, are all indicated in terms of mass flow rate and specific enthalpy.
The flow of enthalpy can then be compared in the SFEE:
Q=
ṁDRYAIR h DRYAIR , 2 - ṁ DRYAIR h DRYAIR , 3 + ṁW , 2 h g ,2 - ṁW , 3 h g ,3 - ṁCOND h f , COND
We can use H=mCpT for the enthalpy change of dry air, which is 0.495×1.004×(30-6.5) =
11.68 kW, just to cool the dry air. The change in enthalpy of the water vapour carried in the
air, is mainly due to the loss of mass as vapour which condenses. Therefore, with the data
for hg and mass flow rate of vapour going in at 2 and out at 3, we have 0.006×2555-
0.003×2485 = 5.32kW. The condensate is assumed to leave at 6.5°C, and it has a mass rate of
0.003 kg/s, therefore enthalpy flow rate is 0.003×27 = 1.27 kW. Putting all this in the SFEE,
we have Q=11.68+5.32-1.27 = 15.73 kW.
The remaining questions are left as exercises.

Thermo topic 4, Reciprocating gas compressors
MM2TF2 THERMOFLUIDS
Topic 4. Reciprocating air compressors – how to make energetic air
Aim of this section
Air at medium pressures (up to 40 bar) is useful as an energy source for pneumatic powered tools as
used in manufacturing, and for pneumatic suspensions, and this is often supplied from reciprocating
compreesors. Reciprocating vapour compressors, akin to air compressors, are used commonly in
refrigeration circuits.
Aim: learn to calculate work and heat exchanges and the air delivery expected from reciprocating gas
compressors
Objectives: understand reciprocating compressor terminology; analyse machine cycle as opposed to

closed cycle process; calculate the volumetric displacements and efficiency due to polytropic
compression and expansion; calculate the work and heat transfers and understand how the heat
transfer in the cylinder determines the polytropic index; understand and calculate the various
efficiency measures of reciprocating compressors; understand the reason for intercooling.
1. Reciprocating Compressors.
These are reciprocating piston machines typically needed to provide a supply of compressed air or
vapour. A motor is used to drive the compressor with mechanical work, which is transferred into
compression work on the gas. Gas is sucked into the ingoing duct and expelled at a higher pressure,
usually to a pressure vessel. When the pressure vessel reaches the required pressure, the
compressor will stop.
Described as:
 Single or double acting (compression on one or both sides of piston)

 Single or multistage (number of stages of compression before air is delivered)
 Positive displacement (cylinder inlet and outlet valves needed to prevent backflow)
 Self acting valves (opened and closed by pressure differentials across the valves).
Figure showing on the left a two stage, double acting compressor – larger cylinder on right which
compresses both on the upstroke and the down stroke followed by a smaller cylinder on the left
which receives the gas from the low pressure piston, which has smaller specific volume and therefore
smaller volume cylinder for same mass rate. On the right, a two stage single acting compressor –
similarly low pressure on the right cylinder and high pressure on the left.
2. Single stage compression

The figure shows a single stage compressor, with a piston driven up and down the cylinder by a con-
rod and drive shaft. Air is drawn in when the piston moves down and the valve on the left opens
inwards. This valve cannot open outwards. When the piston drives up then the valve on the right
will open outwards – it cannot open inwards. So the air can only travel in one direction through the
compressor. Several terms need to be remembered as follows:
Stroke – distance from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead Centre (TDC)
Swept volume – volume swept through from BDC to TDC.
Clearance volume – a small volume which the piston does not drive through at the top of the
cylinder, approximately 10% of swept volume typically. It allows the valves to be clear of the piston
smashing into them.
Machine cycle – the gas goes through a machine cycle rather than a full thermodynamic cycle
because it is drawn in and exhausted part way through the cycle, rather than just compressed and
expanded so there is a useful delivery out of the machine – a high pressure gas.
Automatic valves – spring return.
3. Machine cycle and polytropic processes
The figure on the next page shows a pressure vs. volume diagram. It looks usual regarding the
compression and expansion, but what is different to a closed cycle is that at the bottom of the graph,
the inlet valve opens at point 4 – this is when the pressure in the cylinder has reached the ingoing
pressure – for example atmospheric pressure if this is just a single stage air compressor. Notice that
the piston has moved from the clearance volume at point 3, where a small volume of gas was at high
pressure; it is not until the piston has travelled quite far down the cylinder at point 4 (looking at the v
axis) when the pressure has fallen to a point where the non-return valve on the inlet can open.
The second unusual thing is that at the low pressure, the pressure remains constant while the piston
moves further down from point 4 until point 1 at BDC. This means that new air is being sucked into
the cylinder by the piston movement. Then compression occurs up to point 2. And the piston still
has a lot of travel left at this point, but instead of the pressure increasing, the outlet valve opens
letting air out of the cylinder. As the piston moves up to TDC position, air is expelled from the piston
to the high pressure chamber waiting to receive the gas. Then at TDC, the outgoing valve closes and
the cycle starts again.
Note that this is not a closed cycle – it is an open cycle! The compression and expansion processes
are closed processes, but the overall result is a through flow of the gas.
p [bar]
ingoing pressure
v [m3]
To the right of the figure there is a inset highlighting what happens when the valves open and close.
Because the pressure at which the valve opens is arrived at reasonably suddenly, and the pressure on
both sides of the valve becomes equal at that point, the valve flutters on its spring mounting. This is
called valve bounce.
If the polytropic processes occurred rapidly and well insulated, then they are near adiabatic because
there is not much scope for heat transfer from the gas. If the process is done slowly and full heat
transfer is permitted, then the process will be near isothermal. Hence in the middle must be
polytropic: pvn = constant, and 1<=n<=. Typical value of n is 1.3.
The ideal (indicated in the diagram) and actual indicator diagrams differ because of imperfect valve
operation, leakage past piston, non-constant polytropic index, n, during compression and expansion.
Valve bounce can often cause pressure oscillations on the ‘constant pressure’ processes, as the valve
bounces on its springy mounting. The valves may be constructed such as indicated in the figure
below.
4. Work done if only gas compression is considered – no friction etc.

Reversible (ideal) work done (by compressor on gas is positive) for the equivalent steady flow open
system is according to the formula:
p v n=c
1
1 2
[ ] = n−1 c [p ]
n 1 1 1 1
c 1 n
1−n n n
1−
n
1−
n
. dp=¿ c p 1 2 − p1
1
1
p n 1−
n
2 2
dw=∫ v . dp=∫ ¿
1 1
actually p1v1n= p2v2n=c, therefore:

1 1
n n
c =p v
and:
[ ]
n−1
n (
p2 n v 2 p 2
1
n )− p 1n v p( n−1n ) = n
dw=
n−1 1 1 1 [ p v −p v ]
n−1 2 2 1 1
where v (m3/kg) is the specific volume and w is the specific work (J/kg).
So for the work rate:
Ẃ = ḿ p1 v 1
[
n p2 v2
n−1 p 1 v 1
−1
]
or in terms of pressure ratio only using pvn=c again:
[( ) ]
n−1
n p2 n
Ẃ = ḿ p1 v 1 −1
n−1 p1
alternatively, using the gas law pv=RT
n
Ẃ = ḿ R [ T −T 1 ]
n−1 2
it just depends where you want to do your calculation of polytropic conditions – you either need T 2
and T1 or v2 and v1. In order to calculate temperature, the T-p equation for polytropic compression is
required – which will be on a formula sheet as:
n−1
T2 p2
T1
=
p1 ( ) n
Example: what is the temperature of a gas which undergoes compression from 1 bar, 20C up to 6
bar when the polytropic index is 1.3?

What is the work done in a compressor which delivers this air at 6 bar at a rate of 1.5 g/s?
in Europe work is negative for work out of the fluid, i.e. USA is useful output, Europe is strictly about what the fluid
experiences
5. Ideal work (i.e. no friction) and optimum work
Less work is the better for a compressor – it is the effort required to deliver the air to the higher
pressure. The equation above showed that the magnitude of the work decreases as n decreases –
the limiting point is n=1, i.e. isothermal process. That would be the case where all thermal energy
generated in the gas was removed as it was generated in the gas. This, isothermal work, is the
minimum work to compress the air to the higher pressure and therefore the optimum situation. We
have the actual work done – with the polytropic index – somewhere between adiabatic and
isothermal. The cases are illustrated in the p-v diagram above, which shows that as the polytropic
increases from the minimum at isothermal process to the maximum when there is no heat transfer
(i.e. perfectly insulated compressor n=) the work which is the area under the line increases.
In order to approach isothermal, economically sensible efforts are made to cool the compressed gas
in the cylinder, and at any other points where it can be cooled.
6. Heat transfer to the cooling jacket which is put on the cylinder
The heat transfer to the jacket is what decides the polytropic index – if perfectly thermally insulated,
then gamma, if constant temperature conditions are caused by the jacket then 1, otherwise a value
somewhere between the two, n. Polytropic and isothermal processes require heat transfer to the
jacket around the compression chamber. For a polytropic process we can calculate the heat transfer
using the steady flow energy equation. Therefore, the work input, and the enthalpy rise associated
with it, require that this heat is lost to the cooling jacket surrounding the cylinder. This can be
calculated by the formula as follows.
The first law requires that if work is done, there will be heat loss. And this is expressed from the
SFEE:
Q́+ Ẃ = ḿ∆ h
using the previous expression for work and knowing h=mc pT:
n
Q́=ḿ c p ( T 2−T 1 )− ḿ R [ T −T 1 ]
n−1 2
Now we know that from cp=cv+R, that R=cv(-1):
{
Q́= ḿ c v γ− ḿc v ( γ −1 )
n
n−1 }
[ T 2−T 1 ]
γ −n
Q́=ḿ c [ T −T ]
1−n v 2 1
Example: Calculate the heat transferred to the jacket from the previous example when air is used.
7. Isothermal efficiency
Since we have a compression which has an ideal work (whereby ideal means no friction taken into
account) which has heat transfer from the cylinder, which in turn gives rise to the polytropic index
which in turn means more work from the motor driving the compressor than is the case for the
optimal isothermal conditoin – therefore we’d like to know how far from ‘the optimal’ it is. The best
would be isothermal. So we can compare the actual ideal-no-friction work with the ideal-isothermal-
no-friction case. We know the actual work, so what about the isothermal work? It is:
c
p
2
[ ] p
. dp=¿ c [ ln p ] 1=c ln 2
2 2
p1
dw=∫ v .dp=∫ ¿
1 1
Therefore for the work rate:
dw=ḿ R T 1 ln
[ ]
p2
p1
Isothermal efficiency is therefore:
ηisothermal =
Ẃ isothermal
=
[ ]
ḿ R T 1 ln
p2
p1
Ẃ actual−ideal ḿ R n T −T
[
n−1 2 1]
Example: for the previous example, calculate the isothermal efficiency.
8. Volumetric efficiency
The clearance volume is a small volume of gas at the top of the cylinder which is compressed and
then expanded to the lower pressure before new gas can be drawn into the cylinder. Because it has
to expand before new gas can be drawn in, there is a loss of use of the stroke of the piston, and this
can be usefully quantified as follows:
volume induced at initial state

ηvol =
swept volume of piston
Refer to the figure for numbers around the cycle.
v 1−v 4
ηvol =
v 1−v 3
There is the difficulty of calculating v 4 to be overcome, but the other volumes are
known.
v4 is found by applying polytropic expansion calculation from formula sheet as follows:

1
v4 p
v3
= 2( )
p1
n
therefore:
1
p2
ηvol =
v 1−v3 ( )
p1
n
v 1−v 3
Or writing v1-v3=vs and v3=vc for the swept and clearance volumes respectively:
1
p2
v s + v c −v c
( ) n
[( ) ]
1/ n
p1 VC p2
ηvol = =1− −1
vs VS p1
This volumetric efficiency is affected by the polytropic index, n and by the pressure ratio, p2/p1. The
figure helps to show why this is so; the dotted lines show the effects. In the first case, on the left,
where the pressure ratio is increased, the swept volume is constant and the expansion has to take up
more of it in the case of the solid lines,
whereas the dotted lower pressure case
p
shows that air starts to be induced
earlier. In the second case on the right,
reducing n causes the expansion and
compression lines to lean more towards
the horizontal (i.e. towards pv0 –
constant pressure process) and this also
causes the induced volume to decrease.
Example: a single stage air compressor has a pressure ratio of 6 and a piston diameter and stroke of 5
cm. The polytropic index is 1.3. The clearance volume is 10% of the swept volume. What is the
volumetric efficiency?
9. Multistage compression
The effect of using a single stage to try to attain a high pressure has just been shown to result in
increasingly poor volumetric efficiency. As delivery pressure is raised, volumetric efficiency falls and
mass flow rate falls (because the induced volume decreases – as seen earlier). The formula for
volumetric efficiency shows that it is zero when p 2/p1=22.6 for n=1.3 and Vc/Vs=10%. In practice,
(p2/p1) for a single stage is limited to approximately 4:1, and two or more stages are used for higher
delivery pressures. The pressure between stages is the intermediate pressure p i (which is now the
inlet pressure for the second stage).
Each stage can be treated as a separate subject.
There must be conservation of mass.
The pressure from the outlet of stage 1 is the inlet pressure for stage 2.
It can be shown that the total work on the compressor to drive the
process is a minimum when the intermediate pressure is:
pi=√ p1 p2
And in this case WLP=WHP.
The practical way of making a multi stage compressor requires that

there is a volume of air between each pair of stages, the pressure of which does not alter much as
the valves open and close at slightly different times when there are more than two stages, and that
even in the case of two only, it would be no good to try to fill the high pressure cylinder with the
delivery from the first stage when there is a smooth delivery expected – the pressure would oscillate
wildly. The inter-stage volume is illustrated in the figure. It provides an opportunity – here is a
perfect place to cool the air down between the stages, to attempt to get closer to isothermal
compression.
10. Inter-stage cooling
Intercooling is usually done by passing cold water through a cooling coil in the intermediate receiver
chamber. Usually the air is cooled between stages to minimise the specific work input (isothermal
compression would be best).
The intercooler reduces the air temperature from L.P. delivery temperature to, ideally, T 1, the
compressor inlet temperature. So for an ideal, two stage compressor with complete intercooling
(Ti=T1). The effect is seen in the figure below.
Reducing the temperature reduces the specific volume at intermediate

pressure, ideally to T1. The area under the dashed line is the work saved by
intercooling.
It is possible to make a very compact compressor using the downstroke to drive

the second stage as shown in the figure on the following page. This shows that
the downstroke is used on a smaller diameter cylinder to increase pressure to
second stage higher pressure, and that an inter-stage cooling volume is
adjacent to the compressor cylinder to with a water tube heat exchanger to
make the work required to drive the compressor less.
11. Mass flow of air delivery
Of course the main reason for the compressor is the delivery of air at high pressure and we want to
be able to calculate that. The calculation is based on the first stage, since we know the incoming
condition and the details of the cylinder and piston operation of that stage.
Per cycle: minduced=v.Vs.1
Where v is the volumetric efficiency, Vs is the swept volume, and 1 is the density of the ingoing gas.
Per second: m=N.v.Vs.1

N is the number of cycles of the compressor per second.
Where N is the number of strokes of the first stage piston, which for a compressor with a single inlet
stage is the motor revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) divided by 60 for strokes per second. If the
compressor has a double acting compressor (compresses on up and down stroke of the piston), then
for the case where it is single stage, it means that both the upstroke and the downstroke are intake
strokes, and the intake of each of the two compressions should be considered, so there will be twice
the amount of mass flow (assuming the volume taken up by the compressor’s connecting rod in the
driving side is negligible).
Example: calculate the mass flow rate for atmospheric air at 1 atm drawn into a single acting
compressor with volumetric efficiency of 80%, and a swept volume of 200ml and a cycle rate of 300
cycles per minute.

Compressor examples:
1. A man blows up a party balloon,

compressing the air to 0.1 barg from
1 atm and 15C. The polytropic
index of the compression process is
1.4. What is the temperature of the
compressed air?
2. What work is done if the balloon in
qu.9 is 20 cm in diameter?
3. If the air had been compressed in a
closed system process, say in a
cylinder, what would the work have
been? What is the reason for the
difference between the closed and
open process work?
4. A reciprocating single stage air
compressor delivers air at 7 barg.
The atmospheric conditions are 1 bar abs and 15C. The piston has 50 mm
diameter and a stroke of 50 mm. The clearance volume is 5% of the swept
volume. The polytropic index of the compression process is 1.3. What is the
volumetric efficiency?
5. The compressor works at a speed of 480 cycles per minute. What is the
required power to compress the air?
6. What would be the isothermal work for the same compression, and hence
what is the isothermal efficiency?
7. What is the heat transfer to the cylinder jacket in order to maintain this
process?
8. A two-stage compressor is used to compress atmospheric air at 1 atm and
15C to 20 barg. This is done with minimum work input. What is the
intermediate pressure?
9. Show that for this benefit to be achieved, complete intercooling must be
applied. What is the effect on the second stage work if intercooling is not
applied?
1. Use the formula for polytropic compression, pvn = c, where c is a constant.

This formula is required in the form of p and T rather than v. Convert as
follows:
mRT
pv n=c ; pv=mRT ; v=
p
n n
mRT 1 mRT 2
p1
( p1 ) ( = p2
n−1
p2 )
T 1n T n2 pn2 T2 p2 n−1
pn−1
1
= n−1
p2
; n−1
pn1
= =
T1 p1 ( ) n
Therefore, T2 = (1.11325/1.01325)0.4/1.4288 = 295.8 K, or 22.3C.

2. Work done is for a steady flow process, since it is an open system. Therefore,
1
2 n
c
w=−∫ v .dp ; pv n =c ; v= 1
1 n
p
2
[ ]
1 1
1−
[p ]
2 n 1 n 1 n−1 n−1
c p nn
w=−∫ 1
. dp=−c n
=−c n
2 − p n
1
1 n−1
1
p n 1−
n 1
[ ] [ (p v ) ]
1 n−1 n−1 n−1 1 n−1 1
n nn n
w=−( pv ) p 2 − pn1
n
=− pn n − pn
( p1 v )n
n−1 n−1 2 2 2n 1 1n
[ v ]=
n−1 1 n−1 1
n + + n
w= pn n
v 2− p n2 n
[ p v −p v ]
1−n 2 2
1−n 2 2 1 1
That is per kg of air. The mass of air in the balloon can be found from the
gas law, pV=mRT (note shift to capital for total volume). m =
111325(0.23/6)/(287295.8) = 0.0055 kg, or 5.5 g. Therefore work is
n n 1.4
w=m
1−n
[ p2 v 2− p1 v 1 ]=m
1−n
R [ T 2 −T 1 ]=0 . 0055
0.4
287 [ 295 .8−288 ]=43
J.
3. By similar process of deduction for the closed process starting from
2
w=−∫ p. dv 1
w=m R [ T 2 −T 1 ]
1 the work in the closed system is n−1 . The
work is therefore 30.8 J. The difference is 12.2 J. The difference is the flow
work, m(p2v2 – p1v1) from the difference between u and h (since h = u + pv) in
the First Law, q + w = u and q + w = h. Prove this since flow work is mR(T 2
– T1) = 12.3 J. This is the energy stored in the gas as springy energy, which is
contained by rigid walls in the case of the closed process, but is contained by
the gas itself in the open process in order to maintain a flow.
Vi
ηvol =
4. V s , and V in this case is worked out from the expansion of the
i
πd 2 L π×0. 053
V s= = =9. 81×10−5
4 4
−6
clearance volume thus: V c =0 .05 V s=4 . 9×10 m3.
Expand the clearance volume across the pressure difference to get the
wasted stroke:
n
plow V exp = p high V nc
1. 3
√ 1. 3
V exp = 8×( 4 .9×10−6 ) =2. 43×10−5 m3.
Vi = Vc + Vs – Vexp
Vi = 7.8710-5 m3 and hence vol = 0.80 or 80%.
ṁ n
W act = R ( T 2−T 1 )
5. n−1 need mass flow rate, from
100000 480
ṁ=η vol V s ρN =0 .8×9 . 81×10−5 × × =0 .00076
287×288 60 kg/s
Also require the temperature at the higher pressure from:
n−1
T 1 p1
=
T 2 p2() n
1 . 3−1
8
T high=288×
1 () 1 . 3 =465 K
The work is then 167.3 W.

p2 8
W iso =ṁ RT 1 ln =0 . 00076×287×288×ln =130 W
6. p1 1 Isothermal efficiency is
then 130/167 = 0.78 or 78%.
γ−n
Q=ṁ c ( T −T )
7. 1−n v 2 1
cv is not constant since the temperature changes during the work done. A
good compromise is to take the value at the average temperature, which
is (288+465)/2 = 377 K. Tables show that at this temperature c v = 724
J/kgK. Putting this in together with the other known values:
1. 4−1 .3
Q=7 . 6×10−4 × ×724× ( 465−288 )=32 .5 W
1−1 .3
8.
pi= √ 21×1. 01325=4 . 61 bar abs.
n−1
T 1 p1
9. Since
W act =
ṁ n
n−1
R ( T 2−T 1 )
and
()
=
T 2 p2
n
, if T1 is not the same in both

the stages, then the difference between them will not be the same (the
pressure relationship is not linear). Hence we know that minimum work
depends on the work in each stage being the same, complete inter-cooling
must be applied.
Thermo topic 5, Combustion reactions
MM2TF2 THERMOFLUIDS
Topic 5. Combustion Reactions
Aim of this section
Despite a dedication to finding sources of energy from ‘renewable’ resources, there is an ongoing
commitment to burning things to make a hot energy source – at least this is being continued with
biologically resourced fuels, the so called biogas, biomass or biofuel. These fuels are composed of
hydrocarbons, just as were the oil which is now being sucked out of the ground at its maximum rate
and evermore desperate attempts to acquire increasingly difficult to get to wells, and which has
financed and fuelled the astronomical advance of mankinds progression since the 1960s. It is the
engineering profession’s responsibility to make the use of these fuels as efficient as possible. The
starting point is understanding how the hydrogen and carbon are broken apart and burned in the
atmosphere consuming the oxygen we breathe, and what makes a sensible balance of air supplied to
the fuel consumed.
Aim: learn to calculate the amount of air consumed when common hydrocarbon fuels are burned.
Objectives: understand the idea of ideal, stoichiometric combustion; extract gas data from tables for
working out mass and volume proportions of gases in a gas mixture; calculate the amount of air by
mass and by volume required to burn an amount of fuel; understand the idea of excess air supply
and fuel rich combustion and the production of carbon monoxide in air starved combustion;
calculate air to fuel ratio for excess air situations.
1. Gas mixtures
Gas mixtures are of interest because gases have many uses – apart from air conditioning, gas
balloons, and processing gas atmospheres, combustion always produces gases and we concentrate
here on combustion products from all fuels as well as on mixtures of combustible gases.
Symbols here:
cv specific, lower case
~
m molar mass, kg/kmol
R specific gas constant, but capital!
Values of these properties of individual gases, can be used to provide a value for a mixture of gases,
which then helps to treat it as a bulk gas rather than having to consider separate parts.
• Two ways of looking at gas mixtures – by mass fractions and by volume fractions.
• Law of partial pressures and internal energy leads to mass or gravimetric analysis.
~
• Using it enables calculation of properties of a mixture, i.e. h, cv, cp, R, m , s.
Gas mixtures are interesting for combustion chemistry calculations. The mixture of fuel and air
reacts and produces a mixture of product gases, which consist mainly of carbon dioxide and water
vapour. Nitrogen is drawn in with the air, but for our purpose is considered to not react – but its
presence in the mixture must be registered because it informs us of how much volume and mass of
air is supplied which in turn defines the size of any combustion equipment we may design for it.
2. Gibbs-Dalton Law of partial pressures
The fuller version of the law of partial pressures is the empirical Gibbs-Dalton law – it includes
internal energy. Suppose there are ‘i’ gas components completely mixed and occupying a volume V at
temperature T. inwards. So the air can only travel in one direction through the compressor. Several
terms need to be remembered as follows:
❑
p=∑ pi
i
where p is the pressure of the mixture of gases and p i is the pressure of a particular gas species, here
called i, which may be any gas such as oxygen, O 2, hydrogen, H2 etc, if that gas species were isolated
in the same volume of the entire mixture of gases.
The law also accounts similarly for the internal energy of the gas mixture as:
❑ ❑
U=∑ U i=∑ mi u i
i i
where U is the internal energy of the mixture of gases and miui is the internal energy of a particular
gas species.
3. Amagat’s Law of partial volumes
Similar to the law of partial pressures, but completely distinct and not to be confused with it, is the
law of partial volumes.
The volume of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the volumes of the individual constituents
when each exists alone at the pressure and temperature of the mixture.
❑
V =∑ V i
i
where V is the volume of the mixture of gases and V i is the volume of a particular gas species in the
mixture, if it were at the pressure of the gas mixture and isolated on its own.
Since by Avogadro’s law, there is an equal volume occupied by equal number of moles of any gas,
regardless of its mass, this can also be written as:
❑
n=∑ ni
i
where n is the total number of moles of gas in the mixture and n i is the number of moles of a
particular species in the mixture.
This is the alternative way of thinking – a gas at the pressure of the mixture will have a particular
volume.
4. Derived properties of the gas mixture
The other properties of a mixture of gases can be derived from the properties of the individual gas
species in the mixture from these laws, as shown below for h,cv, cp, R and m ̃ using the law of partial
pressures and the law of partial volumes.
by the law of partial pressures
a) enthalpy
H=U + pV
and since by the law of partial pressures, each gas species is considered to occupy the whole volume
of the mixture:
❑ ❑ ❑
H=∑ U i+ ∑ p i V , therefore H=∑ H i
i i i
b) specific heat at constant volume

❑ ❑
m ( u 2−u1 )=∑ m i ( u2 i−u 1i ) , therefore mc v ( T 2 −T 1 ) =∑ m i c vi ( T 2−T 1 )
i i
and by dividing through by m(T2-T1)

❑
mi
c v =∑ c
i m vi
c) specific heat at constant pressure

❑ ❑
m ( h2−h1 ) =∑ m i ( h2 i−h1 i ) therefore m c p ( T 2−T 1 )=∑ m i c pi ( T 2−T 1)
i i
again dividing through

❑
mi
c p=∑ c
i m pi
d) specific gas constant
❑
mi ❑
m ❑
m ❑
m
R=∑ c pi −∑ i c vi therefore , R=∑ i ( c pi −c vi ) ∧, R=∑ i Ri
i m i m i m i m
It can be seen that the law of partial pressures has led to the analysis of the gas mixture in terms of
mass fractions of each of the species, mi/m.
other useful derivations related to gas constant
e) molar mass of the mixture

❑
mi
starting with: R=∑ R
i m i
and using the relationship between the specific gas constant and the molar or universal gas constant:
~
R
R= ~
m
where the wavy line above indicates molar, or per mol, and
~ is the universal gas constant, for
R
every gas, 8.314 J/molK.
1 m 1❑
~ =∑ i ~
m ❑ m mi
and thus the molar mass, kg/kmol or g/mol is determined.
Some useful molar masses to remember are:
O2, 32 g/mol, N2, 28 g/mol, H2O, 18 g/mol, CO2, 44 g/mol, CO, 28 g/mol. Obviously these are just the
sum of the atomic masses of the atoms comprising the molecules. It is important to remember that
oxygen and nitrogen exist in the natural state as diatomic molecules and not as atoms – it is a more
stable energy condition to be a bonded pair.
using the law of partial volumes
f) another way of getting the molar mass by partial volumes

Since:
~ m
❑
ni ❑
m= ,∧, m=∑ mi ni ,therefore , m=∑ ~ m
n i i n i
and by Avogadro we know that the ratio by number of moles is the same as the ratio by volume:
ni V i
=
n V
g) gas constant by partial volumes

~ ~
R ~ R
R= ~ ; rearrange : m=
m R
therefore and using the relation above for the mass in terms of fraction of moles
ni ~
❑
R
~ ∑ n R ∧1 ❑ n
R 1
= i =∑ i
i
R R i n Ri
h) conversion between fractions by mass and by mole (volume)
gas law for constituent i:
m
pV i=ni ~
R T = ~i ~
RT
mi
and for the mixture as a while:
m
pV = ~ ~
RT
m
divide the first by the second:
V i mi ~
m m ~ mV ~ mn
= ~ ∨, i = ~i i = ~i i
V m mi m mV mn
therefore knowing the volume fraction and the molar masses of the gases the mass fraction can be
derived.
5. volumetric and molar analysis
The analysis from the Law of Partial Pressures is GRAVIMETRIC, that is the analysis of gas mixtures by
measurement of the constituents by mass.
Similarly, the analysis from the Law of Partial Volumes leads to VOLUMETRIC composition of gases in
the mixture, i.e. measurment by volume.
e.g. the volumetric composition of air is approximately

79% N2, 21% 02 by volume.
i.e. in 1m3 of air, the partial volumes of N2 and 02 are 0.79m3 and 0.21m3.
Volumetric analysis is directly related to molar analysis, and molar analysis is standard chemical
equation balancing.
This data can be found in the tables of data, which will be issued in both exams, Thermodynamic and
Transport Properties of Fluids by Rogers and Mayhew. On the last page there is a section on ‘For
approximate calculations with air’.
So for a quick calculation for air it is ok to assume c p = 1005 J/kgK, R=287 J/kgK and =1.4 and ~
m
=29 kg/kmol.
Molar analysis
By definition, this is the same as the volumetric analysis but using mole fractions.
Definitions:
a) 1 mol of a substance contains an Avogadro number of molecules, NA = 6.0251023.
b) 1 mole (1 mol) of gas has a mass in kg equal to its molecular weight.
c) 1 mol of any perfect gas occupies the same volume V at a given P and T as 1 mol of any other
perfect gas (e.g. the standard atmosphere condition, V=22.4 litres (i.e. 0.0224m 3) at T=0°C
and p=1 atmos).
d) Usually it is more convenient to quantify in kmol.
Formula for the relation between partial pressure and partial volume.
Partial pressures and partial volumes are alternative ways of describing the mixture.
Either a component occupies
pi at V or Vi at p
But not Vi at pi.
Using the gas law, considering a perfect gas:
By partial pressure, piV = miRiT
By partial volume, pVi = miRiT
Divide to give:
V i pi
=
V p
This equation shows that proportions by volume are equal to proportions by pressure. So if a gas
occupies 10% of volume of a mixture, it’s partial pressure will be 10% of the mixture pressure.
6. Combustion chemistry
Fuels produce energy by reacting with oxidisers. The oxidiser is commonly atmospheric air. The fuel
may be a solid (e.g. coal), a liquid (e.g. petrol ~octane C 8H18) or a gas (e.g. natural gas ~methane CH4).
If sufficient energy is provided to initiate a reaction, then the oxygen will react with the hydro-
carbon fuel in combustion. We want to calculate the amount of air required to burn a fuel and the
composition of the products of combustion.
Chemical equations are done by atom combinations and consider molecule reactions. But they are
also molar – i.e. each number of atoms in an equation represents the number of moles because of
Avogadro’s analysis, you can scale up or down by the number of atoms or molecules involved
because the number of moles represents the number of atoms or molecules.
7. Molar reaction equations
The analysis of a combustion process, begins by the formulation of the chemical equation which
shows how the atoms of the reactants are combined to form the products.
Examples H2 + ½ O 2  H2O
C2H4 + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H20
On the left hand side are the reactants and on the right hand side are the products. The reaction can
actually go both ways depending on the temperature, but we consider complete combustion, which
is at the end of the process where the most stable condition for these reactions is on the right hand
side.
By the law of conservation of mass, the number of atoms of each element is the same at the
beginning as at the end of any chemical reaction. i.e. the number of atoms of reactants = the
number of atoms of products.
The reaction equations are MOLAR (equivalent to volume for gases) equations which define the
number of atoms of each element from reactants = atoms in products of combustion and conserve
Mass of reactants = mass of products.
Usually the number of moles of reactants will not equal the number of moles of products.
How to balance equations:
e.g. butane C4H10 + xO2  aCO2+ bH2O
Count atoms and balance on each side of the equation:
C: 4 = a
H: 10 = 2b; b=5
O: 2x = 2a + b; x=6.5
Therefore:
C4H10 + 6.5O2  4CO2+ 5H2O
The atoms in each molecule swap around and rearrange themselves to be with preferred partners.
That rearrangement leads to a release of energy in a combustion reaction – the desired product.
8. Mass of molecules in reaction equations
Consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to make water: H2 + ½ O2  H2O
In terms of the number of moles of reactants, there is 1 mol of H 2 and ½ a mol of O2; on the right
hand side there is 1 mol of H2O. From the perspective of mass, the mass on the left hand side is 1
mol of H2, i.e. 2g of H2 (hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1 g/mol) and ½ mol of O 2, i.e. 16g (oxygen
has an atomic mass of 16 g/mol) of O2 making a total of 18g. On the right hand side there is 1 mol of
water or 18g of water, given that the water is made up of two atoms of H and one atom of O, and
the proportion per mole of water will be the same as for the single molecule.
9. Stoichiometric combustion
A combustion process can be:
Complete: where sufficient O2 is available to convert all carbon and all hydrogen in the hydro-carbon
fuel to CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O (water).
Incomplete: where not enough O2 is available and other products such as CO appear.
Note that oxygen prefers to react with hydrogen, so the reaction balances by hydrogen stealing all O 2
it needs from the carbon reactions.
A stoichiometric reaction is one where all the oxygen is used up and all the fuel is burnt to the
ultimate products (CO2, H2O and SO2).
Meaning of stoichiometric:Greek στοιχεῖον element + -metry
The word means ‘metering/measuring of elements’
Stoichiometric combustion is an ideal combustion process. It tells us the lowest amount of O 2

required to react the fuel. It is the benchmark against which we measure real combustion processes.
Stoichiometric oxygen to fuel ratio

If ethane is burned in oxygen, the equation is:
C2H6 + 3 ½ O2  2 CO2 + H2O
The stoichiometric oxygen/fuel ratio of C2H6 (by volume) is oxygen:fuel = 3.5/1 = 3.5 – i.e. by number
of moles.
This is so because of Vi/V=ni/n, i.e. molar proportions represent volume proportions. The reaction by
atom numbers, is proportional to the moles, which is proportional to the volumes of each gas
species.
Examples:
Determine the stoichiometric equation for propane burning in pure oxygen, writing the mass and
volume fractions of the reactants and products.
Determine the stoichiometric equation for benzene burning in pure oxygen, writing the mass and
volume fractions of the reactants and products.

Determine the stoichiometric combustion for 1 kg coal burning in pure oxygen, writing the mass
fractions of the reactants and products. The coal is 81%C, 5%H, 5% O, and 9% ash.
Stoichiometric combustion:
Constituent mi [kg], per kg of coal O2 required to burn per kg

of coal
C 0.81
H 0.05
O 0.05
Ash 0.09
Total 1.00
Note that the ash does not burn because it is made of rocks and the like, and is inert. The oxygen
bound into the coal in the petrification process is at first liberated and then combined in combustion
– so it reduces the required amount of atmospheric oxygen required to burn the coal.
10. Combustion in air

In this course, all fuels are burned in air, and it is assumed that air contains 23.3% O 2 , 76.7% N2 by
mass as found in the back of the tables.
Alternatively this can be expressed as the proportions by volume: 21 % O2 , 79% N2 by volume.
These analyses correspond to a mean ~

m of 28.85 and a mean R of 0.287 kJ/kgK.
If the small percentage of CO2 and Ar are included, then ~

m = 28.96 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
Stoichiometric air to fuel ratio (AFR) by volume
Nitrogen is brought in with oxygen at a fixed ratio of: 3.76 x (O 2 volume) – from approximate air data.
Total air volume includes the O2, i.e. air volume is (1+3.76)x(O2 volume). The stoichiometric air/fuel
ratio (AFR) in the case of the ethane combustion before is:
AFR = (O2/fuel vol ratio) x 4.76
= 3.5 x (3.76+1) = 16.7 (by volume)
The air to fuel ratio is useful in order to know physically how big a combustor needs to be in order to
manage the air and fuel flow rate.
Convert to stoichiometric AFR by mass
m
Since n= ~ the AFR by mass can be found:
m
mair ~
mair
AFR mass = = AFR volume ~
m fuel mfuel
29
¿ 16 .7× =16 .14
30
In practice, the complete reaction equation for the air and ethane stoichiometric case will include N 2
terms (N2 is treated as inert)
C2 H 6 +3 .5 O2+3.5×3.76 N 2 ⇒2 CO 2 +3 H 2 O+3. 5×3. 76 N 2
Examples continued:
Determine how much air is required for the stoichiometric combustion of propane burning in air.
Determine the AFR by mass and by volume.

Do the same for benzene burning in air. Determine the AFR by mass and by volume.
Do the same for 1 kg of the coal burning in air.
11. Non-stoichiometric combustion
This can either be fuel rich (insufficient O2)
or air rich (excess O2).
In these cases, combustion products can contain incomplete products such as CO and free oxygen as
well as CO2, H2O, N2 etc.
Excess fuel
The incomplete combustion of the fuel leads to CO 2 and CO products ( this is in the case of
hydrocarbon fuels).
In real processes, there may be both the oxygen (O 2) and CO in the products, because of incomplete
mixing of fuel and air.
Excess oxygen
The products will include free oxygen, but the fuel is burnt to the ultimate products. The % excess air
supplied, is a useful indicator for mixture quality. This is defined as:
air supplied−stoichiometric air

%excess air=
stoichiometric air
This is the same by volume and by mass

12. Wet and dry products of combustion
Combustion of fuels containing hydrogen gives products which include H 2O. Products containing H2O
are sometimes dried (H2O absorbed or condensed out) before analysis, hence the terms:
dry analysis (H2O removed first) and
wet analysis (H2O) included.
A gas analyser is used to measure the component gases of a combustion exhaust stream.
So CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2 H2O
16 64 44 36
kg kg kg kg
So mass fraction with and without water can be determined by considering the products with and
without water, i.e. 100%CO2 dry, or 44/80 x 100 % CO2 and 36/80 x 100 % H2O wet.
Examples continued:
The propane is burned with 30% excess air. Determine the volume and mass fractions of reactants
and products.
Reaction equation:
Products ni ni/n ~
mi ~
m i ni/n ~
mi / ~
m = (ni/n)(
[kg/kmol] ~
mi / ~
m )
CO2
H2 O
O2
N2
Total
Note that the 3rd column is the volumetric proportions, column 5 uses the proportion by
mol of each species to work out the mean molar mass by ‘invoking’ the law of partial
pressure. Column 6 is the proportions by mass, ni ~
mi is the mass of each species in the
mixture, and n ~
m is the total mass of the mixture.
The benzene is burned with a fuel rich condition such that there is 2% CO by volume in the products
and no O2. What is the AFR by mass to cause this?
Combustion equation:
Atomic balance:
The dry products of the coal combustion contain 10%CO 2, 1%CO, 8% O2. What was the excess air?

13. Difference between mass and volume fractions
Consider hydrogen and oxygen mixing, pictured by volume, at constant pressure & temperature:
At same p and T, 1 kmol of any gas occupies the same volume - regardless of mass – as 1 kmol of any
other gas. This shows us that the effect of molecular weight can be vastly different volume and mass
fractions of gases in a mixture.
14. Equation of state in terms of n for a perfect gas
The gas law is piV or pVi = mRT. We know that the number of moles is the actual mass divided by the
m
molar mass: n= ~ so:
m
~
R ~
mR=m ~ =n R
m
~
Therefore pi V = pV i=ni R T
Both partial pressure and partial volume can consider molar analysis.
Formula for the relation between partial pressure and partial volume and molar fraction
~
For the mixture as a whole, considered as a perfect gas pV =n R T . Use the equation of state for
a perfect gas for the constituent gas with partial pressure p i, and the mixture at pressure p, and
divide:
~
pi V ni R T p n
= ~ → i= i
pV n R T p n
Combine with the partial-pressure/partial-volume relation formula:
pi ni V i
= =
p n V
in which ∑ pi= p ; ∑ V i =V ; ∑ ni=n .
This eqaution shows us the important fact that volume fraction is equal to molar fraction. Consider a
reaction 2H2+O22H2O. The molar fraction of H2 in the reactants is 2/3. This is also it’s volume
fraction. Usually we have a volumetric analysis and a reaction to consider in combustion related
calculations.
1. Breathing produces 6% by volume of CO2and the exhaled air is 100% humid at 37C.
Assuming 1 atmosphere pressure, what are the partial pressures of these gases in the
mixture?
[ans: CO2 0.062 bar, H2O 0.063 bar]
2. A party balloon is filled with air. The diameter is 10”. What mass of air is contained within
the balloon if the pressure is 1.04 bar and the temperature is 22C?
[ans: 11 g]
3. If the balloon in question 19 contains CO2 what mass of CO2 is there in the balloon?
[ans: 16 g]
4. The balloon now contains hydrogen. What mass of hydrogen is present in the balloon and
how many moles is this? If the balloon is ignited with a match, and the hydrogen reacts with
the oxygen in the air in an explosion, what volume of oxygen is consumed?
[ans: 0.7 g, 0.36 mol, 4.4 litres]
5. What is the volume of nitrogen that is mixed with the oxygen consumed in the reaction in
question 21? Hence estimate the diameter of the explosion. What might make the flame
larger than this?
[ans: 21 litres, 384 mm at atmospheric conditions]
6. Write the reaction equation for the stoichiometric combustion of butane in oxygen.
i. If the mass of butane consumed is 20g, how many moles of butane is this?
ii. For this 20g of butane, what mass of O2 is consumed in the reaction?
iii. How many moles of oxygen is this?
iv. What are the masses of the gases in the products?
[ans: a) 0.345 mol, b) 82.8 g, c) 2.588 mol, d) 60.7 g of CO2 and 31 g of water vapour]
7. Write the stoichiometric reaction equation for butane in air.

a) What is the air to fuel ratio by volume and by mass?
b) What are the proportions by mass and by volume of the product gases?
[ans: a) 35.7, 17.8, b)]
constituent mi/m Vi/V
N2 0.720 0.731
CO2 0.185 0.120
H2O 0.095 0.149
8. Determine the stoichiometric equation for propane burning in pure oxygen, writing the mass
and volume fractions of the reactants and products.
9. Determine the stoichiometric equation for benzene burning in pure oxygen, writing the mass
and volume fractions of the reactants and products.
10. Determine the stoichiometric combustion for 1 kg coal burning in pure oxygen, writing the
mass fractions of the reactants and products. The coal is 81%C, 5%H, 5% O, and 9% ash.
11. Determine how much air is required for the stoichiometric combustion of propane burning in
air. Determine the AFR by mass and by volume.
12. Do the same for benzene burning in air. Determine the AFR by mass and by volume.
13. Do the same for 1 kg of the coal burning in air.
14. The propane is burned with 30% excess air. Determine the volume and mass fractions of
reactants and products.
15. The benzene is burned with a fuel rich condition such that there is 2% CO by volume in the
products and no O2. What is the AFR by mass to cause this?
16. The dry products of the coal combustion contain 10%CO 2, 1%CO, 8% O2. What was the
excess air?
1. We know from the notes that Vi/V=pi/p and we also know that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and
pressure consist of equal numbers of moles, so Vi/V=ni/n.
Subscript i means an individual gas species in the mixture, no subscript means the whole gas mixture. We know
pCO2/p = 0.06 and pCO2 = 0.061.01325 = 0.061 bar; we know that pH2O = 0.063 bar (pSAT at 37C), so pH2O/p = 0.063/1.01325 =
0.062.
We do some thinking here; the ingoing air consisted of 21% O2 and 79% N2 by volume, and we know that 1 molecule
of O2 produces only 1 molecule of CO2 – therefore partial pressure replaced as CO2 must have reduced the partial pressure of
the O2 correspondingly. pO2,INITIAL – pCO2,FINAL = pO2,FINAL . pO2,INITIAL = 0.211.01325 = 0.213 bar. pO2,FINAL = 0.213 – 0.061 = 0.152 bar.
The constituents are O2, 0.152 bar, CO2, 0.061 bar, H2O, 0.063 bar; nitrogen makes up the remainder of the
atmospheric pressure on exhaling, so pN2 = 1.01325 – 0.152 – 0.061 – 0.063 = 0.737 bar.
2. This is simply use of the Gas Law, pV=mRT. We know the pressure and temperature and the gas constant of air. Gas constant is
from the back page of the tables and is 0.287 kJ/kgK. The volume of the balloon is d3/6 = 3.14(100.0254)3/6 = 0.0086m3 or
8.6 litres. The mass is m=pV/RT = 1.041050.0086/287295 = 0.011 kg or 11 g.
3. If instead the balloon contains CO2 which has R = 8,314 [J/kmolK]/44 [kg/kmol] = 189 J/kgK. The other data is the same, so m=
1.041050.0086/189295 = 0.016 kg or 16 g.
4. Similarly for hydrogen H2, the gas constant, R = 8,314/2 = 4,157 J/kgK. Therefore mass is 1.041050.0086/4,157295 = 0.00073
kg or 0.7 g. This is 0.00073/2 = 0.00036 kmol of hydrogen. We know the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is:
H2+ ½O2H2O
2 kg + 0.532 kg  18kg
so 0.00036 kmol of hydrogen will react with 0.000360.5 = 0.00018 kmol of oxygen or 0.0001832 = 0.0058 kg of
oxygen. The volume of this oxygen is V=mRT/p, where R=8,314/32 = 260 J/kgK, T=295K and p=1.01325 bar (assuming
atmospheric pressure outside the balloon). V=0.0058260295/101,325 =0.0044 m3 or 4.4 litres.
5. The volume outside the balloon that is occupied by this oxygen, must also include the nitrogen. The ratio of nitrogen to air by
volume is 3.76 from the back page of the tables; therefore the volume of air involved in the explosion is 4.44.76 = 20.944 litres
or 0.021 m3. The volume including the balloon is therefore 0.021+0.0086 = 0.0296 m3 = d3/6 so d = 0.384 m. The flame size
will be increased by the temperature of the combusted gases due to the energy release of the reaction.
6. Butane means C4H10 since the prefix ‘but-‘ means 4 carbons and the suffix ‘-ane’ means arranged such that the molecule is
connected like this:
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
The stoichiometric reaction is C4H10 + xO2  aCO2 + bH2O, using an algebra method to represent the unknown reaction
quantities. Then balancing the number of atoms on each side:
C: 4=a
H:10=2b so b=5
O:2x=2a+b so x=6½
Therefore C4H10 + 6½O2  4CO2 + 5H2O
Putting in the masses of the reactants and products for 1 kmol of butane:
C4H10 + 6½O2  4CO2 + 5H2O
124+110 kg + 6.532 kg  4(12+32) kg + 5(2+16) kg
58 kg + 208 kg  176 kg + 90 kg
a) so we can work out proportionally, for 20g of butane, this is 0.02/0.058 = 0.345 moles.
b) the mass of oxygen consumed to burn this 20g is 20(208/58) = 71.7g.
c) this is 71.7g / 32 g/mol = 2.241 moles of oxygen
d) the mass of CO2 in the products will be 20(176/58) = 60.7g and the mass of H2O in the products will be 20(90/58) = 31g.
7. The reaction for butane in air must include the nitrogen brought in with the oxygen, which is in the fixed ratio by volume VN2/VO2
= 3.76 from the back page of the tables. Therefore, knowing that the ratio by volume is the same as ratio by moles, the reaction
equation can be written as:
C4H10 + 6½O2 + 3.766½N2  4CO2 + 5H2O + 3.766½N2
a) AFR by volume is volume of air/volume of gaseous fuel and since Vi/V=ni/n this is 4.766.5/1 =30.94.
AFR by mass requires mass fractions in the equation:
C4H10 + 6½O2 + 3.766½N2  4CO2 + 5H2O + 3.766½N2
58kg + 208kg + 3.766.528kg 176 kg + 90 kg + 3.766.528kg
58kg + 208kg + 684.3kg 176 kg + 90 kg + 684.3kg
AFR by mass is (208+684.3)/58 = 15.38.
b)
constituent mi [kg/kmol_fuel] mi/m ni [kmol/ kmol_fuel] Vi/V
N2 684.3 0.720 24.44 0.731
CO2 176 0.185 4 0.120
H2 O 90 0.095 5 0.149
 950.3 1 33.44 1
8. Note that propane is three carbon atoms and 8 hydrogen atoms.

C3H8 + xO2  aCO2 + bH2O
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
Do an atom balance:
C: 3 = a
H: 8 = 2b, so b = 4
O: 2x = 2a + b so x = 5
Therefore stoichiometric reaction equation is:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
The mass fraction depends on the proportions by mass. So write the masses involved in the reaction of 1 kmol of the fuel, noting that
atomic mass of carbon is 12kg/kmol, of hydrogen is 1kg/kmol, of oxygen is 16kg/kmol:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
(312+18) + (532)  (3(12+32)) + (4(2+16))
44kg + 160kg  132kg + 72kg
Reactants:
mi mi/m ni ni/n = Vi/V
C3H8 44 0.216 C3H8 1 0.167
O2 160 0.784 O2 5 0.833
 204 1  6 1
Products:
CO2 132 0.647 CO2 3 0.429
H2 O 72 0.353 H2 O 4 0.571
 204 1  7 1
9. The same for benzene, which is a different type of H hydrocarbon molecule,

particularly known for being carcinogenic. The formula is C6H6, and the physical
structure of the molecule is known to look like a C ring with double carbon bonds:
H H
The reaction equation just requires the chemical formula and we can just do an atom balance:
C6H6 + xO2  aCO2 + bH2O C C
C: 6 = a
H: 6 = 2b, b=3 C C
O: 2x = 2a + b, x = 7.5 H C H
C6H6 + 7.5O2  6CO2 + 3H2O
78kg + 240kg  264kg + 54kg
H
The tables this time are:

Reactants:
C6H6 78 0.245 C6H6 1 0.118
O2 240 0.755 O2 7.5 0.882
 318 1  8.5 1
Products:
CO2 264 0.830 CO2 6 0.667
H2 O 54 0.170 H2 O 3 0.333
 318 1  9 1
10. The reaction of coal is best done by mass right from the start because it is a solid that is measured by mass not volume or
moles. Therefore write the reaction equations for carbon and hydrogen separately and work out the reaction for the mass of
carbon and hydrogen present as follows:
C + O2  CO2
12kg + 32kg  44kg
H2 + 0.5O2  H2O
2kg + 16kg  18kg
We know that in each 1kg of coal there is 0.81kg of carbon and 0.05kg of hydrogen. We also know that it has within it 0.05kg of oxygen,
which will be part of the reaction. The rest, 0.09kg, is ash, which when it falls out is called slag.
Mass of oxygen required to burn 0.81kg of carbon is 0.81(32/12) = 2.16kg
The amount of carbon dioxide produced is then 0.81kg+2.16kg = 2.97kg
mass of oxygen required to burn 0.05kg of hydrogen is 0.05(16/2) = 0.4kg
Amount of water produced is 0.45kg
mass of oxygen not required because it came in with the coal is 0.05kg
Sum of oxygen required for 1 kg of coal is 2.16+0.4-0.05=2.51kg.
The stoichiometric reaction can be expressed as:
coal + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water vapour + ash
1kg + 2.51kg  2.97kg + 0.45kg + 0.09kg
3.51kg of reactants and 3.51 kg of products.
Mass fraction of reactants and products:
reactants mi mi/m products mi mi/m
C 0.81 0.231 CO2 2.97 0.846
H 0.05 0.014 H2 O 0.45 0.128
O 2.56-0.05 0.715
ash 0.09 0.026 ash 0.09 0.026
 3.51 1  3.51 1
11. Propane reaction in oxygen was derived in part 1 as:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
(312+18) + (532)  (3(12+32)) + (4(2+16))
44kg + 160kg  132kg + 72kg
The amount of air requried for 1 kmol of propane is 5 kmol. This must bring in nitrogen at the standard ratio of 3.76kmol of nitrogen for
every 1 kmol of oxygen in the atmosphere. Note that the atomic mass of nitrogen is 14kg/kmol. Therefore the air required for 1kmol of
fuel is 54.76 kmol = 23.8kmol. Therefore the AFR by volume is the same as the AFR by moles is 23.8. By mass, we have 532 = 160 kg of
oxygen and 53.7628 = 526.4 kg of nitrogen per 44kg of fuel. AFR by mass is therefore (160+526.4)/44 = 15.6.
12. The benzene reaction is:

C6H6 + 7.5O2  6CO2 + 3H2O
78kg + 240kg  264kg + 54kg
By volume AFR is 7.54.76/1 = 35.7.
By mass AFR is (7.532+7.53.7628)/78 = (240 + 789.6)/78 = 13.2.
13. For the coal we know the air to fuel ratio by mass only, since the solid has no volume. Burning 1kg of coal requires 2.51 kg of
oxygen. This mass of oxygen brings in 3.29 times that mass of nitrogen by the standard ratio in the atmosphere. Therefore
mass of air required is 2.514.29 = 10.77, and that is the air to coal ratio by mass. Notice that it includes the ash which does not
react.
14. For the propane reaction with excess air, we know that if there is 30% excess air there must be 1.3 times the amount of air by
volume
Writing the full reaction equation including the nitrogen;
C3H8 + 1.35O2 +1.33.765N2  3CO2 + 4H2O +1.33.765N2 + 0.35O2
For the mass and volume fractions, draw up a table:
reactants ni ni/n=Vi/V Mi mi=niMi mi/m

kmols kg/kmol kg
C3H8 1 0.031 44 44 0.047
O2 6.5 0.204 32 208 0.222
N2 24.44 0.765 28 684.32 0.731
 31.94 1 936.32 1
Products ni ni/n=Vi/V Mi mi=niMi mi/m

kmols kg/kmol kg
CO2 3 0.091 44 132 0.141
H2 O 4 0.121 18 72 0.077
N2 24.44 0.742 28 684.32 0.731
O2 1.5 0.046 32 48 0.051
 32.94 1 936.32 1
Amount of water produced is 0.45kg

mass of oxygen not required because it came in with the coal is 0.05kg
Sum of oxygen required for 1 kg of coal is 2.16+0.4-0.05=2.51kg.
The stoichiometric reaction can be expressed as:
coal + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water vapour + ash
1kg + 2.51kg  2.97kg + 0.45kg + 0.09kg
3.51kg of reactants and 3.51 kg of products.
Mass fraction of reactants and products:
reactants mi mi/m products mi mi/m
C 0.81 0.231 CO2 2.97 0.846
H 0.05 0.014 H2 O 0.45 0.128
O 2.56-0.05 0.715
ash 0.09 0.026 ash 0.09 0.026
 3.51 1  3.51 1
Propane reaction in oxygen was derived in part 1 as:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
(312+18) + (532)  (3(12+32)) + (4(2+16))
44kg + 160kg  132kg + 72kg
The amount of air required for 1 kmol of propane is 5 kmol. This must bring in nitrogen at the standard ratio of 3.76kmol of nitrogen for
every 1 kmol of oxygen in the atmosphere. Note that the atomic mass of nitrogen is 14kg/kmol. Therefore the air required for 1kmol of
fuel is 54.76 kmol = 23.8kmol. Therefore the AFR by volume is the same as the AFR by moles is 23.8. By mass, we have 532 = 160 kg of
oxygen and 53.7628 = 526.4 kg of nitrogen per 44kg of fuel. AFR by mass is therefore (160+526.4)/44 = 15.6.
15. The actual combustion of benzene reaction is:

C6H6 + xO2 + 3.76xN2  aCO2 + bH2O + dCO + yN2
(alternative letters of alphabet used to save confusion e.g. cCO2)
atom balances:
C: 6 = a + d
H: 6 = 2b  b = 3
O: 2x = 2a + b + d
N: 3.76x = y.
Get things in terms of x:
From C, a = 6 – d
in O, 2x = 2(6-d) + b + d, and substitute b = 3 from H, d = 3 – 2x + 12 = 15 – 2x
and  a = 2x – 9
We also know that the volume fraction of CO in the products is 2%, i.e. volume of CO in products divided by volume of total products and
volume fraction is equivalent to molar fraction:
0.02 = d/(a+b+d+y) = (15 - 2x)/(2x – 9 + 3 + 15 – x +3.76x)
 0.02(4.76x + 9) = 15 – 2x, and x = (15 – 0.18)/(0.0952 + 2) = 7.073.
Therefore air to fuel ratio by mass is mass of air in equation divided by mass of fuel:
fuel: 12*6 + 1*6 = 78 g/mol
air: 32*7.073 + 3.76*28*7.073 = 971 g per mol of fuel
Therefore AFR = 971/78 = 12.45.
16. We know the stoichiometric combustion reaction from the previous question (q.13). Now need to know what air was used in
this combustion.
For the excess air, the nitrogen is the key – it is the unreacted component in the fuel-air combustion equation. The volumetric analysis of
the gases in the products is:
species Vi/Vtotal
CO2 0.1
CO 0.01
H2O 0 (dry products)
O2 0.08
N2 0.81 (remainder)
total 1
The nitrogen is the proportion which is not the other gases – water is not considered, it has been condensed and this is just dry gas now.
For 1 mol of dry gas products, there is 0.81 mol of N2 which is by mass 0.81 * 28 = 22.68 g
This must have been drawn in with the air since there was no nitrogen in the coal. Therefore mass of air used per mol of product gases is:
22.68 + 22.68/3.29 = 29.57g
where 3.29 is the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen in the approximate air in the back of the tables.
The carbon also for 1 mol of product gas can be worked out as:
0.1*12 + 0.01*12 = 1.32 g of carbon per mol of dry product gas.
In the coal, there was originally 81% carbon, so the amount of coal burnt for 1 mol of dry products is:
1.32/0.81 = 1.63 g of coal.
Therefore the air to fuel ratio by mass is 29.57/1.63 = 18.14
So what is the excess air, given that from q.13 we had stoichiometric was 10.77 AFR by mass.
The excess air is (air-actual – air-stoich)/air-stoich

For the AFRs the fuel for each is just 1 g, therefore the excess air is:
(18.14-10.77)/10.77 = 0.684
or 68.4%.
Thermo topic 6, Convective heat transfer
MM2TF2 THERMOFLUIDS
Topic 6. Convective heat tranfer
Aim of this section
Heat transfer is fundamentally important for thermodynamic systems – the rate of heat transfer
determines how much thermal energy is swapped from one working fluid to another. In the previous
thermodynamics module, an introduction to heat transfer was presented which describes Fourier’s
rate of conduction heat transfer formula, and Newton’s rate of convection heat transfer and the
Stephan-Boltzmann rate of radiative heat transfer. Conduction heat transfer is determined by the
physical property of the conducting material and its shape – this can be calculated from knowledge
of these properties. Radiative heat transfer is determined by the view that two exchanging bodies
have of each other and of their thermal-optical properties – this also is calculable from analysis
alone. Convective heat transfer on the other hand is determined by a convective heat transfer
coefficient, which depends on multiple, complex and interacting characteristics of the flow and the
thermal properties of the fluid causing the heat transfer. It is complicit in many situations of
thermodynamic interest, e.g. the boiler tubes in the vapour power cycle have steam and boiling
water on the inside and hot gases on the outside; the evaporator and condenser tubes in a
refrigeration cycle have boiling or condensing fluid on the inside and atmosphere on the outside;
compressor intercoolers have hot, high pressure gas on the inside and atmospheric air or cooling
liquid on the outside. Therefore it is important to firstly understand the typical magnitude of
convective heat transfer coefficients on an empirical basis, and further to this, to be able to interpret
the fluid mechanic and thermodynamic property conditions giving rise to the convective heat
transfer from the empirical conditions which for common geometries and flow configurations will
yield analytical expressions representing the practically encountered heat transfer.
Aim: gain appreciation of scale of convective heat transfer in typical conditions and learn to identify
and apply analytical techniques for calculating the convective heat transfer coefficient.
Objectives: revise convection heat transfer principles; recognized magnitudes of convective heat
transfer coefficient in typical heat transfer fluids; establish the relationship between convection to a
surface and the conduction at the surface in convective heat transfer; recognize the relationship
between measuring heat flux in scaled situations and potential for application to similar situations of
different scale; learn the 3 dimensionless expressions involved in natural and forced convection;
develop the application of the dimensionless numbers into convection heat transfer correlation
expressions for typical common flow configurations; apply the convection heat transfer correlations.
1. Revision of principle of convection heat transfer
Convection situations include both heat transfer from solid boundaries into fluids and between two
mixing streams of fluids and the redistribution of internal energy within a fluid.
Convection implies the movement of fluid to transmit energy and so the study of the fluid dynamics
of the situation is of particular importance.
Fluid motion may be induced by buoyancy effects resulting from changes in temperatures within the
fluid during the initial stages of heat transfer, which are then perpetuated as natural or free
convection.
Alternatively, the fluid motion may be 'forced' by an external source - pump or compressor - and
forced convection of heat will develop.
In both cases, Newton developed a formula identifying that there was a relationship between the
surface area exposed to the fluid flow and the temperature difference between the surface and the
bulk of the fluid which consistently showed a predictable relationship for each case:
Q́=hA ∆ T
This equations states that the rate of heat transfer (hence the dot above the Q) is determined by the
steady temperature difference and the area by a convective heat transfer coefficient, h. This was
great up to the point where the shape of the surface and the fluid flow conditions changed – then
the value of h varied.
Since Newton, many researchers have

investigated how to predict h for many different
flow conditions. The results of many
experiments have shown the great variation in
magnitude with different heat transfer fluids as
shown in the figure from Bejan’s book on Heat
Transfer. As the type of heat transfer fluid
changes, the value of h varies and several
generic types are shown from least convective at
the bottom to more convective at the top. The
thing that is apparent is the vigour of the fluid
can be imagined to increase in order of rising h
as described by the various fluid conditions.
In addition to the fluid, the characteristics of the

flow of fluid affect the magnitude of h.
Example: calculate the rate of convective heat transfer for a flat rectangular surface 1.5 m by 2.5 m,
when the temperature difference between the fluid bulk temperature far from the wall is 65C and
that of the solid body behind the surface is 18C, given that the convective heat transfer coefficient is
in the range for forced convection of gases at 1 atm, and is 24W/m 2K.
2. Thermal resistance and convection heat transfer and overall heat transfer coefficient
It is convenient to use the analogy of electrical and thermal transfer in the form of the thermal
resistance. This can be used when more than one heat transfer condition is acting on the heat
transfer situation.
Heat transfer can be compared with Ohm’s Law: I = V/R
Comparing Newton’s Law of convection:
Temperature difference ΔT - Voltage difference ΔV
Heat flow q - Current flow I
Thermal resistance 1/hA - Electrical resistance R th.
Note from the figure that the gas interface

between the solid and the gas has a non-linear
temperature profile – i.e. it is not a straight line
relationship between temperature and distance from the wall in the region where the temperature is
changing.
Example: calculate the rate of heat transfer for a 1m length of a tube surface, when the interior
temperature is 150C and the exterior is 450C. The external diameter is 38mm and the convective
heat transfer on the external surface is in the range of forced convection for gases at 1 atm (choose a
mid-range value) and the internal surface is subjected to boiling heat transfer of water (choose a
mid-range value). The conductive thermal resistance is negligible because it is a steel tube with a
4mm wall thickness. NB you will need to use the concept of thermal resistance in this calculation.
The combination of two or more heat transfer coefficients over a heat transfer surface can be solved
using the method above, but there is a more convenient way to manage the final heat transfer
calculation, and of expressing the combined heat transfer characteristics, by using an overall heat
transfer coefficient. This has the symbol U and the same units as convective heat transfer and sums
up the heat transfer on a surface due to combined effects. And so we have the overall heat transfer
coefficient form of the heat transfer equation:
Q́=UA ∆ T overall
The units of U are W/m2K.
Example: For the previous example consider that the tube is actually in a heat exchanger and that its
overall length is 45m (bent in a repeating serpentine shape for compactness). What is the overall
heat transfer coefficient and what is the rate of heat transfer?
3. Analysis of how convection works
At a hot wall, the velocity is zero, and the heat transfer into the adjacent fluid takes place by
conduction. Thus the local heat flux per unit area Q́' ' is (note the notation here – the dot means
rate of heat transfer and the double dash means per unit area):
Q' ' =−k

δT
δy |
wall
The conductivity is that of the fluid and the infinitesimal temperature gradient is in the very near to
the wall region. The heated fluid is then carried away by convection. From Newton's law of cooling:
Q' ' =−k

δT
δy |
wall
=−h ( T ∞−T wall )
note there is no area in this because once again it is double-dash Q which is per m 2 of area. Reducing
the combined equation produces the following:
h=
k
δT
|
δy wall
( T ∞−T wall )
This indicates how the previous research managed to produce the convective heat transfer
coefficients and how it can be determined from experiments for any particular configuration.
4. Nusselt number – the relation between fluid conductivity and convection.
The general situation of heat transfer is of conduction in the stationary very near wall fluid and of
convective carrying away of thermal energy outside of this region. Nusselt derived a dimensionless
number relating the two:
hL
Nu=
kf
where k is the conductivity of the fluid, and L is the representative length scale (e.g. diameter of
cylinder, length of a flat plate, internal width of a duct). In this equation, we can define L and k, but h
is unknown and so is Nu. Fortunately correlations have been derived for expressing Nu for various
common flow conditions which are related to three further dimensionless numbers. The
characteristic of all flow situations which affects convection rate is the Prandtl Number.
Prandtl Number
All dimensionless numbers express the ratio of important defining characteristics of physical
phenomena. This dimensionless group represents the ratio of the thickness of the velocity boundary
layer to the thickness of the thermal boundary layer. Just as there is a velocity boundary layer which
defines the distance from a wall at which the velocity is 99% of the free-stream velocity far from the
wall, the thermal boundary layer defines the point at which the temperature change is 99% of the
temperature change from the wall to the free stream fluid temperature. The ratio is determined by
the viscosity – defining the diffusion rate of momentum – and the thermal diffusivity which is the
diffusion rate of thermal energy.
Thermal diffusivity, alpha
k
α= [m2 /s ]
ρ cp
Kinematic viscosity, nu
μ
ν = [m2 /s ]
ρ
Prandtl number, Pr
cpμ
Pr=
k
Example: calculate the Prandtl number for water at 20C, and compare with the value stated in the
tables.
Reynolds Number
Forced convection defines situations in which the fluid is driven against the wall by mechanical
means – a forcing of the fluid to flow. In cases where the velocity is thus defined by a flow situation,
the Reynolds Number reflects the amount of mixing of the fluid takes place, which in turn affects the
convection. Where there is less turbulence and the Re is low, the mixing is low and convection will
be correspondingly low. Conversely where Re is high, convection is high. In cases of forced
convection therefore, correlations can be found relating Re and Pr to Nu and this will define the heat
transfer coefficient.
Example: A radiator pipe has an internal diameter of 5mm, and the flow rate of hot water is 30 g/s.
The bulk temperature of the water is 65C. Using the following correlation, derive the heat transfer
coefficient at the internal pipe wall. Comment on where this fits into the chart of h values earlier
presented.
Nu=0.023 ℜ0.8 Pr 0.4

Grashof Number
Natural convection defines situations where there is no mechanical motivation of the fluid – but
natural stratification of the temperature field caused by heating or cooling of surfaces creates a
natural circulation of fluid. This is known in common parlance as ‘hot air rises’ – but is not limited to
air only. The driving force is the alteration of density due to high density in cold regions and low
density in warm regions. It is naturally difficult to derive the velocity of the fluid because it is entirely
free in the body of the fluid. Although derivations can be sought for the velocity field, it is not really
required to work out the heat transfer. It is made even more difficult to determine the velocity field
because of the nature of the velocity profile according to the simulation from a BEng project below
which shows that although the temperature reduces monotonically, the velocity is zero at the wall
(on the left) and grows before falling back towards zero in the far from wall position. And this is at
one height only – so if velocity were used to determine the convection, it would have to be an
average over the height over which convection was done.
Figure showing velocity profile and temperature profile for a hot wall at 400K on y=0 at a height of
0.1m from the beginning of the heated section. (M.Brown, BEng thesis 2014)
Grashof defined a dimensionless group which represents the ratio of the buoyancy force to the
viscous resistance force, and defines the level of turbulence caused by a natural convection flow. It is
only dependent on the temperature differences present.
gβ l 3 ΔT
Gr= 2
ν
In this formula, it is necessary to understand all the terms. The only obvious ones are g the local
gravitational constant and T, the difference in temperature between the bulk fluid temperature and
the temperature of the surface.  is the compressibility of the fluid, and for gases it is defined as
1/Tf, and Tf is referred to as the film temperature and is the average of the wall temperature and the
bulk fluid temperature far from the wall. The length l is the distance from the start of the hot
surface, and defines the Grashof number at a particular height.  is the kinematic viscosity, but it is at
the film temperature for this calculation, since it varies strongly with temperature.
Because of the square term on the viscosity, which is generally a very small number, Gr is usually very
large for common liquids and gases. A particular situation will have a Gr which is either large
representing turbulent buoyant flow or small representing laminar buoyant flow. In cases of natural
convection, the strength of the convection is determined by the value of the Grashof number and a
correlation relating Gr and Pr to Nu can be found for common configurations in texts.
The hot plate in this case shows that as height increases

the velocity intensity increases, which has a corresponding
increase in mixing intensity (turbulence). The flow will be
laminar up to a point and beyond that turbulent. The
v transition is determined by the Grashof number, and a
condition will be stated for particular geometrical
arrangements.
y
A mean Nusselt number correlation can usually be found
l from the texts, but it is important to make sure that it is
not the Nu for a particular height and is the mean. If it is
v just the Nu for a particular height then it must be
integrated over the entire height and an average value
determined. Only mean values will be used in this course.
y
Example: Calculate the Nusselt number and hence the convective heat transfer coefficient for a flat
wall having height 2m, and a temperature of 400C in an ambient air environment at 20C. Use the
following correlation:
Nu=0.59 ( GrPr )0.25
For 103 < GrPr <109, and:
Nu=0.13 ( GrPr )0.33
For 109 < GrPr <1012.

5. Application of the axisymmetric wall conduction equation

From the previous module on thermofluids, the idea of conduction radially through
an axisymmetric pipe was introduced. In this case it must be remembered that
instead of a constant cross section through which heat is conducted, as the heat
moves radially outwards, the area through which it is conducting is increasing, as
indicated in the figure.
For this case it was shown that the conduction through the pipe wall can be
expressed by integrating the heat transfer across each finite radial annulus:
dT dT
Q́'=−kA =−k 2 πr
dr dr
Where the single dash implies ‘per unit length of pipe’, i.e. per m length. Given
constant k through the material, then:
Q́' dr
=−d T
2 πk r
and integrating between inner wall, 1 and outer wall, 2, gives:
Q́' r
ln 2 =−( T 2−T 1 )
2 πk r 1
And the thermal resistance of the pipe wall per metre is therefore:
r2
ln
r1
R=
2 πk
Example: calculate the conductive thermal resistance of a steel pipe, conductivity 20W/mK, of
internal radius 30mm and wall thickness 5mm which is insulated by a 150mm thick jacket of material
with a conductivity of 0.5W/mK.
Write your solution here:
Convection examples:
1. The convective heat transfer to a plane wall inner surface is 9 W/m 2K, and on the outer wall it is
95 W/m2K. The wall is 2.3m high and 3.1m wide. Ignoring the conduction of the wall find the
thermal resistance for the inside and outside convective conditions, and hence for the overall
wall. [0.0171 K/W]
2. What is the heat transfer in question 1 if the inner air is at 18C and the outer air is at 1C?
Sketch the temperature profile through the wall. [994 W]
3. A high pressure hot water pipe of inner diameter 28mm carries water at 347C, 160 bar. The
inner wall convective heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be 940 W/m2K. The pipe is made of
stainless steel (k=15W/mK) and has a wall thickness of 6mm. It is insulated by 100mm of
refractory material having k=0.8W/mK. The surrounding air temperature is 25C and the heat
transfer coefficient is 10W/m2K. What is the heat loss per m length of pipe? What is the external
surface temperature? [638 W, 109C]
4. Calculate convective heat transfer coefficient for the inner surface in question 3 using the Colburn
correlation (Nud=0.023Red0.8Pr0.4). Given the velocity of water in the pipe is 3m/s, the density is
613kg/m3, the viscosity is 9×10-5kg/ms, the Prandtl number is 0.94 and the conductivity is
0.54W/mK. What effect will this have on the calculation of heat loss in question 3? [17,466
W/m2K]
5. Calculate the Grashof number for a vertical surface 0.5m high and 1m wide, in a room of still air, if
the air temperature is 18C and the surface temperature is 150C. Use the Nusselt correlation:
0. 25 0. 33
N u x =0 . 59 ( Gr L Pr ) N u x =0 . 13 ( Gr L Pr )
if 103<GrPr<109 and if 109<GrPr<1012. Use
=1/Tf, where Tf is the film temperature (the mean value of the surface and the surrounding gas),
and take the properties of air from the tables of dry air at low pressure at T f. What is the heat
transfer from the surface to the room by convection? [403 W]
Solutions convection heat transfer:

1. Convective thermal resistance is 1/hA, inside 1/9*2.3*3.1=0.0156K/W and outside
1/95*2.3*3.1=0.0015K/W. Total thermal resistance is now 0.0171K/W. The external resistance is
much less, indicating that it transfers heat well into the wall because of the enhanced heat
transfer coefficient.
2. For these temperatures, the heat transfer is q=T/Rth = 17/0.0171 = 994W.
3. Use the formula for thermal resistance of axisymmetric pipe wall and insulation and the
convection at the inner and outer surfaces to produce:
' −(347−25 )
q̇ =
1 ln(0 .020 /0. 014 ) ln(0 .12/0 . 020) 1
+ + +
940 2 π 0 . 014 2 π 15 2 π 0. 8 10 2 π 0 . 12 and the heat
transfer is 322/(0.012+0.0038+0.357+0.132)=322/0.505=638W/m. External temperature is given
by the convective calculation on the exterior only i.e. q= T/Rth, so 638 = -(Tair – Ts) /0.132 so Ts =
109C.
4. Inner surface Nud=0.023Red0.8Pr0.4 where Re=UD/µ, Re=613×3×0.028/9×10-5 = 572,133.
Nud=0.023×572,1330.8× 0.940.4 = 905. Knowing that h=Nu.k/D, h = 17,466 W/m 2K. The effect of
this will be to decrease the convective thermal resistance. So 1/17466.2π.0.014, making it
effectively zero. The thermal resistance is decreased by 0.012 out of 0.505 or 2.4%, and hence
there will be 2.4% more heat transfer or 653 W/m. Therefore little effect.
5. Film temperature is average of wall and fluid temp = 291+423)/2 = 357K, take properties at 350K
3 2
gβl ρ ΔT
Gr=
to reasonable accuracy. μ2 and use =/, so Gr = 9.81*1/
((291+423)/2)*0.53*(150-18)/(2.056*10-5)2 = 1 072 601 784 or 1.073*109. Therefore the second
N u x =0 . 13 ( Gr L Pr ) 0. 33
Nu correlation is appropriate, and Nu = 0.13*(1.073*109*0.697)0.33
=110. h=Nuxk/D=110*0.03003/0.5 = 6.1 W/m2K. Therefore heat transfer rate is Q=hA(Ts-
Tair)=6.1*0.5*1*(150-18)=403W.
Thermo topic 7, Heat Exchangers
Topic 7. Heat exchangers
Aim of this section
Transfer of heat from one thermodynamic fluid to another, just like the transfer of money between
trading parties, must be done at an exchange. Motivation for devising transfer of thermal energy in
engineered systems arises in many common artefacts. Buildings require heating or cooling to
maintain comfort for indwellers; incubators maintain a balanced environment for neonates;
automobile engine coolant gathers high temperature thermal energy from the engine block and
distributes it to the atmosphere via the radiator; utility boilers collect thermal energy from
combustion gases, or nuclear reactor cores or geothermal etc sources and either raise steam directly
or have a secondary heat transfer circuit to a further steam raising cycle; even lungs provide for heat
transfer from the body. In all of these situations there are heat exchangers, whose duty is to
maintain a barrier between the heat transfer fluids whilst providing an efficient conduit for the
transfer of thermal energy from the hot stream to the cold. There exists a great deal of knowledge
about heat exchangers and there are well established methods for analysis of common heat
exchanger types, and this fundamentally important, commonplace and taken for granted aspect of
thermodynamic systems deserves attention from the engineer.
Aim: identify the relationship between heat transfer and thermal capacity and calculate the heat
exchanger size or capacity using heat exchanger analysis methods.
Objectives: Identify a regenerator and a recuperator; identify temperature profile in a tube in tube
heat exchanger; relate heat transfer rate to thermal energy transfer; identify the logarithmic mean
temperature difference (LMTD) of a heat exchanger based on desired temperature changes of the
two fluid streams as a useful indicator of the average temperature difference between the fluids over
the entire heat exchanger surface; calculate size of heat exchanger area based on LMTD; identify
counter current and co-current configuration of the fluids in a tube in tube heat exchanger; calculate
heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger using LMTD; method of using F correction factor from charts
for more complicated heat exchanger geometries; understand and use capacity rate, C, of a flowing
fluid in calculation of thermal transfer rate; identify the effectiveness-number of transfer units (-
NTU) relationship of a heat exchanger; calculate the maximum possible heat transfer rate of a heat
exchanger; use formulae or charts for -NTU calculations; understand the implications of fouling due
to continuous flow of real fluids.
1. Definition of recuperator and regenerator
Heat exchangers provide a method for exchanging thermal energy between a hot fluid and a cold
fluid purely for the purpose of taking the thermal energy from a place where it can be easily drawn
into the heat exchanger and where it is not in a useful form for a particular process to deliver it to
another fluid which cycles around the process in a useful way. Heat exchangers are firstly divided
into the category of recuperator which describes the most familiar heat exchangers where one fluid
passes a wall separating it physically from the other fluid flow allowing heat transfer from the hot to
the cold fluid through the wall and regenerator which describes the less familiar type of heat
exchanger where a conductive thermal mass (such as a block of metal) absorbs the thermal energy
from the hot source to deliver it at another time, or in another position after transfer, into the cold
fluid. A good example of the regenerator is found on the air inlet of a combustion power generation
station and is
illustrated in
the figure
below.
The
regenerator
enables
recovery of
some of the
Figure 3 schematic of a regenerator used in a power station air energy from
inlet exchanging heat with the exhaust gases. the power
http://www.pias-usa.com/products/utility/airheaters.html
station
exhaust gases. A product is illustrated on the right side of Figure 1, the radial rods are arranged in a
rotor, and the central seal has one pipe attached on the hot gas side and a separate pipe on the air
side – the rods are rotated from one side to the other and pick up heat on the hot side and give it up
on the cold side.
The recuperator in its

simplest form is a tube in a
tube as shown in Figure 2. A
central pipe has a hot fluid
and an outer pipe has a cold
Figure 4 schematic of the simplest recuperator. fluid. The fluids exchange
heat across the wall that
separates them.
The remainder of this topic will be concerned with recuperator heat exchangers only.
Example: Calculate the rate of heat lost from a domestic boiler producing combustion gases at 140C
with a specific heat capacity cp =1.2 kJ/kgK and at a rate of 3 g/s. The ambient temperature is 15C.
2. Temperature profile in a recuperative heat exchanger – tube in tube.

The tube in tube type of heat exchanger is called shell and tube heat exchanger – the outer tube
being the shell. Given this simple arrangement the flow streams can flow either in the same
direction, in which case it is a parallel flow heat exchanger or in the opposite direction, in which case
it is a counter flow heat exchanger. The temperature of the hot fluid will become less and the
temperature of the cold fluid will increase as they progress from one end to the other of the shell
and tube heat exchanger.
Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of a single shell and tube heat exchanger. Hot fluid flows in the
inner-tube from left to right, and cool fluid flows in the cylindrical shell from right to left – a counter
flow situation. The shell has end plates to contain the fluid within it around the inner pipe, and a
connecting pipe at either end. Given a particular heat transfer coefficient on the interface wall for
each fluid, the rate of heat transfer will be determined by the temperature of the hot and cold
streams at any particular point along the length of the heat exchanger, and the temperature change
from one end to the other of each fluid will depend on their flow rate and heat capacity. For hot oil
flowing in the tube and water in the shell, a
Figure 5 schematic single shell and tube, with counter calculation can be
flow.
performed as outlined
below in an iterative manner to show the
temperature distribution along the length.
Figure 6 counter flow of oil and water in a single shell and tube
160
140
120 o
il
100
temperature, C
80
60
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
length, mm
The chart shows that the oil entering at the left hand end cools as it encounters the water. The oil
mass rate and specific heat capacity mean that it has a capacity rate, C of 0.012 kW/K, (oil is
subscript 1 in the table and water subscript 2). This capacity rate is less than that of water which has
0.042 kW/K and therefore the slope of the oil cooling is steeper than that of the water heating up.
If the shell direction of flow were reversed, so the arrows on the shell pipes on the figure pointed
down instead of up, the it would be parallel flow. The situation with the same flow rates would
result in a different temperature profile as illustrated in Figure 5, where it can be seen that the oil is
cooled down faster, and that the exit temperature of the water is less.
160
140
120 o
il
100
temperature, C
80
60
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
length, mm
Example: calculate
Figure 7 parallel flow of oil and water in a single shell and the capacity rate
tube.
of water flowing
at 0.5 kg/s.
3. Heat transfer calculation method for single shell and tube
The purpose of the heat exchanger is to transfer thermal energy from one fluid to the other, and the
calculation is down to heat transfer, which is convective. There are correlations for convective heat
transfer as described in the convective heat transfer lecture. For the purpose of the heat exchangers
here, it is sufficient to say that there will be an overall heat transfer coefficient formed not only by
the local conditions at a particular point in the heat exchanger and for the convection for each fluid
and the heat exchanger wall material, but for the entire heat exchanger allowing for fluid property
changes due to temperature variation. The calculation is beyond the scope of this course, but it is
useful to identify the techniques used to demonstrate they are within reach by application of heat
transfer.
For the elemental length of the single shell and tube heat exchanger illustrated in Figure 6, the area
of the pipe over the elemental length is dA, and there will be an associated heat transfer rate dq,
dependent on the local fluid temperature difference and the thermal resistance between them.
Heat transfer tells us:
- Δ T overall
q̇ =
1 Δx 1
+Σ
h A AsubA KA hB A B
Or in context of the overall heat transfer

coefficient, U,
q̇ = UA ( ΔT overall ) 1
UA ≡
= UA (T A - T B ) where
Σ RTH
This is the rate of heat transfer across the surface which separates the two fluids. The fluids flowing
counter to each other in this case, exchange heat at this rate in order to swap thermal energy:
Q̇= {ṁ c p ( T in −T out ) }hot= {ṁ c p ( T out−T in ) }cold
Therefore the rate of cooling can be calculated and the temperature profile of the heat exchanger
with these fluids is established. This is what was done to produce the temperature profiles in the
previous section.
This is an iterative approach due to the elemental nature of the analysis. For the heat exchanger
calculation when the overall heat transfer coefficient is known, it would be useful to have a
representative overall temperature difference.
4. Logarithmic mean temperature difference.
Since the temperature difference varies along the flow path of the heat exchanger, it will be useful to
have an overall representative temperature difference which is an accurate representation. This is
found in the LMTD, which is a mean temperature difference, and often represented as Tm.
Derivation
It can be derived as follows, and this is shown purely to demonstrate how it is derived.
Heat transferred between hot, h, and cold, c is:
dq=( T h −T c ) U A dA
From capacity of each fluid, heat absorbed (or lost) is:
dq dq
d ( T h−T c ) =dT h −dT c =− −
Ch Cc
Combine equations to eliminate q:

d ( T h −T c )
=( T h −T c ) U A dA
1 1
−
(
+
C h Cc )
Shuffle and integrate:
( T h 2−T c 2 ) 1 1
ln
T
( h1 c 1 )
−T
=−
C h
+
C c
(
UA A
)
T h2 −T c 2 =ΔT 2
T h1 −T c 1 =ΔT 1
Also,
1 1 1
+ = ( ΔT 1− ΔT 2 )
C h Cc q
So
ΔT 2 −ΔT 1
q= UA == ΔT m UA
ΔT 2
ln
( ΔT 1 )
It is important to understand what the temperature differences refer to. T1 is the difference in
temperature between the two fluids at one end, and T2 is the difference between their
temperatures at the other end.
Example: Calculate the LMTD for a heat exchanger with hot fluid initial temperature 100C and final
50C and cool fluid initial temperature 20C and final 40C, for firstly the counter current case and
then for the parallel flow case..
Calculating heat exchanger size
The LMTD approach can be used for calculating the surface area of heat transfer required in the heat
exchanger.
Q
A=
U ΔT m
Example: for the counter flow and parallel flow heat exchangers above, determine the surface area
required to exchange heat at the rate of 1 kW.
Calculating the heat transfer coefficient
With a convective transfer at either side of the surface separating the two fluids and conduction
through the wall, the heat transfer can be written:
1
UA=
ro
ln
1 ri 1
+ +
2 π r o ho L 2 π kL 2 π r i hi L
Where the middle term is the axisymmetric wall conduction through the separating surface – it is
usually negligibly small compared to the two convective terms and can be ignored in many cases. It
is possible to imagine that the value of U can be calculated for either end and that the overall value is
the average of these two values – this is a reasonable approximation for the overall heat transfer
coefficient for use with the LMTD.
Using LMTD for calculating temperatures
LMTD method requires the inlet and outlet temperatures. Therefore if these are not known then an
iterative approach must be used:
a) Guess outlet temperatures

b) Calculate LMTD
c) Calculate q́
d) Calculate outlet temperature for step a)
Comparison of parallel and counter flow
By comparison of the calculated surface areas above, the counter flow heat exchanger will result in a
smaller heat exchanger surface. By comparison of the parallel flow heat exchanger graph plotted in
section 2, it can be seen that the temperature midway between the two streams will be lower for the
separating wall temperature in the case of the parallel flow case, which may be important when the
fluids approach the melting point of the heat exchanger material.
When the shape is more complicated
The case of the single shell and tube is simple to analyse and can be attempted using 2 nd year
undergraduate heat transfer techniques. But for more complex designs the analysis relies on
experimental data which has been accumulated by other researchers.
The Coates building boiler room, which receives high pressure hot water from the central heating
plant of the university (underneath the big chimney), has large multipass shell and tube heat
exchangers. One of them is illustrated here, together with a figure from Bejan’s book on Heat
Transfer, which demonstrates how the flows interact.
In a multipass heat exchanger the heat exchange is complicated. We still have a known U overall, but
the temperature variation is complicated. Therefore use a correction factor from a chart. Refer to
‘Compact heat exchangers’ by Kays and London.
The effects of crossflow and multipass are accounted for by introducing a factor F such that:
Q=UAF ∆ T m
The factor F is derived from calculations similar to the derivation of LMTD or read from graphs.
The correction factor allows us to use the LMTD type of calculation for more complex geometries.
Two new variables are introduced:
t 2−t 1
P=
T 1 −t 1
and
T 1−T 2
R=
t 2−t 1
The meaning of these is apparent from the

cases illustrated on the left.
Read the correction factor from charts,

knowing P on the horizontal axis, a selection
of curves for various values of R, and
corresponding correction factor, F from the
vertical axis.
Three cases shown from a book by Bowman,

Mueller and Nagle in Heat Transfer, Bejan,
1993.
Example: calculate the geometrical

correction factor for the previous example
LMTD calculation for the 3 heat exchangers
shown.
Write your answers here:
R is the ratio of the temperature changes in

each fluid and hence of the thermal
capacities. P is the ratio of temp change in
one fluid to the maximum temp change
available. The idea of increasing complexity is to increase compactness. As a rule of thumb, a

compact heat exchanger is one that has a heat exchange surface >700m 2 per m3 of volume. Lungs
are excellent – the passages are typically 0.1mm diameter, and they have approximately 30,000 m 2
per m3.
If P0, the stream having temperatures t1 and t2 has change of phase, i.e. if pressure drop is not too
great t1 t2.
If R0, the stream having temperatures T1 and T2 has a change of phase.
If a stream has a phase change, the capacity rate is effectively infinite, because the fluid will absorb
heat without changing temperature. These are the two limits on the charts.
5. The effectiveness-number of transfer units method

An alternative method which examines the thermal conductance, UA, as well as the capacity rates,
Chot and Ccold, this method introduces two dimensionless groups:
The Number of heat Transfer Units:
UA
NTU= .
(m C p )min
where (mCp)min is the smaller capacity rate.
And the effectiveness:
actual heat transfer rate q̇
ε= =
maximum heat transfer rate q̇max
q̇ max =C min ΔT max
This can best be considered in graphical terms; it asks the question if the UA could be increased to
whatever we wanted, what is the maximum achievable heat exchange between the two fluids?
As the size of the exchanger increases, the fluid with the smaller capacity rate, which has the steeper
gradient, in this case Ccold, exchanges heat with the hot fluid until the limit when the size is such that
it leaves at the temperature of the hot fluid. This is the limit of the heat transfer. The minimum fluid
may be either hot or cold fluid.
Example: Oil flows at the rate of 5 g/s and has a specific heat capacity of 2.4 kJ/kgK and water flows
in the same heat exchanger at the rate of 10 g/s with a specific heat capacity of 4.18 kJ/kgK.
Calculate the capacity rate of each fluid and determine which is the minimum capacity rate. Given
that the hot oil enters at 140C and the water at 20C, calculate the q́ max .
Write your solution here:
Calculations for NTU and 
Usually calculations entail evaluating  from knowledge of C and NTU values, and then evaluating
qactual. No iteration is required. Expressions for NTU in terms of  can be derived by analysis of the
rearranged LMTD heat transfer equation:
Δ Ta - Δ T b
LMTD = Δ T m =
ln( ΔT a / Δ T b )
in terms of effectiveness and NTU by manipulation of the three equations. For example, a parallel
flow gives the formula:
NTU =
[ (
ln 1−ε 1+
C min
C max )]
Cmin
1+
Cmax
Which can be manipulated to give the effectiveness:
ε=
[ (
1−exp −NTU 1+
C min
C max )]
C min
1+
C max
A formula is required for each configuration of heat exchanger, since the simple case of the parallel
flow single shell and tube is similarly complicated as in the case of the LMTD when the geometrical
arrangement is complicated. Fortunately, rather than using the formulae, data is presented in charts
that can be read. If Cmin/Cmax =1, the capacity rates are balanced – balanced heat exchanger. If
Cmin/Cmax =0, one stream, Cmax, has phase change at nearly constant pressure. For the same
geometrical arrangements as presented for the LMTD case, the same are presented for this method
on the following page.
Example: Calculate the number of transfer units (NTU) for the previous example for a heat exchanger
with an overall heat transfer coefficient of 1200 W/m 2K and a surface area between the two fluids of
3 m2.
Example: For each of the 3 heat

exchangers in the figure on the left,
calculate the effectiveness and
hence the actual heat transfer rate
for the case above.
6. Pressure drop and fouling
Work of pump or fan to drive the

fluids
Calculation of the pressure drop

depends on detailed knowledge of
the path that the fluid follows in
flowing through the heat
exchanger. Expansions, entries, bends all need to be included. There is a pump factor that needs to
be taken into account. For a liquid it is:
1 ṁ
Ẇ= p −p
η p ρ ( in out )
The pressure difference depends upon the friction factor for the tubes and on the minor losses.
For gases the work is:
[( ) ]
R
1 pout cp
Ẇ= mc p T in −1
ηc pin
Intensification of heat transfer is usually accompanied by an increase in pressure drop.
Fouling of the surfaces by contaminents over time
Over time the boundary surfaces

corrode and acquire a scale coat,
whilst the fluids gain impurities,
so fouling factor, r, are used for
both shell and tube giving,
1 As As
1
Us
=
1
( 1
+ +
h s ht ht At
+ rs + rt
) (
At )
Where subscript s is shell-side, subscript t is tube-side.
The following table gives representative Fouling Factors [m 2K/W] related to various fluid flows and
illustrates the conditions that might lead to fouling (from Chenoweth, 1990, in Heat Transfer, Bejan).
Heat exchanger examples:

1. A heat exchanger operates with an oil with cp of 1.67 kJ/kgK and density
910 kg/m3 and water with cp of 4.2 kJ/kgK and density 1,000 kg/m3. The oil
volume flow rate is 3,158 l/h and the water flow rate is 2,000 l/h. What is
the capacity rate of the oil and of the water?
2. In the example of qu 3, the water enters at 50C and leaves at 70C and
the oil enters at 120C and leaves at 85C. The heat exchanger is of the
shell and tube type with counter-current flow. What is the logarithmic
mean temperature difference?
3. What is the surface area of the heat transfer surface within the heat
exchanger of qu 3 if it has an overall heat transfer coefficient of 1,100
W/m2K? If this is done with a tube having diameter 12mm, what is the
length of tube in the exchanger?
4. A compact heat exchanger is constructed with a cross-flow matrix
arrangement with unmixed streams for cooling oil in an air stream.
The oil enters at 70C and is required to leave at 30C. The oil density is
700kg/m3. The flow rate of oil is 5 litres per minute and it has a specific heat
capacity c=1.7 kJ/kgK at 10C and 2.5 kJ/kgK at 100C.
(a) What is a suitable average specific heat capacity of the oil over the
working range?
(b) What is the rate of heat transfer?
5. The air stream in question 4 enters at 20C and the mass flow rate of the
air is 0.5 kg/s.
(a) What is the exit temperature of the air?
(b) What is the correction factor?
(c) What is the LMTD for this situation?
6. The overall heat transfer coefficient of the exchanger is 200W/m 2K. What
is the required volume of the heat exchanger in order for it to be classified
as a compact heat exchanger?
7. A lung moves a volume of 3 litres every 5 seconds in air at a

temperature of 2C. The blood flow rate is 50 cc per second.
Calculate the capacity rate of the air and the blood. Will the
blood be significantly cooled by breathing?
8. Given that the area density of lung tissue is 30,000 m 2 per m3, what is the effective surface
area exchanging heat in the lungs? If the air leaves the lung at 30C, what is the LMTD of the
situation? What is the rate of heat transfer to the air? What is the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the lung? Is the lung a good heat
exchanger?
9. Steam in a power station superheat
generator heat exchanger flows at 100kg/s
with a starting temperature of 250°C. The
heat exchanger can be modelled as a
counter-current single tube and shell with a
mean tube diameter of 32 mm. The hot
gases flow at the rate of 250 kg/s, enter at
900°C. Given that the heat transfer
coefficient between the steam and the inner
tube wall is 300 W/m2K and that between
the hot gases and the out tube wall is 200
W/m2K, what is the overall heat transfer
coefficient, assuming the pipe wall
resistance is negligible?
10.The specific heat capacity of steam may be
assumed to be 2,000 J/kgK and the hot
gases to be 1,200 J/kgK. What are the Cmin
and Cmax and what is qmin?
11.Given that the steam exits the exchanger at
www.boilertubesoftexas.com/gallery.htm
400°C, what is the effectiveness? Using the formula for NTU for a counter-
current shell and tube, determine the required surface area of the heat
exchanger and hence find the length of tube.
C min
NTU =
ln ( 1−ε
1−ε
C max
)
C min
1−
C max
12.What is the temperature of the gases leaving the exchanger?

13.An alternative approach is taken to this calculation when an area change is
considered to only 400 m2 for the same exchanger design. By using the
formula for effectiveness in terms of NTU for the counter-current single
tube and shell exchanger, calculate the new effectiveness and hence the
new steam and gas out going temperatures.
ε=
(
1−exp −NTU 1−
( C min
C max ))
1−
C min
C max (
exp − NTU 1−
(
C min
C max ))
Consider the effect of fouling of the steam and

the gases on the heat exchanger. Steam
results in an additional thermal resistance of
0.0001 m2K/W on the steam side and the hot
gases result in an additional 0.0002 m2K/W on
the gas side. http://www.intelligent-
sootblowing.com/Seiten/slaggingandfouling.ht
ml
1. Capacity rate is m.cp. For the oil 3,158 l/h × 0.91 kg/l × 1.67 kJ/kgK = 4,799 kJ/Kh or 1.333 kW/K. For
the water 2,000 l/h × 1 kg/l × 4.2 kJ/kgK = 8,400 kJ/Kh or 2.333 kW/K.
Δ Ta - Δ T b
LMTD = Δ T m =
2. The log mean temp diff is
ln ( Δ T a / Δ T b ) . At the oil hot end, the water is hottest, so
Ta = 120-70 = 50C. At the oil cool end, the water is coolest, so Tb = 85-50 = 35C. The Tm is (50-35)/ln(50/35) = 42C.
3. Using the form of Newton’s Law with overall heat transfer coefficient, q=UAT, with Tm = 42C and U = 1,100 W/m2K. The heat
transfer rate is, from either fluid 46.66 kW. The surface area required to do this is 46.66 kW / 1.1 kW/m 2K × 42 K = 1 m2. The
length of tube is from dL = 1. 3.14×0.012×L = 1 and L = 26m.
4. a) suitable average cp of the oil might be one based on the average temperature over the range, in this case between 70C and
30C. Average is 50C. Use interpolation as follows:
c p −1. 750−10 40
= →c p, 65 C = ×0 . 8+1 .7=2 . 06
2 . 5−1 .7 100−10 90 kJ/kgK.
b)rate of heat transfer is indicated by the amount of heat absorbed by the oil. Mass flow rate is vol-flow rate  density =
0.005/60 (m3/s)  700 (kg/m3) = 0.058 kg/s. Now the heat transfer is:
q̇=ṁ c p ΔT =0. 058×2060×( 70−30 )=4, 779 W.
5. a) given the mass flow rate and the heat transfer (from question 4), the temperature of the air at the exit is from a heat balance
by energy conservation, heat transferred = energy gained by the fluid. The specific heat capacity of air is from the tables 1.005
q̇=ṁ c p ΔT=0. 5×1005×( T 2 −20 ) =4, 779
kJ/kgK. . Therefore T2 = 29.5C.
b) The correction factor is from the chart in the question. Work out the factors P and R. Take the air as the stream with T 1
entering (20C) and T2 exiting (29.5C) and take the oil as the stream with t1 entering (70C) and t2 exiting (30C).
Therefore P = (30-70)/(20-70) = 0.8, and R = (20-29.5)/(30-70) = 0.24. The correction factor from the chart is about 0.92.
(c) the LMTD is calculated assuming a counter-flow tube and shell heat exchanger with the position A at the hot oil end,
ΔT A − ΔT B ( 70−29. 5 )− ( 30−20 )
ΔT m= = =21 . 8
ΔT A 70−29 .5
and B at the cold oil end.

ln ( ΔT B ) ln
30−20
C
6. The heat exchanged by this heat exchanger is

q̇=UAF ΔT m = 200A0.9221.8 = 4,779 and hence A = 1.19 m2. A
compact heat exchanger is one which has a surface density of at least 700 m2/m3. The required volume is therefore 1.19/700 =
0.0017 m3 or 1.7 litres.
7. Cair = (0.003 [m3]  1.2 [kg/m3] / 5 [s])1005 [J/kgK] = 0.724 W/K. Assuming blood has the same thermodynamic properties as
water, Cblood = 5010-6 [m3/s]  1,000 [kg/m3]  4,200 [J/kgK] = 210 W/K. Therefore the blood has a far higher thermal capacity
rate than the air, and the blood will not change temperature significantly compared with change in the air temperature.
8. Surface area in 3 litres of lung is 0.003  30,000 = 90 m2. Given that the air enters at 2c and leaves at 30C, and assuming the
blood does not change temperature, the LMTD is
ΔT A − ΔT B ( 2−37 )−( 30−37 ) −28
ΔT m= = =
ΔT A 2−37 −35
ln ( ΔT B ) ln
30−37
ln
−7
=-17.4C; the minus sign is not of concern –
it is just the magnitude that is important not the direction. The overall heat transfer coefficient for q=UATm requires the heat
transferred to the air, which is 0.72428 = 20 W. U is therefore 20/(9017.4) = 0.013 W/m2K. The heat exchanger is not good at
exchanging heat; this is because of the low thermal capacity rate of the air.
9. This is a tube with convective heat transfer on the outside and inside, and the heat transfer
coefficients are stated. Simple heat transfer question. On the outer surface, the thermal resistance is
1/(2000.0321) = 0.050 W/K per m length of tube. On the inner surface, the thermal resistance is
1/(3000.0321) = 0.033 W/K per m length of tube. Note in this case, we assume that there is
negligible thermal resistance due to the pipe wall – it is a very good conductor and is relatively thin.
Therefore, total thermal resistance is 0.05 + 0.033 = 0.083 W/K per m of tube. This very simplified
and assumes no temperature effects due to the changing temperatures of the two fluids. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is 1/ARth. Therefore the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1/
(0.0321)0.083 = 120 W/m2K.
10. Csteam = 2,000100 = 200,000 W/K. Cgases = 1,200250 = 300,000 W/K. The steam has the minimum
thermal capacity rate. Qmax is the Cmin going through the maximum available temperature difference –
i.e through hotest gases temperature minus coldest steam temperature. q min = 200,000(900 – 250) =
130 MW.
11. The actual heat transfer is q = Csteam(400 – 250) = 30 MW. The effectiveness,  = q/qmin = 30/130 =
0.23. We know that NTU = UA/Cmin = 120A/200,000. From the formula for a single counter-flow tube
23×200 , 000
NTU =
ln ( 1−0.
1−0 . 23
300 ,000
) =0 . 285
200 , 000
1−
and shell exchanger, 300 , 000 . Therefore, A =
0.285200,000/120 = 475 m2, and the required length of tube is 0.032L = 475, L = 4,727 m.
12. Temperature of the gases leaving the exchanger is from energy conservation – the steam heats up by
the same measure that the gases cool down, so 30106 = Cgases(900 – T2). T2 = 900 –
30,000,000/300,000 = 800C.
13. In this case of the smaller heat exchanger, NTU = UA/C min = 120400/200,000 = 0.24. Using the
ε=
(
1− exp −0 . 24 1− ( 2
3 ))
formula given for effectiveness,
1−
2
3 (
exp −0 .24 1− (2
3 ))
= (1 – 0.923)/0.384 = 0.20.
Therefore heat transfer in this case is q = qmin   = 130,000,000  0.2 = 26 MW. Hence the steam out
temperature in this case is 26106 = 200,000(Tout – 250), Tout = 380C.
The fouling affects the thermal resistance calculated in part 1. The fouling factor is an additional thermal
resistance. So the tube outer thermal resistance, in the hot gases becomes 0.05 + 0.0002 = 0.0502 m 2K/W and
the tube inner thermal resistance, in the steam becomes 0.033 + 0.0001 = 0.0331 m 2K/W. The effect on U is
now 1/ARth = 1/(0.0321)0.0833 = 119.5 W/m2K. A reduction of 0.5/120 = 0.004 or 0.4%.

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Thermo topic 1, Thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids

Dr D.Giddings, Coates Building, B103, donald.giddings@nottingham.ac.uk

Structure of this part of the module

The overall aim is driven by the learning objectives:

LO1-Comprehend the concepts of practical thermofluid systems (knowledge and comprehension)

LO2-Represent applications of thermofluids in conceptual form by appropriate formulae

The following topics will be covered:

1. Properties of steam, gases and liquids – 2 lecture hours, 1 seminar hour

2. Vapour power cycles – 3 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours

3. Refrigeration and air conditioning – 4 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours

4. Reciprocating compressors – 3 lecture hours, 1 seminar hour

5. Combustion chemistry – 4 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours

6. Convective heat transfer correlations – 2 lecture hours, 1 seminar hour

7. Heat exchangers – 3 lecture hours, 2 seminar hours

Aim of this section

Aim: learn how to find properties of fluids for thermodynamic analysis

Fig.1. a convenient steam locomotive, from:

An enjoyable glass reciprocating steam engine is at:

1. A thermodynamic property describes the thermal condition of a fluid.

Figure 1 thermodynamic state properties

2. Availability of property information

Tabulated data for water and steam

Variation of saturation pressure with temperature

Enter the pressure here:

Think about what this means.

Write what it means here:

Alternatively, what is the pressure when temperature is 30C?

Enter the pressure here:

Write what it means here:

Subscripts are really important in representing data quantities

Variation of specific volume with temperature

Write what they mean here:

Vapour and liquid have different response to pressure

Write what happens to the liquid here:

It is possible to use a vacuum pump on water in a rigid vessel. So if water at 40 C is

Energy content of steam and water

At 100C, work out the difference between h f and hg.

Write the difference here:

Write the calculation here:

Write calculation here:

Write the calculation here:

And time to do this:

Sorting data by pressure instead of temperature

Here is a plot of ps from 0.01 to 100C.

Water saturation pressure

Figure 2 Graph of saturation pressure of pure water with temperature.

ps65C = 0.5*(0.3116-0.1992)+0.1992 = 0.2554 bar

Write your thinking and answer here:

Write your answer here:

Interpolating superheated tables

What is the enthalpy of steam at 4MPa (40 bar) and at 525C?

Write your calculation here:

What is the entropy of the steam at 4MPa and 525C?

Write your calculation here:

Write your calculation here:

Show your calculation of x for this case here:

6. Graphical representation of properties

enthalpy and entropy of steam;

pressure and enthalpy of refrigerant R134a;

temperature and entropy of steam.

State the conductivity of water liquid and vapour at 75 C in W/mK.

State the conductivity of dry air at 350K in W/mK.

State the conductivity of hydrogen at 400K in W/mK.