GRC Abstracts of Transactions, Volume 40

Geothermal Energy Here and Now:

Sustainable, Clean, Flexible

Geothermal Resources Council

2016 Annual Meeting
October 23-26, 2016
Sacramento Convention Center
Sacramento, California • USA

Goethermal Resources Council, 630 Peña Drive, Suite 400

P. O. Box 1350 • Davis, California 95617-1350 • USA
 GRC Abstracts of Transactions, Volume 40

Geothermal Energy Here and Now:

Sustainable, Clean, Flexible

Geothermal Resources Council

2016 Annual Meeting

Program Committee

General Chairman
Danielle Matthews Seperas
Calpine Corporation

GRC Executive Director Special Events Chairman

Steve Ponder Paul Graham
Geothermal Resources Council Calpine Corporation

Technical Program Chair Pre-Conference Workshop Chairman

Jericho Reyes Joe Moore
Calpine Corporation Energy and Geoscience Institute

Poster Session Chairman Photo Contest Chairman

Patrick Hanson Laura Garchar
Geo Energy Marketing Services

Invited Speaker Chairman International Participation Chairman

Danielle Matthews Seperas Gene Suemnicht
Calpine Corporation EGS, Inc.

Field Trips Chairman Exhibits Liaison

Mark Dellinger Karl Gawell
Geothermal Energy Association

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 Table of Contents
Business & Country Updates
Hernandez, J. A., J. F. Cardona, and E. J. Vega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Colombian Geothermal Energy Development: Technical and Economic Factors
Favoring Foreign Investment
Mines, G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Recent Developments With GETEM (Geothermal Electricity Technology Evalua-
tion Model)
Roque, R., A. Robertson-Tait, and M. A. Camargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Geothermal Market Analysis of Indonesia
Shnell, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Business Finance and Development in the Future Markets for Geothermal Energy
Tosha, T., N. Nishikawa, T. Shimada, and T. Oishi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Country Update of Geothermal Energy Development in Japan and the Activity of
JOGMEC
Toth, A. N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Geothermal Energy in Hungary
Wu, S-Y., M-L. Shen, W-A. Chen, and B-S. Huang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Present Status and Future Plans of the Geothermal Energy Master Program of
NEP-II in Taiwan

Case Studies
Jalilinasrabady, S., R. Itoi, N. Uchihori, and Y. Okamura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Energy and Exergy Analysis of Geothermal Steam Binary Power Generation
Kaspereit, D., M. Mann, S. Sanyal, B. Rickard, W. Osborn, and J. Hulen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Updated Conceptual Model and Reserve Estimate
for the Salton Sea Geothermal Field, Imperial Valley, California
Lovekin, J., B. Delwiche, and P. Spielman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
McGinness Hills — Case Study of a Successful Expansion
McIntush, K., K. Fisher, D. Mamrosh, R. McKaskle, C. Beitler, T. Fridriksson,
P. Audinet, and A. M. Merino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Early-Phase Evaluation of CO2 Recovery at Geothermal Facilities
Mukeu, P., and R. Langat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Olkaria (Kenya) Geothermal Project Case Study
Nakao, Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Development of Hybrid Geothermal-Biomass Power Plant in Japan
Saitet, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Update of the Conceptual Model of the Olkaria Geothermal System

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 Smith, J. D., G. Axelsson, and E. R. Camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Importance of Caprock Heating for Geothermal Heat in Place
Calculations: An Appalachian Basin Case Study
Wang, H., and X. Liu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Geothermal Energy Production from Oil/Gas Wells and
Application for Building Cooling
Yamato, A., M. Kato, and K. Sato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Simulation Study of a Downhole Heat Exchanger With Thermal Conduction in a
Rock Mass for a Small-Scale Power Generation System

Desalination
Akar, S., and C. Turchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Low Temperature Geothermal Resource Assessment
for Membrane Distillation Desalination in the United States
Aviña-Jiménez, H., D. De la Rosa-Urbalejo, and A. García-Gutiérrez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Desalination Using Geothermal Energy
Wendt, D., B. Adhikari, C. Orme, and A. Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Produced Water Treatment Using the Switchable Polarity Solvent Forward Osmo-
sis (SPS FO) Desalination Process: Preliminary Engineering Design Basis

Direct Use
Aviña Jiménez, H. M., P. Severiano Pérez, O. Velázquez Madrazo2, E. Pérez González,
and A. Jasso Rivera1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Low-Enthalpy Geothermal Food Dehydrator
Aviña Jiménez, H. M., M. Á. Benítez Torreblanca, and A. García Gutiérrez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Cascade Use of Geothermal Energy in Mexico
Dell, R., R. Unnthorsson, C. S. Wei, and N. Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A Thermoelectric Powered Quadruped Robotic System for Remote Monitoring of
Geothermal Open Field Heated Gardens in Iceland
Dell, R., R. Unnthorsson, C. S. Wei, and Nicholas Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Thermally Enhanced Open Field Heating Agricultural System
Using Waste Geothermal Hot Water and Low Temperature Steam
in Iceland and Waste Municipal Steam in New York City
Farquharson, N., Dr. A. Schubert, and U. Steiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Geothermal Energy in Munich (and Beyond) A Geothermal City Case Study
Jiang, X., X. Liu, and J. Liu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Analysis of Influence Factors on Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage Performance
Williams, T., N. Snyder, and W. Gosnold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Low-Temperature Projects of the Department of Energy’s Geothermal Technolo-
gies Program: Evaluation and Lessons Learned

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Drilling
Chatterjee, K., J. Macpherson, A. Dick, H. Grimmer, S. Klotzer, J. Schroder,
D. Epplin, C. Hohl, and S. Gacek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Development of a Directional Drilling System for Operation at 300°C for Geo-
thermal Applications
Erincik, M. Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Water: As a Drilling Fluid in Production Zone of Geothermal Wells
Graham, P., B. Krough, T. Nelson, A. White, and J. Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Innovative Conical Diamond Element Bit in Conjunction With Novel Drilling Prac-
tices Increases Performance in Hard-Rock Geothermal Applications, California
Letvin, A., P. Stroud, and S. Scagliarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Performance Evaluation of Polycrystalline Diamond Cutter (PDC) Bits Used in
the Production Interval of Well AW-01 in the Akiira Ranch Field, East African Rift
Valley, Central Kenya
Pyatina, P., T. Sugama, and A. Ronne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Self-Repairing Geothermal Well Cement Composites
Song, X., Z. Lv, L. Cui, G. Li, G. Ji, X. Hu, and Y. Shi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Numerical Analysis of Flow Field in Multiple Hydrothermal Jet Drilling for Geo-
thermal Wells
Tan, H., X. Zheng, F. Li, and C. Dua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Optimization and Characterization of the Self-Degradable Cement for Geother-
mal Wells
Toni, A., R. A. Pratama, I. M. Prasetyo, and M. B. Saputra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Deepest Geothermal Well in Indonesia: A Success Story of Aerated Drilling
Utilization
Tuttle, J. D., and R. Listi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
‘Drill-In’ Fluids and Drilling Practices Drilling More Productive, Less Costly Geo-
thermal Wells

Emerging/Production Technologies
Mohammadzadeh Bina, S., S. Jalilinasrabady, and H. Fujii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Exergetic Sensitivity Analysis of ORC Geothermal Power Plant Considering Ambi-
ent Temperature
Yang, S., G. Yang, Q. Wang, and Z. Zhang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Exploration of Comprehensive Anti-Scale Measures for Ground Pipeline in
Geothermal Well

Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS)

Arshad, M., M. Nakagawa, K. Jahan Bakhsh, and L. Dunnington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Thermal Stresses Around EGS
Fox, D. B., and B. S. Higgins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Effect of Well Density on Resource Depletion For a Vertical Closed-Loop
SCO2 Geothermal Well System

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 Garrison, G. H., S. Þ. Guðlaugsson, L. Ádám, A. Ingimundarson, T. T. Cladouhos, and S. Petty . . . . . 12
The South Hungary Enhanced Geothermal System (SHEGS) Demonstration Project
Hu, L., A. Ghassemi, J. Pritchett, and S. Garg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Experimental Simulation of Enhanced Geothermal Reservoir Stimulation
Hu, X., Dr. A. Tutuncu, Dr. A. Eustes, and Dr. C. Augustine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Optimizing for Large Planar Fractures in Multistage Horizontal Wells in Enhanced
Geothermal Systems Using a Coupled Fluid and Geomechanics Simulator
Jahan Bakhsh, K., M. Nakagawa, M. Arshad, and L. Dunnington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Transport Mechanisms Within Thermally-Shocked Region of an Enhanced Geo-
thermal System (EGS)
Janis, M., J. Liu, and A. Ghassemi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Reservoir Geomechanics Model for EGS
Kamali, A., and A. Ghassemi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Poroelastic Analysis of Natural Fracture Propagation and Coalescence
Knox, H. A., J. B. Ajo-Franklin, T. C. Johnson, J. P. Morris, M. C. Grubelich,
L. A. Preston, J. M. Knox, and D. King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
High Energy Stimulations Imaged With Geophysical Change Detection Tech-
niques
Kumar, D., and A. Ghassemi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Hydraulic Stimulation of Multiple Horizontal Wells for EGS Reservoir Creation
Zhou, M., J. Cho, L. E. Zerpa, and C. Augustine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Optimization of Well Configuration for a Sedimentary Enhanced Geothermal Reservoir

Environmental / Regulatory
Luckhardt, J. E., and S. Flake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Getting Paid for Grid Services and Supply Diversity: Are the Regulators Recogniz-
ing These Services?
Nthiga, M., and C. Barasa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Experience of Constructing the Resettlement Village Facilities for the 280MW
Geothermal Power Project at Olkaria, Kenya
Ramírez Bueno, M. A., and D. A. Rocha Ruiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Geothermal Energy Reform in Mexico: Legal Framework, Tools and Outcome
Vogel, E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Adding Impacts and Mitigation Measures to OpenEI’s RAPID Toolkit

Exploration
Acosta Ospina, L., and J. A. Quintero Loaiza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Kinematic and Deformative Analysis for the Santa Rosa and La Telaraña Faults
Alm, S., J. D. Walker, and K. Blake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Structural Complexity of the Pirouette Mountain and Elevenmile Canyon Geother-
mal Systems

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 M. C. Harvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Geothermal Field Work Using a Drone With Thermal Camera: Aerial Photos, Digi-
tal Elevation Models and Heat Flow
Madubuike, C., T. Brikowski, and A. Moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Using Infrared Spectrometry to Deduce Fluid History from an Exploration Core,
Emigrant Peak Geothermal Prospect, Northern Fish Lake Valley, Nevada, USA
Unruh, J., B. Gray, K. Christopherson, S. Pullammanappallil, S. Alm, and K. Blake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Seismic Reflection and Magnetotelluric Imaging of Southwestern Dixie Valley
Basin, Nevada

Field Operations
Gill, J. S., G. T. Jacobs, and S. Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Mitigation of Calcium Sulfate Scaling in Geothermal Production Wells
Sisler, J. R., and S. J. Zarrouk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Measurement of Two Phase and Other Flows Using Radio Frequency (RF) Power
Measurements: Experimental Results
Weres, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Silica Deposits Can Be Controlled

Geochemistry
Brown, S. T., X. Ding, N. C. Sturchio, J. N. Christensen, E. Sonnenthal,
B. M. Kennedy, and D. J. DePaolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
222
Rn Production in Geothermal Fluids and Its Application to Quantifying Fracture
Attributes
Buck, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Cumulative Injection Effects on Well 66A-7 in the Coso Geothermal Field
Chandrasekhar, T., V. Chandrasekhar, and D. Chandrasekharam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Geothermometry of West Coast Geothermal Province, Maharashtra, India
Chandrasekhar, V., T. Chandrasekhar, and D. Chandrasekharam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
New Insight Into the Evolution of India’s West Coast Geothermal Province:
Trace Element Signature in the Thermal Waters
Duan, C., X. Zheng, and S. Yang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Scaling Tendency Prediction of the Southeast Geothermal Field in Beijing
Sverrisdóttir, S. B., and G. Axelsson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Tracer Testing in the Svartsengi Geothermal Field in 2015

Geology
Benoit, D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Soda Lake Geothermal Field Case History 1972 to 2016
Faulds, J. E., N. H. Hinz, M. F. Coolbaugh, L. A. Shevenell, and D. L. Siler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The Nevada Play Fairway Project — Phase II: Initial Search for New Viable Geo-
thermal Systems in the Great Basin Region, Western USA

vii
 Forson, C., J. L. Czajkowski, D. K. Norman, M. W. Swyer, T. T. Cladouhos,
and N. Davatzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summary of Phase 1 and Plans for Phase 2 of the Washington State Geothermal
Play-Fairway Analysis
Gwynn, M., R. Allis, C. Hardwick, J. Hill, and J. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A New Look at the Thermal Regime Around Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah
Lautze, N., D. Thomas, G. Hill, E. Wallin, R. Whittier, S. Martel, G. Ito, N. Frazer,
and N. Hinz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Phase 2 Activities to Improve a 2015 Play Fairway Analysis of Geothermal Poten-
tial Across the State of Hawaii
Mark-Moser, M., E. Cameron, K. Rose, L. Romeo, J. Schultz, and A. Schultz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Constraining Subsurface Model Resolution at Newberry Volcano Using a Weight-
ed Spatial Analysis
Siler, D. L., N. H. Hinz, J. E. Faulds, B. Tobin, K. Blake, A. Tiedeman, A. Sabin,
M. Lazaro, D. Blankenship, M. Kennedy, G. Rhodes, J. Nordquist, S. Hickman,
J. Glen, C. Williams, A. Robertson-Tait, W. Calvin, and W. Pettitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Geologic Framework of the Fallon FORGE Site
Siler, D. L., K. Blake, A. Sabin, M. Lazaro, D. Meade, D. Blankenship, B. M. Kennedy,
J. McCulloch, S. DeOreo, S. Hickman, J. Glen, O. Kaven, M. Schoenball, C. Williams,
G. Phelps, J. E. Faulds, N. H. Hinz, A. Robertson-Tait, and W. Pettitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Geologic Framework of the West Flank FORGE Site
Stimac, J., and P. E. Mandeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
A Workflow for 3D Geothermal Conceptual Models — Moving Beyond the
Flat Cartoon
Turan, A., S. Saner, and E. Artun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Intersecting Fracture Geometries
in Control of Geothermal Spring Occurrences
in Circumferences of the Madra Mountain, Aegean Region of Turkey

Geophysics
Cumming, W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Resource Conceptual Models of Volcano-Hosted Geothermal Reservoirs for Ex-
ploration Well Targeting and Resource Capacity Assessment: Construction, Pitfalls
and Challenges
Gosnold, W., S. McLaughlin, and C. Colby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Preliminary Three-Dimensional Temperature Structure of the Williston Basin
Mellors, R. J., V. Camp, and A. Al-Amri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Using Seismic Networks to Explore for Geothermal Resources in Western
Saudi Arabia
Witter, J. B., P. Stelling, P. Knapp, and N. H. Hinz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3D Geophysical Inversion Modelling of Gravity Data as a Subsurface Geothermal
Exploration Tool With an Example From Akutan (Alaska, USA)

viii
 Wood, S. H., K. Pirarai, A. Fuangswasdi, W. Kaentao, A. Waibel, F. S. Singharajwarapan . . . . . . . . . . 24
Muang Rae Geothermal System: Drilling and Borehole Geophysics, 1000-m Core
Hole Into Granitic Rock, Amphoe Pai, Mae Hong Son Province, Northern Thai-
land

GeoVision
Augustine, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Update to Enhanced Geothermal System Resource Potential Estimate
Augustine, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
A Methodology for Calculating EGS Electricity Generation Potential
Based on the Gringarten Model for Heat Extraction From Fractured Rock
Climo, M., B. Carey, A. Seward, and S. Bendall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Strategies for Increasing Geothermal Direct Use in New Zealand
Dobson, P. F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
A Review of Exploration Methods for Discovering Hidden Geothermal Systems
Liu, X., P. Hughes, and A. Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
An Overview of Geothermal Heat Pump Applications and a Preliminary Assess-
ment of Its Technical Potential in the United States
Lowry, T. S., B. M. Kennedy, and C. R. Carrigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Findings From the DOE GeoVision Reservoir
Management and Development Task
McCabe, K., M. Gleason, T. Reber, and K. R. Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Characterizing U.S. Heat Demand for Potential Application of Geothermal Direct Use
Mullane, M., M. Gleason, K. McCabe, M. Mooney, T. Reber, and K. R. Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
An Estimate of Shallow, Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources of the United States
Richard, C., E. Eugeni, A. Makalinao, A. Jelacic, and M. Vigalys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Geothermal Value Proposition
Richard, C., M. Vigalys, and T. Reinhardt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Geothermal Vision Study – GRC Annual Meeting Brief
Sander, M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Geothermal District Heating Systems: Country Case Studies From China, Germany,
Iceland, and United States of America, and Schemes to Overcome the Gaps
Speer, B., and K. R. Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Survey of Recent Market Trends for Geothermal With a Snapshot of Potential Ad-
ditional Research Areas to Expand Deployment
Wall, A. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Future Scenario Development From Disruptive Exploration Technologies and
Business Models in the U.S. Geothermal Industry

ix
Oil and Gas
Aniodoh, C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Enhancing Energy Recovery From Abandoned Oil Wells Through Geothermal
Technology

Power Plant
Asano, T., and T. Muto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Axial Exhaust Steam Turbine and Low Level Type Direct Contact Condenser
for Kamojang Geothermal Power Plant Unit5 in Indonesia

Benn, B., A. Sonneville, L. Morrison, and T. Bahning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Using “Ski Slopes” to Capture and Mix Oxygenated Water to Improve the Efficien-
cy of a Condensate H2S Abatement System at Aidlin Power Plant

Devinney, J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Off Design Operation of Hybrid Noncondensable Gas Removal Systems
for Flash Steam Cycle Geothermal Power Plants

Fishman, M., J. Gunderson, and W. Harvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Advances in Turbine and Direct Contact Condenser Configurations,
and Balance of Plant Considerations

Hidayat, I., M. Kuntoaji, and D. N. Falah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Increased Generation Performances by Using Sulfur Dispersant in the Cooling
Tower at the Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant (A Lesson Learned from
Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant Operation)

Li, K., C. Liu, Y. Chen, G. Liu, J. Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Upgrading Both Geothermal and Solar Energy

Li, X., Z. Wang, Y. Wang, and W. Fu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Fuzzy PID Control Applied in Evaporator of Organic Rankine Cycle System

Moreno, J., and T. Lang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Advantages of Dual Enhanced Heat Transfer Tubes in Organic Rankine Cycle
Based Geothermal Plants

Morita, Y., K. Kawahara, and S. Saito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

MHPS Axial Flow Turbine & Direct Contact Condenser, and Recent Projects in
Mexico

Rossi di Schio, C., and J. Bonafin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Binary ORC Turbogenerators for Small and Medium Scale Plants in the Eastern
Caribbean Islands

Shoshan, G., and A. Fiterman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Gumuskoy Repowering Case Study

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 Zhang, J., Y. Wang, Z. Wang, and W. Fu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Active Disturbance Rejection Control of Waste Heat Recovery Systems
With Organic Rankine Cycles

Reservoir Modeling
Clearwater, E. K., M. J. O’Sullivan, and R. A. Archer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
A 2-D Numerical Method for Tracking a Moving Water Table
Enedy, S. L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Update of Augmented Injection Benefit Model of The Geysers
Li, Y., E. Júlíusson, H. Pálsson, H. Stefánsson, and Á. Valfells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Complexity Analysis of Generalized Tank Models
Norbeck, J. H., and R. N. Horne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
A Numerical Method for Fractured Reservoir Poromechanics Using a Mixed-Con-
tinuum Embedded Fracture Model
O’Sullivan, J., M. O’Sullivan, and A. Croucher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Improvements to the AUTOUGH2 Supercritical Simulator With Extension to the
Air-Water Equation-of-State
Stacey, R. W., L. Norris, and S. Lisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
OLGA Modeling Results for Single Well Reinjection of Non-Condensable Gases
(NCGs) and Water

Tools & Instruments

Cieslewski, G., R. F. Hess, T. J. Boyle, W. G. Yelton, B. E. Klamm, L. Goldfarb, and I. N. Stork . . . . . . 34
Development of a Wireline Tool Containing an Electrochemical Sensor
for Real-time pH and Tracer Concentration Measurement
Holbein, B., J. Isele, L. Spatafora, V. Hagenmeyer, and T. Schulenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Heat Exchanger for Down-Hole Condensation Process Theoretical and Experi-
mental Investigation, Considering Surrounding Fluid Properties
Normann, R., C. Normann, J. Henfling, D. A. Glowka, and M. Soares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Development of a Geothermal Well Inspection Camera With Active CO2 Cooling
Ronoh, K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Geo-Nuclear Energy Concept
Sugama, T., and T. Pyatina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Performance Evaluation of Mineral Additive-Free Perfluoropolymer Nanocompos-
ite O-Ring in Simulated Geothermal Environments at 300°C

Alphabetical List of Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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Business and Country Update
Colombian Geothermal Energy Development: Technical and Economic Factors Favoring Foreign Investment
Jonathan A. Hernandez, Juan F. Cardona, and Elsa Juliana Vega S., • Dewhurst Group, L.L.C.
Keywords: Colombia, geothermal investment, risk mitigation, finance, business development, market analysis, country update
Colombia has emerged as a site of untapped geothermal potential in the last five years, while its economy has shown a favorable
environment for the influx of foreign investment. This paper is designed to show how technical and economic factors are shaping both
policy and private enterprise in Colombia for geothermal energy development. Colombia has an economy that is willing, and perhaps
needing, to diversify its national energy portfolio. This paper will detail the favorability of the Colombian economy for geothermal
development, along with other favorable factors for development such as: willing domestic stakeholders, government incentives for
developers, well-researched areas of potential, relatively accessible sites, currency advantages, and strong trade relations with geo-
thermally developed countries. Furthermore, foreign investment has already taken place in the Colombian geothermal sector. The aim
of this paper is to provide further geoscientific and economic analyses so that investment may continue.

Recent Developments With GETEM (Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model)

Greg Mines • Idaho National Laboratory
Keywords: Techno-economic modeling, geothermal power generation costs
The US Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) has developed the Geothermal Electricity Technology
Evaluation Model (GETEM) to provide representative estimates of the cost to generate electrical power from geothermal energy. Since
its development in 2006, GETEM has gone thru different iterations to characterize specific geothermal resource and power generation
scenarios, as well as to address and resolve issues that the industry has had with the estimates generated. As a result of these changes,
the model became arduous to use, which limited its use by both the GTO and the public. Recent efforts have focused on making the
model easier to use by incorporating model defaults that are based on the resource type (hydrothermal or EGS), temperature and depth.
With these three inputs, a ‘default’ scenario is established and a generation cost estimated. A user can then revise up to 113 different
inputs to consider other scenarios for the identified resource. This development effort included re-aligning the approach for depicting
a project, and providing justification/validation for the default inputs embedded in the model. This paper summarizes the recent work
done on the model and provides an overview of the work done to arrive at the defaults used to characterize a geothermal resource.

Geothermal Market Analysis of Indonesia

Raysa Roque, Ann Robertson-Tait, and Marcelo A. Camargo • GeothermEx, Inc., Richmond, CA, USA
geothermexinfo@slb.com
Keywords: Market analysis, Indonesia, development cost, business development
A mechanism was developed to systematically quantify the geothermal market in Indonesia and translate the traditional geothermal
industry nomenclature of capacity additions over time (MW/yr) to development spend ($/yr) and quantify the geothermal market in
terms of dollars and cents. This translation enabled quantification of the likely development spending in the largest potential geothermal
market in the world. Information acquired through this analysis was used to engage with the local stakeholders and create a strategic
business plan. This paper presents the evolution and analysis of the method used to analyze the Indonesian geothermal market, and
discusses how this method can be adapted for use in other countries to further understand the global geothermal market.

Business Finance and Development in the Future Markets for Geothermal Energy
Jim Shnell • Ocean Geothermal Energy Foundation
Keywords: Baseload generation, load balance, electrolysis, supercritical geothermal resources, hydrogen fuel, unified energy
industry, cap-and-trade, public-private partnership, enhanced infrastructure financing district
The Accord signed by 177 nations at COP 21 in Paris last December demonstrated the breadth of the consensus around the world
that the problems of global warming and climate change must be solved. At the same time, it betrayed the lack of consensus on the best
means and methods to achieve such a solution, leaving the choices of means and methods up to the discretion of the various countries.
Variations in the relevant conditions and circumstances in different countries support, and even require, variations in their approaches
to the solution, but a solution of the global problems will require a new foundation to replace the coal, oil and natural gas that provide
the current foundation. High-enthalpy geothermal resources from around the world will enable supercritical geothermal generation
and electrolysis to balance the other renewable resources and, together, will power the grids in the various countries. At the same time,
such geothermal energy will provide the clean hydrogen to replace fossil fuels for transportation, industry and other uses. These steps
will transform not only the geothermal industry, but the entire energy industry. To accomplish these steps will require finance and other
business developments in the new, supercritical geothermal industry to enable it to work economically and achieve the efficiency and
power needed to solve global warming and climate change and become the cornerstone of the new, unified energy industry.

Country Update of Geothermal Energy Development in Japan and the Activity of JOGMEC
T. Tosha1, N. Nishikawa, T. Shimada, and T. Oishi • Japan Oil, Gas & Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC)
1
Present Affiliation: Kumamoto University

1
Keywords: JOGMEC, NEDO, financial support, technology development, political goal, in 2030, Japan
In 2015 METI decided an energy policy for a year of 2030 and the amount of the electricity generated by renewable energy will
be expected as the same as that generated by nuclear power. Geothermal power generation is expected to be more than 1,500MW
installed capacity under this new policy, which is almost three times the current installed capacity. JOGMEC, a Japanese government
enterprise under the umbrella of METI, organises financial support and technology developments to encourage developers to achieve
the political goal of increased geothermal energy generation in 2030.
JOGMEC offers several types of financial support, including subsidy, equity capital, and liability guarantee. Subsidy will be ap-
plied during the survey period, equity capital during the exploration period and liability guarantee during the construction period of
the power plant. JOGMEC also manages the R&D projects and develops the geothermal exploitation technologies. One survey project,
two geophysical investigation technology developments, and one drilling technology development are being conducted.

Geothermal Energy in Hungary

Aniko N. Toth • University of Miskolc, Miskolc-Egyetemvaros, Hungary • toth.aniko@uni-miskolc.hu
Keywords: Geothermal potential, recent development, utilization, direct uses, heat pumps, pilot power plant
Hungary’s excellent geothermal potential is well-known. Traditionally, the country’s geothermal energy production was used for
direct heat supply, with most of the thermal water used in spas. As yet, there is no developed ground-source heat-pump market or
operational geothermal power-plant in Hungary. There are many current projects being prepared. These focus on geothermal power
plant, CHP, district heating and GSHP incentives. Ongoing and increasing financial support is needed, as well as simplified, transparent
and reliable legislative frameworks. The key environmental issue in the Hungarian geothermal sector is still injection. Only a minor
part of the produced thermal water is re-injected. Hungary has traditionally had strong geothermal education, and despite the reces-
sion such courses are still being given.

Present Status and Future Plans of the Geothermal Energy Master Program of NEP-II in Taiwan
Shu-Yao Wu1, Min-Lin Shen1, Wei-An Chen1, and Bor-Shouh Huang1, 2
1
Geothermal Energy and Gas Hydrate Focus Center, National Energy Programs-Phase II (NEP-II) of Taiwan
2
Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taiwan • hwbs@earth.sinica.edu.tw
Keywords: Geothermal Energy Master Program (GEMP), Geothermal Energy and Gas Hydrate Focus Center, National En-
ergy Program – Phase II (NEP-II), Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), Tatun Volcano Group (TVG), Ilan, Taiwan
Geothermal Energy is a thermal energy source generated from the Earth. It is a type of green energy because of the following
characteristics: (1) clean, sustainable, and renewable; (2) could replace nuclear power plants; (3) low power prices; (4) small spatial
requirements for geothermal power plants; (5) resistant to natural disasters (nine geothermal power plants in the Northeast were not
damaged by the earthquake in March 2011 in Japan). Taiwan is located on a pacific tectonic plate boundary, and the volcanic activity
and plate extrusion generate rich geothermal reserves that have high potential for development. According to previous exploration
data, the potential electricity generated from traditional shallow geothermal resources may amount to approximately one GWe. How-
ever, Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) could increase the geothermal resources across all islands to up to 160 GWe. Therefore,
the National Energy Program – Phase II (NEP-II) established a Geothermal Energy and Gas Hydrate Focus Center in 2014 to better
support and coordinate Taiwan’s geothermal investigation efforts into thermal energy generation. Priority areas for investigation are
northern Taiwan, Tatun Volcano Group (TVG), and Ilan, and exploration and drilling is being conducted to obtain critical information
and to assess the geothermal resource potential. Eventually, we plan to build the first demonstration geothermal power plant in Taiwan.

Case Studies
Energy and Exergy Analysis of Geothermal Steam Binary Power Generation
Saeid Jalilinasrabady1, Ryuichi Itoi2, Nobuo Uchihori3, and Yoshihiro Okamura3
1
Graduate School of International Resource Sciences, Akita University, Japan
2
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
3
Keiyo Plant Engineering, Ichikawa, Chiba, Japan • jalili@gipc.akita-u.ac.jp
Keywords: Scaling, geothermal power plant, binary cycle, exergy, optimization
Scaling and corrosion have presented problems in many geothermal systems. Dissolved materials in geothermal waters can exhibit
aggressive corrosive properties or have the tendency to deposit large amounts of mineral scale. Evaporators of binary cycles are a very
important part of the system and their indirect contact with geothermal fluid is one of the methods to overcome aggressive behavior
of these fluids. The idea of this project was to use separated steam in an evaporator as a heat source for binary plant. In this research,
the experiment was designed and results were collected, a model was developed and validated using experimental data. Energy and
exergy efficiencies of the proposed plant was calculated to be 7.42% and 35.14%, respectively.

Updated Conceptual Model and Reserve Estimate for the Salton Sea Geothermal Field, Imperial Valley, CA
Dennis Kaspereit1, Mary Mann1, Subir Sanyal1, Bill Rickard1, William Osborn1, and Jeff Hulen2
1
Geothermal Resource Group, Palm Desert CA • 2Private Consultant, Ivins UT

2
dkaspereit@geothermalresourcegroup.com • mary@geothermalresourcegroup.com
ssanyal@geothermalresourcegroup.com • billrickard@geothermalresourcegroup.com
wosborn@geothermalresourcegroup.com • jbh_rmh@kayenta.net
Keywords: Salton Sea, reserves, potential, pull-apart, conceptual model, heat anomaly, rift, magnetotelluric, seismic
The Salton Sea Geothermal Field is one of the largest geothermal resources in the world. Recent changes in leasehold positions,
changes in lake management due to Colorado River water transfers, a transition to renewable energy resources and the clean energy
initiatives of California, have prompted renewed interest in development of the field for baseload power generation. The receding
shoreline of the Salton Sea is now exposing areas previously inaccessible, and exposing large tracts of land for development.
Since the last conceptual model and resource estimate for the Salton Sea Geothermal Field was published in 2002, significant ad-
ditional data has become available, including publicly available seismic surveys over the resource area, experiences of developers and
operators at the field, and recent research related to seismicity and tectonics of Southern California. In this study, we integrate these
data sets in an updated conceptual model and a revised estimate of the power generation potential of the field. The result is a model
that can serve as the basis for further exploration and development in the field. Our study increases the power generation potential of
the field to 2950 MWe.

McGinness Hills — Case Study of a Successful Expansion

James Lovekin1, Benjamin Delwiche2, and Paul Spielman2
1
GeothermEx, A Schlumberger Company, Richmond CA • 2Ormat Nevada, Inc., Reno NV
Keywords : McGinness Hills, Ormat, case study, temperature trend, conceptual model, permeability, tracer tests, reservoir
pressure, pump-setting depth, gas breakout
Ormat expanded the McGinness Hills geothermal project with the addition of a second power plant in February 2015. The first year
of operation of the second power plant has showed that the expansion was successful. Generation has increased from a nominal initial
capacity of 30 MW net to more than 90 MW net. Production and injection are in two distinct grabens that appear to be linked at depth
by intersecting faults. This is interpreted to have created a U-tube path for injected water to extract heat from the depths of the system.
Production temperatures have remained constant at 337°F, and declines in reservoir pressure near the production area have been modest
(3 to 6 psi per year). Tracer testing has showed long times to initial tracer arrival (over one month) and low tracer response peaks (less
than 11 ppb). Downhole production pumps have a sufficient liquid column above the pumps to avoid gas breakout at the pump inlets.
In addition, the casing configuration would allow deepening the pump-setting depths by several hundred feet, which provides a further
buffer against the possibility of gas breakout in the longer term.

Early-Phase Evaluation of CO2 Recovery at Geothermal Facilities

Kenneth McIntush1, Kevin Fisher1, Darryl Mamrosh1, Ray McKaskle1, Carrie Beitler1, Thráinn Fridriksson2, Pierre Audinet2,
and Almudena Mateos Merino2
1
Trimeric Corporation, Buda TX • 2The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, World Bank Group, Washington, DC
ken.mcintush@trimeric.com • kevin.fisher@trimeric.com • darryl.mamrosh@trimeric.com • ray.mckaskle@trimeric.com
carrie.beitler@trimeric.com • tfridriksson@worldbank.org • paudinet@worldbank.org • amateos@worldbank.org
Keywords: Geothermal, non-condensable gas, NCG, CO2, carbon dioxide, CO2 recovery, greenhouse CO2, enhanced oil
recovery CO2, beverage-grade CO2, reinjection CO2
A study was performed to evaluate process schemes and early-phase economics for the recovery of four different CO2 products
from a non-condensable gas (NCG) stream at a geothermal power plant. The four products include: 1) low-pressure, lower-purity
CO2 for greenhouse gas use, 2) high-pressure, dense-phase CO2 for enhanced oil recovery applications, 3) a refrigerated-liquid CO2
product of beverage grade quality, and 4) subsurface reinjection for sequestration of the CO2-rich NCG for carbon capture credits.
The estimate for Product 3 is intended to also apply to other refrigerated liquid CO2 grades, such as dry ice, food grade, and industrial
grade. Although other grades of liquefied CO2 could possibly be slightly less expensive to produce compared to the beverage grade,
the differences are likely within the error margins of this early phase work. Even though the CO2 is not actually recovered in Product
4, it is considered a “product” due to the value of the carbon-capture credit from avoidance of venting the CO2 to the atmosphere. The
NCG feed to the recovery process in the study was 50 tonne per hour for a hypothetical binary geothermal power plant with high-gas
content in the geothermal fluid. The CO2 content of the NCG feed to the CO2 recovery process is 98.4 mol% (dry basis). The capital
cost, major process operating cost (power and chemicals), and the estimated total treat cost per tonne of CO2 product (includes power
and chemical cost, operating labor, maintenance and G&A, and capital amortization) were estimated for the four products. The re-
moval of other impurities (Hg, COS, and C2H6) in the NCG that could impact the CO2 product recovery process was also considered.

Olkaria (Kenya) Geothermal Project Case Study

Pharis Mukeu and Reuben Langat • Kenya Electricity Generating Company Limited, Naivasha, Kenya
rklangat@kengen.co.ke • pmukeu@kengen.co.ke
Keywords: Geothermal, Kenya, Olkaria project execution, project operation
Based on the theme of this year’s meeting, it is critical to discuss the road gone through to develop the world’s largest single unit
Geothermal Power Plant. Olkaria IV/IAU 140MW Geothermal Power Project. The two power plants are located in Naivasha Kenya
in a volcanic region of Olkaria near the Mt. Longonot. Either of these two plants form the largest geothermal power plants in Africa

3
producing 150MWe each. The two among others, inject power to the national grid whose power composition is about 38% hydro, 29%
geothermal, 1% wind, less than 0.1% solar and 32% thermal. The plants were commissioned between late 2014 and early 2015 with
the defects liability period for the last unit ending in January 2016.The paper is expected to give a roadmap of the project right from
researches, exploration & drilling, project execution and now the current- Operations. The paper will reflect on the three major aspects
that have made the project come to operation being steam field exploration & Development, power Plants Projects-Construction and
commissioning, transmission Line Construction.
During this project, the author of this paper was very much involved and well engaged to have gathered enough experiences in the
way to run a Geothermal Power Project, challenges in running a Geothermal Power Project, Solutions to challenges faced, Lessons
learnt only to mention but a few. The paper is entirely an original work of the author with reference to the experience, knowledge and
skills gathered during the project execution period.

Development of Hybrid Geothermal-Biomass Power Plant in Japan

Yoshinobu Nakao • Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Yokosuka-shi, Kanagawa-ken, Japan
y-nakao@criepi.denken.or.jp
Keywords: Geothermal, biomass, renewable energy, hybrid, thermal efficiency
Geothermal energy is the clean and sustainable heat that lies beneath the earth’s surface, and it is considered a renewable energy
resource. A geothermal power plant has negligible environmental impact (approximately 0.015kg-CO2/kWh) and can help reduce car-
bon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. Although geothermal energy is potentially a very valuable domestic power source for Japan,
much of the geothermal resource base in Japan cannot yet be economically used. Therefore, many industries and research institutes in
Japan have researched and developed technologies to harness geothermal energy.
We have started to develop highly efficient hybrid geothermal power plants combined with other thermal energy sources such as
biomass, solar heat and exhaust heat from fuel cells. It is expected that the thermal efficiency of these systems can be improved by
superheating the main flow of steam through the use of the other energy sources. We have looked into the feasibility of these hybrid
power plants in terms of their engineering, economic performance, environmental laws and regulations. To report the latest status of this
project executed by CRIEPI in 2015, in this paper, we discuss the plant performance of our hybrid geothermal power generation systems.
This project was supported by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) program (2013 - 2017).
NEDO is a semi-governmental organization in Japan set up to promote the development and introduction of new energy technologies.

Update of the Conceptual Model of the Olkaria Geothermal System

Daniel Saitet • Kenya Electricity Generating Company Limited, Naivasha, Kenya • dsaitet@kengen.co.ke
Keywords: Olkaria, conceptual model, Kenya, East Africa rift
Many theories have been proposed regarding the conceptual model of Olkaria. Recent accelerated drilling has left many lessons
in the hands of the developer regarding the true subsurface conditions in the field. Moreover, it has generated important data on the
conditions of marginal areas that had not been drilled before. The Olkaria system remains a large and complex system with boundaries,
at least of permeability beginning to be evident. However, these boundaries provide significant constraints to the development strategy
of the field; but do not at all define the extent of the Olkaria geothermal system. Few interpretations have arisen recently that inform
future development strategies of the area. This paper unifies all available data from different scientific disciplines as well as drilling
data and well performance to provide an update of the field’s conceptual model.

The Importance of Caprock Heating for Geothermal Heat in Place Calculations:

An Appalachian Basin Case Study
Jared D. Smith1, Guðni Axelsson2, and Erin R. Camp3
1
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY • 2ÍSOR – Iceland GeoSurvey, Reykjavík, Iceland
3
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
Keywords: Sedimentary basin, heat in place, volumetric resource assessment, reservoir modeling, fractures, low tempera-
ture, Appalachian Basin
The Appalachian Basin was recently assessed for low temperature geothermal resources. Potential permeable zones were identified
from existing oil and gas reservoirs, some of which may be repurposed as geothermal reservoirs. A key metric used to evaluate the
favorability of repurposing a permeable zone is the thermal energy production potential. Resource assessments that employ volumetric
heat in place methods are commonly used to evaluate this metric. In this paper, the importance of including thermal recharge from
rocks surrounding the permeable zones is examined. The rocks that supply thermal recharge are referred to as the “skin” of the perme-
able zone. Volumetric heat in place methods are used to calculate the thermal energy in the permeable zones, and a dynamic resource
assessment is used to calculate the heat transferred into the working fluid (water) from the skin after 50 years of production. This
deterministic analysis assumes purely conductive heat transfer from the impermeable skin rocks into two horizontal fractures located
above and below the permeable zone. Under the assumption of an injection mass flow rate of 30 kg/s that is evenly distributed over the
permeable zone, the magnitude of the skin thermal energy relative to the total thermal energy is only important for permeable zones
that are less than 10 m thick. For these thin permeable zones, over a 50 year production timeframe the net pay thickness for harvesting
thermal energy can be more than double the thermal energy contained within the volume of the permeable thickness.

4
Geothermal Energy Production from Oil/Gas Wells and Application for Building Cooling
Honggang Wang1 and Xiaobing Liu2
1
Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rutgers University • 2Oak Ridge National Research Labratory
Keywords: Geothermal energy from petroleum wells, low-temperature geothermal resources, two-step absorption
One significant source of low-temperature geothermal energy is the coproduced hot water from oil/gas field production. In the United
States, daily oil production has reached above 8 million barrels per day in recent years. Considering various conditions of wells, 5-10
times this volume of water can be coproduced with a temperature in the range of 120 to 300°F. Like other geothermal resources, such
energy source is under-utilized due to its typically long distance from consumption sites. Many oil/gas fields, however, are relatively
close (less than 10 miles) to population centers. For instance, some petroleum fields in Pennsylvania are only a few miles away from
the towns in the Pittsburg area and some fields in Texas are quite close to Houston. In this paper, we evaluate geothermal potential
from oil/gas wells by conducting numerical simulation and analysis of a fractured oil well in the Hastings West field, Texas. The results
suggest that hot water can be continuously coproduced from oil wells at a sufficient rate (about 4000 gallons/day from one well) for
more than 100 years. Viable use of such geothermal source requires economical transportation of energy to consumers. The recently
proposed two-step geothermal absorption (TSGA) system provides a promising energy transport technology that allows large-scale
use of geothermal energy from thousands of oil/gas wells.

Simulation Study of a Downhole Heat Exchanger With Thermal Conduction in a Rock Mass
for a Small-Scale Power Generation System
Asada Yamato1, M. Kato2, and K. Sato3 • 1Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University
2
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University • 3Nippon COMSYS Corporation
Keywords: Numerical analysis, finite element method, thermal conduction, circulating water, down-hole heat exchanger
In geothermal development, the development cost mainly comprises the drilling cost. There is no guarantee that steam will be
produced even if the drilling is successful. However, the underground rock mass is often at high temperature even if geothermal fluid
does not discharge from the well. Therefore, for the well that has little steam discharge, the present study considers a borehole heat
exchanger that uses a low-cost, compact and spiral heat collecting tube. Such heat extracting technology does not require a natural
geothermal fluid. As the first step of investigation of this technology, we conduct a numerical analysis to evaluate whether we can ef-
fectively and continuously exploit heat conducted from the neighborhood bedrock with a heat exchanger.

Desalination
Low Temperature Geothermal Resource Assessment for Membrane Distillation Desalination
in the United States
Sertaç Akar and Craig Turchi • National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO
craig.turchi@nrel.gov • sertac.akar@nrel.gov
Keywords: Low temperature, direct-use, desalination, membrane distillation
Substantial drought and declines in potable groundwater in the United States over the last decade have decreased the availability
of fresh water. Desalination of saline water such as brackish surface or groundwater, seawater, brines co-produced from oil and gas
operations, industrial wastewater, blow-down water from power plant cooling towers, and agriculture drainage water can reduce the
volume of water that requires disposal while providing a source of high-quality fresh water for industrial or commercial use. Mem-
brane distillation (MD) is a developing technology that uses low-temperature thermal energy for desalination. Geothermal heat can
be an ideal thermal-energy source for MD desalination technology, with a target average cost of $1/m3 to $2/m3 for desalinated water
depending on the cost of heat. Three different cases were analyzed to estimate levelized cost of heat (LCOH) for integration of MD
desalination technology with low-grade geothermal heat: (1) residual heat from injection brine at a geothermal power plant, (2) heat
from existing under-utilized low-temperature wells, and (3) drilling new wells for low-temperature resources. The Central and Western
United States have important low-temperature (<90°C) geothermal resource potential with wide geographic distribution, but these
resources are highly under-utilized because they are inefficient for power production. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, there
are 1,075 identified low-temperature hydrothermal systems, 55 low-temperature sedimentary systems and 248 identified medium- to
high-temperature geothermal systems in the United States. The estimated total beneficial heat potential from identified low-temperature
hydrothermal geothermal systems and residual beneficial heat from medium- to high-temperature systems is estimated as 36,300 MWth,
which could theoretically produce 1.4 to 7 million m3/day of potable water, depending on desalination efficiency.

Desalination Using Geothermal Energy

H. Aviña-Jiménez, D. De la Rosa-Urbalejo, and A. García-Gutiérrez
iiDEA, Engineering Institute, National Autonomous University of México (UNAM)
Torre de Ingeniería 6° Nivel, Circuito Escolar, Ciudad Universitaria 04510 Ciudad de México, México
havinaj@iingen.unam.mx • ddelarosau@iingen.unam.mx
Keywords: Low enthalpy, geothermal, direct use, desalination, Mexico, Baja California

5
 A detailed analysis of the potential commissioning of seawater desalination technologies by using geothermal energy is presented.
The suitability of locations and their feasibility to install this technology are discussed with emphasis on Baja California, Mexico.
Three main requirements must be combined to install seawater desalination technologies: the geothermal potential at a site, the
need of fresh water under a shortage scenario, and access to seawater. Due to these constrains, few sites in the world offer these three
requirements in which the use of geothermal energy for seawater desalination can be used. However, Mexico can deal with these
constrains offering the possibility of studying, analyzing, developing and optimizing this concept.
Sites located in Baja California Peninsula such as Ensenada, Puertecitos, San Felipe, San Quintín, La Paz and Los Cabos satisfy
all these requirements in order to test and install portable systems for electric generation and desalination.

Produced Water Treatment Using the Switchable Polarity Solvent Forward Osmosis (SPS FO)
Desalination Process: Preliminary Engineering Design Basis
Daniel Wendt, Birendra Adhikari, Christopher Orme, and Aaron Wilson • Idaho National Laboratory
Keywords: Desalination, co-produced water, oil and gas produced water, switchable polarity solvent, forward osmosis,
geothermal energy
Switchable Polarity Solvent Forward Osmosis (SPS FO) is a semi-permeable membrane-based water treatment technology. The
Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is currently advancing SPS FO technology such that a prototype unit can be designed and demonstrated
for the purification of produced water from oil and gas production operations. The SPS FO prototype unit will use the thermal energy
in the produced water as a source of process heat, thereby reducing the external process energy demands. Treatment of the produced
water stream will reduce the volume of saline wastewater requiring disposal via injection, an activity that is correlated with undesirable
seismic events, as well as generate a purified product water stream with potential beneficial uses. This paper summarizes experimental
data that has been collected in support of the SPS FO scale-up effort, and describes how this data will be used in the sizing of SPS FO
process equipment. An estimate of produced water treatment costs using the SPS FO process is also provided.

Direct Use
Low-Enthalpy Geothermal Food Dehydrator
Héctor M. Aviña Jiménez1, Patricia Severiano Pérez2, and Olga Velázquez Madrazo2,
Eduardo Pérez González 1, and Andrea Jasso Rivera1
1
iiDEA, Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
2
Depto. de Alimentos y Biotecnología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
havinaj@iingen.unam.mx • eperezg@iingen.unam.mx
Keywords: Food dehydration, direct uses, food microbiology, low-enthalpy geothermal energy, profitability analysis
iiDEA group, an applied research group part of the National Autonomous University of Mexico is focusing on low-enthalpy direct
uses of geothermal resources in Mexico. A food dehydrator capable to preserve highly perishable food using geothermal energy was
designed. During its construction important parameters such as heating permissible temperature were determined (55 °C) in order to
fulfill food safety and sanitation regulations. Different processes such as food and vegetables lay-out and food poisoning avoidance
was standardized. Furthermore, a microbiology test and a sensory profile of fresh and dehydrated tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum)
was evaluated. Even under a critical scenario the low-enthalpy geothermal food dehydrator is still profitable and has a wide range of
variations that could improve its marketability and profitability. Hence, it is concluded that market studies would benefit the imple-
mentation of the project and ensure the required demand, reducing the investment risk. Finally, several standards during the dehydrated
fruits microbiology tests were achieved by evaluating coliforms, salmonella, molds, yeast, and aerobic mesophilic samples.

Cascade Use of Geothermal Energy in Mexico

Héctor Miguel Aviña Jiménez, Miguel Ángel Benítez Torreblanca, and Alfonso García Gutiérrez
Grupo iiDEA, Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
HAvinaJ@iingen.unam.mx • MBenitezT@iingen.unam.mx • ag_gutie06@hotmail.com
Keywords: Low-enthalpy geothermal energy, direct uses, cascade uses, Mexico, geothermal cogeneration
Geothermal cascade systems are widely used around the globe. Once the geothermal resource is utilized in a main application,
like power generation, it is led to secondary processes in which the thermal energy can still be utilized. Examples of these secondary
processes include refrigeration, desalination, dehydration, defrosting, climate control of greenhouses, and paper recycling, among
others. One of the main advantages of cascade systems is that, in major power generation plants, is not uncommon to find available
geothermal resources on the surface. The iiDEA Group, an applied research group part of the National Autonomous University of
Mexico, is currently developing three major projects aimed at the exploitation of low-enthalpy geothermal energy: a Flash Evapora-
tion Binary Cycle (FEBC), a Modular Geothermal Desalination Unit (MGDU), and a Geothermal Food Dehydrator (GFD). In this
article, an overall discussion of the aforementioned projects is presented as a proposal for cascade use of geothermal energy in Mexico.

6
A Thermoelectric Powered Quadruped Robotic System for Remote Monitoring of Geothermal Open
Field Heated Gardens in Iceland
Robert Dell1, Runar Unnthorsson2, C. S. Wei3, and Nicholas Mitchell1
1
Center for Innovation and Applied Technology, Mechanical Engineering, The Cooper Union, NY, USA
2
Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
3
Mechanical Engineering, The Cooper Union, NY, USA
Keywords: Thermoelectric generator, mobile robots, web security cameras, open field heating
The authors have developed and patented a thermoelectric-based point of use power system with no moving parts to produces 6
W of steady state power when attached to the outside of geothermal steam pipe. This system used has powered LED lights and a web
interfaced video surveillance system while simultaneously trickle charging 12 volt 7000 mAh batteries. The generator is now power-
ing robots. Three generations of robots were successfully tested. The first was an iRobot Create Programmable Robot with a Tekkotsu
Calliope2SP platform. The second setup was highly maneuverable four wheeled robot that utilized a beacon positioning system. The
last robot was a quadruped robot controlled by an Ardunio, which was designed and constructed by the authors to monitor their open
field geothermal heated gardens in Iceland.

Thermally Enhanced Open Field Heating Agricultural System Using Waste Geothermal Hot Water and
Low Temperature Steam in Iceland and Waste Municipal Steam in New York City
Robert Dell1, Runar Unnthorsson2, C. S. Wei3, and Nicholas Mitchell1
1
Center for Innovation and Applied Technology, Mechanical Engineering, The Cooper Union, NY, USA
2
Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
3
Mechanical Engineering, The Cooper Union, NY, USA
Keywords: Open field heating, geothermal agriculture, heated soil, heated ground agriculture, cascade utilization, enhanced
growing season, green roofs, waste heat
The authors have since 2008 been developing a thermally enhanced open field heating agricultural system using waste geothermal
hot water and steam condensate that is analogous in construction to a heated sidewalk. Plant growth is substantially enhanced and
out of region cultivars are able to grow outside in climates that are normally too cold. A side benefit is the cooling of this waste fluid.
Previous GRC papers by the authors primarily describe the construction and thermal analysis aspects of their small test fields at the
Agricultural University of Iceland, the Keilir Institute of Technology, and the HNLFI Clinic in Iceland.
These fields are heated throughout the year while the identical control gardens are unheated. The authors have also developed an
analogous system for heating green roofs in New York City using waste Combined Heat and Power (CHP) and potentially waste mu-
nicipal steam in similar cascade utilization. This also can save substantial amounts of potable water that is commonly used to reduce the
temperature of this waste heat in New York City. The thermal benefits and the enhanced plant growth results in Iceland and New York
City indicate the potential advantages of deploying this system of direct use of geothermal energy in Iceland in more temperate climates.

Geothermal Energy in Munich (and Beyond) A Geothermal City Case Study

Neil Farquharson, Dr. Achim Schubert, and Ulrich Steiner • ERDWERK GmbH, Munich, Germany
farquharson@erdwerk.com • steiner@erdwerk.com
Keywords: Deep geothermal, district heating, direct use, ERDWERK, GRAME, lessons learnt, low enthalpy, Molasse Basin,
Munich, SWM, uncertainty analysis
Between 2008 and 2013 much was written and discussed about the state of the geothermal sector in and around Munich, Germany.
The region had experienced the early signs of a prosperous period which looked as to have kick started some momentum with many
projects being planned. The subsequent fall off in activity was largely attributed to the global financial crisis, amongst other factors.
This paper looks briefly at Munich’s geothermal journey and then provides an update on the activities in the region and the prospects
for the future.
The Bavarian city of Munich in the south east of Germany benefits from a strong local economy and the ideal geological conditions
for direct use geothermal heat schemes. The carbonate Malm reservoir, which is found between 2000m and 3000m depth below the
city, is known to have good natural porosity and the geothermal fluid to be low in salinity. This together with its naturally high yield
makes the Malm the ideal source for direct use district heating. During the last 15 years Munich has experienced strong growth within
the geothermal sector despite regional and global economic uncertainties.
Project experience and collaborative research has assisted in developing robust frameworks and methodologies for executing low
enthalpy projects within the Bavarian region. Through this work, the assessment of geological uncertainties in respect to the potential
productivity of a geothermal well and approaches to drilling and well design have been optimized.
The prospects for Munich look strong as the Stadwerke München (SWM), in English “Munich City Utilities” pushes geothermal
utilization to another level, by setting the goal of making Munich the first European city with a district-heating network supplied 100%
from geothermal energy by 2040. This is being made possible through a collaborative research projected called GRAME, which was
founded with support from the Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), in English “Federal Ministry of Economics
and Energy.”

7
Analysis of Influence Factors on Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage Performance
Xin Jiang, Xueling Liu, and Jinsong Liu • Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy, MOE,
Tianjin University, Geothermal Research &Training Center, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
Keywords: Thermal energy storage efficiency, influence factors, temperature field, double-well system, numerical simulation
In the aquifer thermal energy storage system, the thermal energy storage performances of the system are related to many factors
such as the distance between the wells, injection/extraction rate and the porosity of the aquifer. In this paper, the temperature of the
underground in different working conditions and geological parameters is simulated using COMSOL software, and then the energy
storage efficiency is analyzed. The results indicate that the energy storage efficiency increases with the increase of the well distance
while it decreases as the extraction/injection rate rises. When the porosity of the aquifer increases, the energy storage efficiency in-
creases first, then decreases and increases toward the end.

Low-Temperature Projects of the Department of Energy’s Geothermal Technologies Program:

Evaluation and Lessons Learned
Tom Williams,1 Neil Snyder,1 and Will Gosnold2
1
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO • 2University of North Dakota (UND), Grand Forks, ND
Keywords: Geothermal, binary, bottoming cycles, low-temperature power production, Department of Energy projects
This paper discusses opportunities and challenges related to the technical and economic feasibility of developing power genera-
tion from geothermal resources at temperatures of 150 °C and lower. Insights from projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE), Geothermal Technologies Office inform these discussions and provide the basis for some lessons learned to help guide deci-
sions by DOE and the industry in further developing this resource. The technical basis for low-temperature geothermal energy is well
established and the systems can be economic today in certain situations. However, these applications are far from a “plug and play”
product; successful development today requires a good knowledge of geothermal system design and operation.

Drilling
Development of a Directional Drilling System for Operation at 300°C for Geothermal Applications
Kamalesh Chatterjee, John Macpherson, Aaron Dick, Harald Grimmer, Sundaie Klotzer, Jon Schroder, Dave Epplin,
Carsten Hohl, and Sobieslaw Gacek • Kamalesh.Chatterjee@bakerhughes.com
Keywords: Directional drilling system, Measurement-While-Drilling (MWD), Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), mud mo-
tor, high temperature
Many countries around the world, including the USA, have untapped geothermal energy potential. Enhanced Geothermal Sys-
tems (EGS) technology is needed to economically utilize this resource. If hot rock is sufficiently fractured with continuous channels
interconnecting large volumes of rock with a very large surface area it is possible to economically extract geothermal energy from
deep in the ground. The Department of Energy (DOE) spearheads research and innovation in tools and technologies required for suc-
cessful and economic development of EGS reservoirs. Temperature in some EGS reservoirs can exceed 300°C. To effectively utilize
EGS resources, an array of injector and production wells must be accurately placed in the formation fracture network. This requires
a high temperature directional drilling system. Most commercial services for directional drilling systems are rated for 175°C while
geothermal wells require operation at much higher temperatures. Two US Department of Energy Geothermal Technologies Program
(GTP) projects have been initiated to develop a 300°C capable directional drilling system, the first consisting of a drill bit, directional
motor, and drilling fluid, and the second adding navigation and telemetry systems.
The development of the 300°C directional drilling system will be discussed focusing on the drill bit and directional motor. Two
complete tools were assembled and tested at Baker Hughes Experimental rig (BETA) at Oklahoma in April 2014. This high temperature
directional drilling technology will be equally useful to the oil and gas industry where the temperature occasionally rises to above 260°C.

Water: As a Drilling Fluid in Production Zone of Geothermal Wells

Mehmet Zeki Erincik • Petroleum and Geosytems Engineering Department, The University of Texas at Austin
Keywords: Drilling fluid, water, aerated water, drilling production zone, hole cleaning, annular velocity, stuck drill-string
Company B plans drilling deep geothermal wells in the Aegean Region of Turkey in the first quarter of 2017. It is planned to drill
the production zones of those wells by using water to increase productivity of the wells when starting the production phase. This study
aims to discuss using of water as a drilling fluid in the production zone of geothermal wells and to bring the critical factors of using
water to the attention of Company management.
First, the drilling fluids for geothermal wells such as water based drilling fluids and aerated drilling fluids were defined and discussed.
Secondly, the functions of the drilling fluid were stated. Thirdly, as a case study, drilling records of production zone of a geothermal well
from daily drilling reports of an actual well were summarized and presented. Finally, recommendations and conclusions were provided.

8
Innovative Conical Diamond Element Bit in Conjunction With Novel Drilling Practices
Increases Performance in Hard-Rock Geothermal Applications, California
Paul Graham1, Bradley Krough2, Thomas Nelson2, Allen White2, and Jordan Self 2
1
Calpine • 2Smith Bits, a Schlumberger Company
Keywords: Drill bit, drilling cost, conical diamond element (CDE), The Geysers geothermal field, Polycrystalline Diamond
Compact (PDC) cutter, Rate of Penetration (ROP), Rig Rate
The Geysers Geothermal field is an area of geothermal activity situated in the Mayacamas Mountains of northern California, about
75 miles north of San Francisco. The field, covering approximately 45 square miles, is the world’s largest geothermal reservoir. The
Geysers was formed over 1 million years ago when molten magma from the Earth’s core was squeezed toward the surface, recrystal-
lizing and fracturing the surrounding rocks. These fractures allowed for water seepage which, many years later, created a reservoir of
steam and ultra-heated rock below the Earth’s surface. This heat is now harvested by drilling into the reservoir and unlocking the steam
for electricity generation. The energy capacity is enough to power more than 725,000 homes in northern California.
The drilling environment in The Geysers reservoir can be harsh. Extreme heat and hard and abrasive volcanic rock make this area
one of the most difficult to drill anywhere in the world. The lithology is characterized by mineral rich rock such as serpentinite, argil-
licious graywacke, greenstone, and felsite. These extremely hard rocks provide a multitude of challenges for drill bits. Typically bit
runs are short in hours and footage because of dulling and subsequent loss of rate of penetration (ROP). Beyond the cost of the drill
bits themselves, the rig time necessary to replace bits increases the time to drill a well. Depending on the depth, it can take up to 18
hours to trip drillpipe out of the hole and return to bottom to start drilling again. Rig rates vary over time and across different areas,
but a general rig rate of around USD 15,000–25,000 per day is common for a US land rig. With ancillary costs included, a 30-day well
can cost approximately USD 2,000,000.
In response to these challenges, a new rock-removal system has been designed. The system implements conical diamond ele-
ments (CDE) to work in unison with polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) cutters. These CDEs help to mitigate the breakage of
the PDC cutters, resulting in greater durability than a conventional PDC fixed cutter bit and a higher ROP than roller cone (RC) bits.
This, coupled with new drilling practices, has brought a new era of performance to the world of hard-rock drilling. Traditional drilling
parameters have been overhauled to maximize the potential of CDE bits. Utilizing CDE bits over the course of 3 wells, one operator
in The Geysers has seen a footage increase of up to 29% and ROP increase of up to 44% on comparable wells. This represents a siz-
able reduction in the number of days needed to complete a well. On just three bit test runs utilizing a CDE bit, one operator reduced
drilling time by approximately 30 hours, representing a potential rig savings of USD 90,000.

Performance Evaluation of Polycrystalline Diamond Cutter (PDC) Bits Used in the Production Interval of
Well AW-01 in the Akiira Ranch Field, East African Rift Valley, Central Kenya
Amelia Letvin1, Paul Stroud2, and Stefano Scagliarini3
1
Independent Scientist • 2Ram Energy Inc. • 3GeothermEx Inc., A Schlumberger Co.
Keywords: Drilling, PDC, Kenya, ROP, TCI, Akiira
Inherent to geothermal drilling are many challenges, which might be distinct from traditional oil and gas drilling. These include
harder rock formations, total losses, high temperature, and, typically, a limited budget. These downhole conditions and monetary
differences have led to drilling geothermal wells with ‘fit for purpose’ equipment and technology chosen to perform best under these
conditions and constraints. One of the most important pieces of drilling equipment is the drill bit: up until recently the tricone bit (also
called roller cone) had been the only choice in bits, for the vast majority of geothermal wells. However, as evidenced by the results of
the first Akiira Geothermal LLC (“AGL” or “Akiira”) exploration well, PDC bits have some advantages over the tricone bits in specific
applications, and this widely available technology is worth consideration in geothermal environments.
The aim of this paper is to compare the performance of both PDC and tri-cone bits used while drilling the production interval of
vertical exploration well AW-01, in the Akiira Ranch Field, East African Rift Valley, Central Kenya. Also, and as part of the technical
analysis carried out, this paper highlights specific drilling parameters and values related to each bit used, such as footage drilled, drill-
ing time and the average rate of penetration (ROP).

Self-Repairing Geothermal Well Cement Composites

T. Pyatina, T. Sugama, and A. Ronne • Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton NY
Keywords: Calcium-aluminate cement, fly ash, Portland cement, self-healing, carbonate, geothermal wells, carbon microfiber
Damage of the cement sheath under hostile geothermal environments may compromise well-integrity unless timely repairs are
done. Because of the difficulties in locating and accessing damaged areas in subterranean wells self-healing cementitious materials
are of particular interest. Self-repairing of Thermal Shock Resistant Cement (TSRC) developed for applications in geothermal wells
in steam or carbonate-rich environments at 270°C was evaluated by compressive strength measurements after two crush tests followed
by two 5-day healing periods and microstructural analyses of self-repaired samples using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron
microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and micro imaging technics. TSRC performance was compared
against that of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)/SiO2 blend. The strength recoveries were above 80% for all TSRC samples and above
50% for OPC/SiO2 blend. The recovery rate depended on the age of the samples, healing time, crack size, brittleness of the material and
healing environment. Self-healing mechanisms are discussed and ways to further improve self-repairing cement capacities proposed.

9
Numerical Analysis of Flow Field in Multiple Hydrothermal Jet Drilling for Geothermal Wells
Xianzhi Song1, Zehao Lv1, Liu Cui2, Gensheng Li1, Guodong Ji2, Xiaodong Hu1, and Yu Shi1
1
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, China
2
CNPC Drilling Research Institute
Keywords: Hot dry rock, hydrothermal jet, flow field, heat transfer, numerical simulation
This paper combines high pressure jet and thermal spallation drilling methods together and presents a new hydrothermal jet drilling
method. It means striking the rock and conducting heat to it in the meantime and has the potential of being economically advanta-
geous over conventional techniques for geothermal well drilling. Previous related studies mainly focus on numerical simulation on
one hydrothermal jet flow field. This paper presents a multi-orifice nozzle model to investigate the features of flow field with multiple
hydrothermal jets. Results show that the bottomhole central temperature and pressure are higher than the two sides under multiple
hydrothermal jets conditions, which is similar to the flow pattern with single jet. There is a negative relationship between the maximum
radial velocity and the ratio between axial distance and nozzle diameter. And the position of the maximum radial velocity moves to
the side wall as the ratio increases. Second, the bottomhole temperature increases uniformly with the increase of jet temperature. The
bottomhole temperature becomes less and less sensitive to the variance of pressure difference and the bottomhole pressure shows a
ladder distribution. Finally, the overall rock temperature is relatively low at the beginning, and there are only three peaks, where the
middle one is the highest, due to the impact of central and lateral hydrothermal jets. Besides, there is a positive relationship between the
rock temperature and jet temperature. The pressure difference has little influence on the heat transfer effect on the well bottom center,
while the increase of pressure difference can substantially enhance the heat transfer effect on the part around center, which means that
it can be used for downhole coring. Results in this paper could guide for parameters design of hydrothermal jet drilling technology.

Optimization and Characterization of the Self-Degradable Cement for Geothermal Wells

Huijing Tan1, Xiuhua Zheng2, Feiyue Li3, and Chenyang Dua1
1,2
China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Haidian District, Beijing, China
3
CNOOC Research Institute, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
1
thj0528@163.com • 3lifycugb@163.com • 2xiuhuazh@cugb.edu.cn
Keywords: Geothermal wells, self-degradable cement, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, slag, fly ash
Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) has been used as the degradable additive to develop self-degradable cement (SDC). This
cement has an ability of reducing the geothermal wells drilling fluid leakage and disintegrating to increase production after drilling
operations or in the stimulation operations. This paper optimized the SDC formula. First, the formula of alkali-activated cement (AAC)
was optimized by testing the setting time and compressive strength of the different slag/fly ash ratio cements with different sodium
silicate contents. Second, an optimal content of CMC was selected by testing compressive strength of SDC with different CMC con-
tents with different curing periods. The optimized formula was characterized by testing the initial consistency, setting time, water loss,
rheological property, stability, corrosion resistance and hydrate products of SDC. Results showed that the initial consistency of the
optimum SDC is 25 Bc; the initial and final setting time at 120°C is 100 and 130 min, respectively; the water loss is 34 mL; the free
fluid content is 0.40%; the maximum density difference of static cement is 0.02 g/cm3; and the weight loss by acid erosion is 1.70%.

The Deepest Geothermal Well in Indonesia: A Success Story of Aerated Drilling Utilization
Apriyansah Toni, Raka Aditya Pratama, Imam M. Prasetyo, and Muhamad Bayu Saputra
PT. Pertamina Geothermal Energy, Menara Cakrawala, Thamrin, Jakarta
PT. Air Drilling, Menara Sentraya, Iskandarsya, Jakarta • apriyansah@pertamina.com • raka@airdrilling.com
Keywords: Losses, aerated drilling, deepest well, hard formation, geothermal
Hululais geothermal field is in the province of Bengkulu, Indonesia. It is one of PT. Pertamina Geothermal Energy (PGE) work-
ing areas in Sumatra and has a resource potential of 220 MW (Kamah et.al, 2015). HLS-E1 was drilled to delineate the extent of the
resource in the northwest area of the Hululais geothermal field. The well was designed as a large diameter well and the last section
was drilled with a 7-7/8” bit and completed with 7” perforated liner which was smoothly landed at the bottom. The total depth is 3203
m measured depth, and is now the deepest geothermal well in Indonesia. During the drilling process, the optimum was achieved from
a well-planned program using best practices learned from nearby wells with similar characteristics. Massive losses including partial
and total losses, inclination of the well, hard formation, and other issues were the main challenges to drill the well. One of the major
factors in the success story is the utilization of aerated drilling in order to mitigate loss zones. An excellent aerated drilling job requires
both experience and engineering design. This well story will be the reference of another well that is now being drilled in the area. By
learning and studying from the experience of well HLS E-1, we hopefully can improve the drilling operations in an upcoming drilling
campaign, in the Hululais area and beyond, in other areas with similar challenges.

‘Drill-In’ Fluids and Drilling Practices Drilling More Productive, Less Costly Geothermal Wells
John D. Tuttle and Renan Listi • Sinclair Well Products & Services, Inc. • jtuttle@sinclairwp.com • rlisti@sinclairwp.com
Keywords: Drilling, drilling fluids, stability, production, formation damage, geothermal drilling, mud, inhibition, potassium,
fluid loss
GRC presentations on drilling fluids and formation damage was presented in 2007 and 2010. This current paper exists as an
update, and introduces some of the recent developments in geothermal drilling fluids and drilling practices, with specific emphasis on

10
minimizing formation damage and optimizing well producibility, During the past numerous years since the previous paper presentations,
mud additives and drilling operations have evolved, and geothermal drilling fluids programs have typically moved away from the
conventional hi-temp claybased systems of the past, in favor of minimally-damaging ‘Drill-In’ fluids. These new fluids use little or no
Bentonite and conventional LCM, providing benefits which may include enhanced lubricity, superior wellbore stability and inhibition,
reduced potential for formation damage, and reduced stimulation requirements.

Emerging Production Technologies

Exergetic Sensitivity Analysis of ORC Geothermal Power Plant Considering Ambient Temperature
Saeid Mohammadzadeh Bina, Saeid Jalilinasrabady, and Hikari Fujii
Graduate School of International Resource Sciences, Akita University, Akita, Japan
Keywords: Geothermal power plant, ORC cycle, ambient temperature, EES, exergy
Binary cycles are the most common method to extract energy from moderate geothermal resources worldwide. This research inves-
tigates and compares the performance of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) for binary geothermal power plants from the thermodynamic
point of view. A hypothetical ORC cycle which is using 150°C geothermal water as a heat source was considered in this study and its
exergy and energy analysis were performed. A parametric study was also performed to understand the effect of ambient temperature
and its effect on both energy and exergy efficiencies. The exergy and energy efficiencies, cooling water pump power consumption and
also exergy destruction for each component are calculated within different ambient temperature and dead state as well.
The results indicated that energy efficiency of the plant varies by 1 and 7% in two different scenarios that were assumed based on
different control volume description for the system.
Scenario (a) and (b) are based on brine exergy input rate to plant and exergy flow rate decrement across heat exchanger, respectively.
Meanwhile, exergetic efficiencies of the cycle face 70%; and 34% increment based on different exergy inflows scenarios. It was
concluded that condensers are the most sensitive component to dead state temperature.

The Exploration of Comprehensive Anti-Scale Measures for Ground Pipeline in Geothermal Well
Shiwei Yang, Guoxing Yang, Quanyang Wang, and Zhen Zhang • blankyung@sina.cn
Drilling Engineering Research Institute, Southwest Petroleum Engineering Co., Deyang, Sichuan, PR China
Keywords: Anti-scale, ground pipeline, application, ZKZ12
The scaling mechanism in above ground pipeline and the characteristic of conventional anti-scale measures were analyzed. The system
of comprehensive anti-scale measures for above ground pipeline in geothermal well was put forward. The application effect of this
system in ZKZ12 is outstanding.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS)

Thermal Stresses Around EGS
Mahmood Arshad, Masami Nakagawa, Kamran Jahanbakhsh, and Lucila Dunnington
Department of Mining Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden CO • smahmoodarshad@yahoo.com
Keywords: EGS, enhanced geothermal systems, stress distribution, reservoir rock, in-situ stress, stress distribution
Developing an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), is a complex process and is dependent on range of design parameters, geo-
logical and operating variables. Stresses around EGS are believed to be either ‘sound and non-harming’ or ‘violent and catastrophic’
among different groups involved, directly or indirectly, in EGS. This paper explains how thermal inflow from country rock to the
reservoir rock induces temperature changes in the zone, herein referred to as “impact zone”, around the reservoir. The growth behavior
of impact zone depends on aforementioned sets of variables and is explained in this paper. Thermal stresses are generated during and
after working cycle of the EGS within this impact zone due to thermal changes. This paper also gives an insight in understanding the
behavior of stresses distribution around reservoir rock. As the reservoir rock is thermo-elastically connected to the country rock, newly
generated stresses interact with the existing in-situ stresses under prevailing conditions of geological, design and operating variables.
A simple model has been used for the demonstration of facts stated in this paper. Later on, variables dictating the continuous, safe and
efficient working of EGS are also outlined.

The Effect of Well Density on Resource Depletion For a Vertical Closed-Loop SCO2 Geothermal Well System
Don B. Fox and Brian S. Higgins • GreenFire Energy, Emeryville CA • Brian.Higgins@GreenFireEnergy.com
Keywords: Supercritical CO2, closed loop, well density, resource depletion
GreenFire Energy is developing a geothermal power cycle that uses a closed-loop design with supercritical CO2 (sCO2) as the
working fluid. The heat in this close-loop system is extracted solely by conduction from the resource into the well. A 3D model is
used to investigate the critical factors that control closed-loop geothermal energy recovery. As previously reported, a closed-loop sCO2
power cycle relies heavily on producing a large thermosiphon effect that is dependent on the flow rate of CO2 through the system. As

11
the flow rate is increased, the thermosiphon weakens due to friction in the well and reduced production temperature since the rate of
heat extraction is largely limited by heat transfer from the resource and not by the extraction potential of the sCO2. Because electrical
power produced by a turbine increases with mass flow rate through the turbine, there is an optimum flow rate of CO2 with which to
produce power, for a given resource and well configuration.
In this study, we further consider how the well spacing changes the overall resource depletion rate, and resulting power production.
As the well spacing becomes smaller, or equivalently, as well density becomes larger, there is a point when side-by-side wells begin to
thermally interact with each other and power production is adversely affected. The point when the wells interact can be described using
the thermodynamic properties of the resource, which is accurately predicted by both our 3D modeling and an analytical analysis. The
3D model further allows the visualization of the resource temperature versus time. We find for the hot, dry resource investigated that
a distance of 100 m between wells is sufficient to keep the wells from adversely thermally interacting for 25 years, while extracting
sufficient energy to produce as much as 120 MWe per square kilometer.

The South Hungary Enhanced Geothermal System (SHEGS) Demonstration Project

Geoffrey H. Garrison1, Steinar Þór Guðlaugsson2, László Ádám3, Ari Ingimundarson2, Trenton T. Cladouhos1, and Susan Petty1
1
AltaRock Energy, Inc., Seattle WA • 2Mannvit Engineering, Kópavogur, Iceland • 3Mannvit Engineering, Budapest, Hungary
Keywords: Enhanced Geothermal Systems, greenfield EGS, hydraulic stimulation, microseismicity, hydroshearing, Hungarian
geothermal resources, Pannonian Basin
The South Hungary EGS (SHEGS) Demonstration Project has begun with a grant awarded to the Hungarian Ministry of Economy
and the company EU-FIRE from Europe’s NER300 program. NER300 supports development of sustainable energy utilization in Europe.
SHEGS is a green field project located in southeastern Hungary near the town of Mezőkovácsháza in Hungary’s Southern Great Plain.
Mannvit Engineering leads the project as the EPC contractor, while EGS design and process management are provided by AltaRock
Energy, Inc. The SHEGS project is one of 23 renewable energy projects supported by NER300 with funds raised from the sale of 200
million allowances from the new entrants’ reserve (NER) of the EU Emissions Trading System. The project design includes four 4
km-deep production wells, two re-injection wells, and a power plant with net capacity of 8.9 MWe. Drilling the first injection well is
scheduled to begin in September 2016 and is expected to take three months. A three-month period of background seismic monitoring
will follow and stimulation of the EGS reservoir is scheduled for 2017. Hungary has some of the best geothermal resource potential in
Europe due to its unique geological position astride the Pannonian Basin. The geothermal gradient in the project area is on the order
of 60 °C/km. While all of the country’s geothermal resources developed to date are of low- and medium-enthalpy, a few high-enthalpy
resources have been discovered but remain undeveloped. SHEGS will provide Hungary’s first geothermally produced electricity.

Experimental Simulation of Enhanced Geothermal Reservoir Stimulation

Lianbo Hu1, Ahmad Ghassemi1, John Pritchett2, and Sabodh Garg2
1
Reservoir Geomechanics and Seismicity Research Group, The University of Oklahoma, Norman OK, USA
2
Leidos Inc, San Diego, CA, USA
Keywords: Enhanced geothermal system, laboratory scale, self-potential, acoustic emission, hydraulic fracturing, circulation,
tracers
Geothermal energy production by water circulation in natural and/or man-made fracture systems is referred to as enhanced or
engineered geothermal systems (EGS). The permeable zones of an EGS must be created by stimulation, a process which involves frac-
ture initiation and/or activation and propagation of discontinuities such as joints by pore pressure and stress perturbations. Economic
design and operation of EGS can be achieved by reliable characterization of the stimulation results which relies mostly on analysis
of micro-earthquake (MEQ) and tracers. In this work we study the reservoir stimulation process on a laboratory scale to improve the
current understanding and to help quantify the fracture geometry using acoustic emission (AE) cloud, spontaneous potential (SP), and
tracer analysis. To do so, we have developed a new poly-axial hydraulic fracturing test system which allows us to perform reservoir
stimulation experiments on rock blocks with size up to 18’ x18” x 18” under pore pressure and representative in-situ stress regimes while
simultaneously recording SP and AE during fracturing and circulation. In this paper, we describe preliminary experiments conducted
at room and elevated temperatures along with a circulation phase in the latter case. Reservoir stimulation has been accompanied by
AE events that are generally correlated with the stress state and fracture geometry, however with less than expected intensity. Results
show excellent correlation between the fracturing events and the SP signal.

Optimizing for Large Planar Fractures in Multistage Horizontal Wells in Enhanced Geothermal Systems
Using a Coupled Fluid and Geomechanics Simulator
Xiexiaomeng Hu1, 2, Dr. Azra Tutuncu1, 2, Dr. Alfred Eustes1, and Dr. Chad Augustine3 • atutuncu@mines.edu
1
Colorado School of Mines, Petroleum Engineering Department • 2Colorado School of Mines, Unconventional Natural Gas
and Oil Institute (UNGI) • 3National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
Keywords: Enhanced Geothermal System, reservoir simulation, horizontal well completion, multiple stages hydraulic fractur-
ing, discrete fracture network, complex fracture propagation
Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) could potentially use technological advancements in coupled implementation of horizontal
drilling and multistage hydraulic fracturing techniques in tight oil and shale gas reservoirs along with improvements in reservoir simula-
tion techniques to design and create EGS reservoirs. In this study, a commercial hydraulic fracture simulation package, Mangrove by
Schlumberger, was used in an EGS model with largely distributed pre-existing natural fractures to model fracture propagation during

12
the creation of a complex fracture network. The main goal of this study is to investigate optimum treatment parameters in creating
multiple large, planar fractures to hydraulically connect a horizontal injection well and a horizontal production well that are 10,000
ft. deep and spaced 500 ft. apart from each other. A matrix of simulations for this study was carried out to determine the influence of
reservoir and treatment parameters on preventing (or aiding) the creation of large planar fractures. The reservoir parameters investigated
during the matrix simulations include the in-situ stress state and properties of the natural fracture set such as the primary and secondary
fracture orientation, average fracture length, and average fracture spacing. The treatment parameters investigated during the simula-
tions were fluid viscosity, proppant concentration, pump rate, and pump volume. A final simulation with optimized design parameters
was performed. The optimized design simulation indicated that high fluid viscosity, high proppant concentration, large pump volume
and pump rate tend to minimize the complexity of the created fracture network. Additionally, a reservoir with “friendly” formation
characteristics such as large stress anisotropy, natural fractures set parallel to the maximum horizontal principal stress (SHmax), and large
natural fracture spacing also promote the creation of large planar fractures while minimizing fracture complexity.

Transport Mechanisms Within Thermally-Shocked Region of an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS)

Kamran Jahan Bakhsh, Masami Nakagawa, Mahmood Arshad, and Lucila Dunnington
Department of Mining Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden CO, USA
kjahanba@mines.edu • mnakagawa@mines.edu • haeshad@mines.edu • ldunning@mines.edu
Keywords: EGS, Enhanced Geothermal Reservoir, thermally-induced cracks, mass breakthrough time, thermal breakthrough
time, convection-diffusion
There is a consensus regarding the beneficial effects of thermally induced cracks in an EGS reservoir. Thermally induced cracks
have proven to aid reservoir performance, hydrologically and thermally by lowering the flow impedance and increasing heat exchange
surface area respectively. The commonly-practiced engineering approach neglects the benefits of the thermal cracks by excluding them
from reservoir simulation. By ignoring the existence of thermally induced cracks, progress towards understanding the mechanism
and extent of their contribution is hindered. This paper investigates the transport mechanism within a thermally-shocked region of the
EGS reservoir to address the thermal crack contribution in a reservoir’s performance. A porous medium with different length scales
is recommended to simulate heat and mass transport within the thermally fractured region. The role of diffusion and convection in
both heat and mass transport for the generated porous medium is discussed. The analysis shows that depending upon the degree of
fragmentation of the thermally-fractured region, transport mechanisms will be different. A numerical example shows that for porous
media, the heat and mass transport mechanisms change when the pore’s length scale changes. The finding challenges the accepted
notion that heat and mass transport are analogous on varying scales.

Reservoir Geomechanics Model for EGS

M. Janis, J. Liu, and A. Ghassemi • Sarkeys Energy Center, Norman OK
Keywords: Geomechanics model, enhanced geothermal, 3D simulation, geothermal reservoir, mechanical earth model
This paper presents a workflow for geomechanics reservoir characterization (also known as a MEM) for geothermal reservoir
development. A geomechanics model is very useful for all aspects of reservoir development including drilling and stimulation. The
modeling effort begins by synthesizing various types of data from available wells. These include well logs, lithologic data and lab data.
The result for each is a so-called 1D MEM and provides useful information in making decisions during drilling. However, isolated
well data fail to capture the 3D variability of geomechanical properties that affect EGS reservoir development plans. Therefore, the 1D
data are integrated to build a 3D model of the reservoir. The main components of a 3D model are structural features of the reservoir,
stratigraphy, 3D simulation grid, wells, 3D interpolated rock data volumes and in-situ stress estimates. Since in an EGS reservoir,
permeability is created by fractures, a discrete fracture network (DFN) is generated based off well log data. Any faults present in the
area should be included. Faults are interpreted from seismic data or estimated based on their strike and dip at the surface. Since an EGS
reservoir is typically much smaller than a conventional oil reservoir, making a 3D model is not as computationally intensive. However,
if enough data is available and the reservoir contains a large amount of heterogeneity, a smaller cell size would be better and computing
power is a consideration. Wells are defined in the model if they have core or log data or if they have environmental implications. In
EGS, wells are very limited so that 3D seismic and geological investigations can be called upon for reservoir data regarding stress and
structures. As a simple example of this workflow, the proposed FORGE site at the Idaho National Laboratory will be used to make a
1 km x 1 km 3D geomechanics model.

Poroelastic Analysis of Natural Fracture Propagation and Coalescence

Amirhossein Kamali and Ahmad Ghassemi
Reservoir Geomechanics and Seismicity Group, The University of Oklahoma, Norman OK
Keywords: Poroelasticity, wing crack, displacement discontinuity, natural fractures, coupled hydro-mechanical
Propagation of natural fractures under a compressive in-situ stress state often involves mode I and mode II propagation. Shear slip
on the fracture surfaces initiates the so-called wing cracks which kink at approximately 70 degrees from the crack tip. To date, the
literature is mostly concerned with the propagation of dry cracks under increasing compressive stresses. This, however, is not a true
representation of the actual in-situ stress path since the far-field stresses remain unchanged in most petroleum, and geothermal opera-
tions. Instead, injection pressure and the associated thermo-poroelastic stresses are the main driving forces for propagation. Hence, a
coupled poroelastic hydro-mechanical model is proposed to study the reservoir stimulation mechanism in naturally fractured reservoirs.
The model is used to study wing crack growth considering pore pressure and poroelastic stresses. The results indicate that the injection

13
pressure required for wing crack propagation is higher in a poroelastic rock than in an elastic one due to the back stresses caused by
the pore fluid diffusion into the matrix.

High Energy Stimulations Imaged With Geophysical Change Detection Techniques

Hunter A. Knox1, Jonathan B. Ajo-Franklin2, Timothy C. Johnson3, Joseph P. Morris4,
Mark C. Grubelich1, Leiph A. Preston1, James M. Knox1, and Dennis King1 • haknox@sandia.gov
1
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
2
Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
3
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
4
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
Keywords: EGS, energetics, explosives, propellant, enhanced geothermal, seismic imaging, electrical resistance tomography,
fracture imaging, tracer injection
During the initial phase of this Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) SubTER project, we con-
ducted a series of high-energy stimulations in shallow wells, the effects of which were evaluated with high resolution seismic imaging
campaigns designed to characterize induced fractures. The high-energy stimulations use a novel explosive source that limits damage to
the borehole, which was paramount for change detection seismic imaging and re-fracturing experiments. This work provided evidence
that the high-energy stimulations were generating self-propping fractures and that these fracture locations could be imaged at inch scales
using high-frequency seismic tomography. While the seismic testing certainly provided valuable feedback on fracture generation for
the suite of explosives, it left many fracture properties (i.e. permeability) unresolved. We present here the methodology for the second
phase of the project, where we are developing and demonstrating emerging seismic and electrical geophysical imaging technologies
that have been designed to characterize 1) the 3D extent and distribution of fractures stimulated from the explosive source, 2) 3D fluid
transport within the stimulated fracture network through use of a contrasting tracer, and 3) fracture attributes through advanced data
analysis. Focus is being placed upon advancing these technologies toward near real-time acquisition and processing in order to help
provide the feedback mechanism necessary to understand and control fracture stimulation and fluid flow.

Hydraulic Stimulation of Multiple Horizontal Wells for EGS Reservoir Creation

Dharmendra Kumar and Ahmad Ghassemi
Reservoir Geomechanics and Seismicity Research Group, Mewbourne School of Petroleum & Geological Engineering, The
University of Oklahoma, Norman OK, USA
Keywords: Enhanced geothermal systems, reservoir stimulation, FORGE, stress shadowing effect, thermal interaction, con-
ventional and modified zipper fracturing
The paper presents three-dimensional numerical simulations of multistage fracturing of horizontal wells for enhanced geothermal
systems (EGS) design. The multistage fracturing of horizontal wells is commonly used to enhance the permeability in unconventional
petroleum reservoirs and could be applied to the EGS. In this paper, we explore multistage fracturing with particular reference to the
proposed Snake River FORGE enhanced geothermal system. We use a fully coupled numerical model which combines the displace-
ment discontinuity method (for fracture and rock deformation) and the finite element method (for the fracture fluid flow). Linear
elastic fracture mechanics approach is used for the fracture propagation. We analyze examples of multi-lateral well fracturing using
data obtained from a preliminary geomechanical reservoir model for the site based on information from the well INL-1. The simulta-
neous results show that the generated fracture network geometries are strongly influenced by the mechanical interactions among the
fractures or fracturing stages. The mechanical interaction among fractures highly depends on the fracture spacing. For the EGS case,
the fracture spacing needs be optimized for both mechanical and thermal interactions among fractures. The modified zipper fracturing
can be used even for relatively closer horizontal wells and it could possibly generate more complex fracture network, which would
result in enhancement of reservoir permeability. The simulation results demonstrated that multistage fracturing of horizontal wells in
the EGS reservoirs can generate large surface contact area for water circulation.

Optimization of Well Configuration for a Sedimentary Enhanced Geothermal Reservoir

Mengnan Zhou1, JaeKyoung Cho1, Luis E. Zerpa1, and Chad Augustine2
Colorado School of Mines • 2National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1

Keywords: Sedimentary geothermal, numerical modeling, reservoir engineering, reservoir simulation, reservoir enhancement
techniques, thermal recovery, optimization
The extraction of geothermal energy in the form of hot water from sedimentary rock formations could expand the current geothermal
energy resources toward new regions. From previous work, we observed that sedimentary geothermal reservoirs with relatively low
permeability would require the application of enhancement techniques (e.g., well hydraulic stimulation) to achieve commercial produc-
tion/injection rates. In this paper we extend our previous work to develop a methodology to determine the optimum well configuration
that maximizes the hydraulic performance of the geothermal system. The geothermal systems considered consist of one vertical well
doublet system with hydraulic fractures, and three horizontal well configurations with open-hole completion, longitudinal fractures and
transverse fractures, respectively. A commercial thermal reservoir simulation is used to evaluate the geothermal reservoir performance
using as design parameters the well spacing and the length of the horizontal wells. The results obtained from the numerical simulations
are used to build a response surface model based on the multiple linear regression method. The optimum configuration of the sedimen-

14
tary geothermal systems is obtained from the analysis of the response surface model. The proposed methodology is applied to a case
study based on a reservoir model of the Lyons sandstone formation, located in the Wattenberg field, Denver-Julesburg basin, Colorado.

Environmental / Regulatory
Getting Paid for Grid Services and Supply Diversity: Are the Regulators Recognizing These Services?
Jane E. Luckhardt1 and Scott Flake2 • 1Day Carter Murphy LLP • 2Scott Flake Consulting Inc.
Keywords: California Independent System Operator, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, flexible generation, frequency
control, greenhouse gas reduction policy, inertia, low carbon grid, renewable portfolio standard, regulatory
This paper discusses recent and ongoing regulatory proceedings and the resource modeling they are conducting to support these
efforts. These regulatory proceedings could provide additional income streams for geothermal projects or demonstrate the value of
geothermal resources in an increasingly decarbonized electric grid. With high penetrations of variable energy resources (VERs) includ-
ing wind and solar, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) became concerned about essential reliability services.
These services include frequency response, voltage support and flexible ramping. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
responded to NERC’s initial work on essential reliability services by adopting new frequency response reliability standards for bal-
ancing areas. FERC also initiated further evaluation of frequency response and voltage support at the generator level to recognize the
benefits provided by and potentially, compensate generators capable of providing these services. In response to FERC’s adoption of a
new reliability standard, the California Independent System Operator (CAISO), is taking steps to procure frequency response services.
In addition to frequency control and voltage support, many countries and sub-nationals are working to create low carbon electric
grids that can provide low carbon energy when VERs are not operating. Renewable geothermal energy resources can provide energy
during non-solar peak hours and can become key resources for reducing the carbon content of electric grids. Recent modeling in
California is showing geothermal energy can provide needed grid balancing services when 50% of the energy serving load must come
from qualified renewable energy sources (in California renewable resources exclude hydroelectric resources over 30 MW in size).
Recent modeling also shows the addition of geothermal resources provides a significant marginal value for ratepayers of $75/MWh.

Experience of Constructing the Resettlement Village Facilities for the 280MW Geothermal Power Project
at Olkaria, Kenya
Moses Nthiga1 and Cedrick Barasa2 • 1Assistant Geothermal Projects Manager • 2Projects Engineer (RAP)
mnthiga@kengen.co.ke • cbarasa@kengen.co.ke
Keywords: Kenya, Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA), Environmental and Social Management plan
(ESMP), Project Affected Persons (PAP), Resettlement Action Plan (RAP), Stakeholder Coordination Committee (SCC) Re-
settlement, Maasai
The 280MW KenGeb Olkaria Geothermal power project consists of two similar power plants namely Olkaria I Extension and
Olkaria IV. They are located about ten kilometers apart. Each power plant includes connections of about twenty five high temperature
geothermal steam wells covering an area of about ten square kilometers. The steam field development facilities include roads, steam
and brine pipelines, separator stations, underground power supply and control cables and other system networks. Hazards in the steam
field include, hot pipelines (up to 160°C), open ponds, hydrogen sulphide gas, loud noise during well testing or plant malfunction,
and dust during construction.
The Olkaria IV steam field area was occupied by the local Maasai community most of whom had lived there as squatters and for
over twenty years. Under Kenyan Law, a person who has consistently lived on somebody else’s land for a period of more than twelve
years has a right to claim ownership by adverse possesssion (Limitation of Actions Act, section 8). This Maasai community had estab-
lished traditional homesteads, schools, churches, and a cultural centre. Like other Maasai communities they are pastrolists. They own
and graze cattle in the vast grasslands of the Rift Valley including private lands that are not developed or fenced. The Olkaria IV area
was a small portion of a larger piece of land that was privately owned and not fenced. The squatter community living in this area was
used to casual work and supply of water by the KenGen power plants. In addition, the local Maasai children were taken to school by
a KenGen bus through a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiative. At the time of the project, the community population was
about 900 people, settled in four villages with 150 households.

Geothermal Energy Reform in Mexico: Legal Framework, Tools and Outcome

M. A. Ramírez Bueno and D. A. Rocha Ruiz • Secretaría de Energía, Sener, México, Ciudad de México
maramirez@energia.gob.mx • drocha@energia.gob.mx
Keywords: Geothermal, Mexico, policy, legal framework, energy reform, new regulations
The main features of Mexico’s energy reform are presented to familiarize and guide everyone who is interested. The paper outlines
the tools the Mexican Government has launched to encourage electricity generation using renewable energies, including geothermal.
The current state of the geothermal industry in the country is also reviewed.

15
Adding Impacts and Mitigation Measures to OpenEI’s RAPID Toolkit
Erin Vogel • National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Colorado State University
Keywords: Environmental compliance, regulatory streamlining, NEPA, geothermal permit approvals, geothermal impacts
and mitigation measures
The Open Energy Information platform hosts the Regulatory and Permitting Information Desktop (RAPID) Toolkit to provide
renewable energy permitting information on federal and state regulatory processes. One of the RAPID Toolkit’s functions is to help
streamline the geothermal permitting processes outlined in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). This is particularly im-
portant in the geothermal energy sector since each development phase requires separate land analysis to acquire exploration, well field
drilling, and power plant construction permits. Using the Environmental Assessment documents included in RAPID’s NEPA Database,
the RAPID team identified 37 resource categories that a geothermal project may impact. Examples include impacts to geology and
minerals, nearby endangered species, or water quality standards.
To provide federal regulators, project developers, consultants, and the public with typical impacts and mitigation measures for
geothermal projects, the RAPID team has provided overview webpages of each of these 37 resource categories with a sidebar query
to reference related NEPA documents in the NEPA Database.
This project is an expansion of a previous project that analyzed the time to complete NEPA environmental review for various
geothermal activities. The NEPA review not only focused on geothermal projects within the Bureau of Land Management and U.S.
Forest Service managed lands, but also projects funded by the Department of Energy. Timeline barriers found were: extensive public
comments and involvement; content overlap in NEPA documents, and discovery of impacted resources such as endangered species
or cultural sites.

Exploration
Kinematic and Deformative Analysis for the Santa Rosa and La Telaraña Faults
Lucrecia Acosta Ospina and Jaider A. Quintero Loaiza • Dewhurst Group, L.L.C.
Keywords: Colombia, Andes, Nevado del Ruiz, microstructure, kinematics, structural geology, faulting, Santa Rosa fault, La
Telaraña fault, geothermal
This study was aimed at analyzing the kinematics and deformation associated with the NE – SW striking Santa Rosa and La Te-
laraña faults located west of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano (VNR) in Colombia. Paleo-stresses for both structures show a compressive
regime mainly in the NW – SE direction, and an almost vertical intermediate stress causing predominantly dextral slip; this is evident
from striated surfaces, showing kinematic components with a dip in a slightly normal-type. The microstructures along the Santa Rosa
Fault establish the presence of ductile deformation in some areas, evidence mainly in the Paleozoic units such as schist belonging to the
Cajamarca Complex, where fish-like structures with developing shear dextral bands, dynamic recrystallization of quartz and carbonates,
and superimposed brittle deformation (cataclasis) can be observed. In younger lithologies, including Ruiz lavas, Paramillo of Santa
Rosa lavas, and Rio Claro ignimbrite, a cataclastic deformation was observed in all units related to both faults, as well as a system of
larger NE – SW joints, and a subordinate series of NW – SE to E –W joints, with centimetric to metric scale cataclasis.

Structural Complexity of the Pirouette Mountain and Elevenmile Canyon Geothermal Systems
Steve Alm1, J. Douglas Walker1, and Kelly Blake2
1
University of Kansas, Department of Geology • 2 United States Navy, Geothermal Program Office
Keywords: Dixie Valley, accommodation zone, slip and dilation tendency
The blind geothermal systems of southern Dixie Valley reside in hybrid or compound structural settings comprised of normal fault
terminations and intersections, prominent stepovers in range-bounding faults, and caldera margins. The thermal anomalies associated
with these systems have been extensively drilled to shallow depths with little success due to the structurally complex nature of fault-
controlled geothermal fluid migration. The near surface expression of the associated thermal anomalies appears to be most intense
where faults terminate into or intersect with major antithetic structural boundaries, such as; the Oligocene caldera margin that forms
Elevenmile Canyon or the oblique anticlinal accommodation zone at Pirouette Mountain. Sporadic dextral shear events that occur
along active normal faults, i.e. the 1954 Fairview Peak event, may also play a significant role in generating critical system permeability.
The acquisition and interpretation of gravity, aeromagnetic, magnetotelluric, and 2D-seismic reflection data was critical in establishing
subsurface fault geometries. The resulting structural framework, that includes 3D-fault planes and previous neotectonic fault mapping
from LiDAR was evaluated for slip and dilation tendency. The effectiveness of slip and dilation analysis depends heavily on the stress
orientations derived from fault kinematic and stress ratio studies. These data support the presence of an extensional domain experiencing
moderate horizontal stresses. The results rationalize the poor results of the deepest well drilled at Pirouette Mountain, the Hunt 66-16
well, and suggests potential still exists for resource exploitation given an appetite for continuing exploration of a moderate resource.

16
Geothermal Field Work Using a Drone With Thermal Camera:
Aerial Photos, Digital Elevation Models and Heat Flow
M. C. Harvey • School of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand • mhar098@aucklanduni.ac.nz
Keywords: Thermal, infrared, geothermal, exploration, camera, drone, uav, rpas, New, Zealand, monitoring, photogrammetry,
structure, motion, heat, flow, flux
• Drone captured georeferenced, temperature-calibrated thermal orthophoto of Karapiti thermal area, Wairakei, New Zealand.
• Calibrated thermal imagery and shallow gradient measurements provide an estimate of a total heat flow of 119 MW for steam
heated ground in the survey area.
• Aerial photo and digital elevation model (DEM) were produced for the Karapiti geothermal area
• This study demonstrates the utility and economy of drones for producing accurate aerial photos, DEM’s and thermal imagery
Drones are now routinely used for collecting aerial imagery and creating digital elevation models (DEM). Lightweight thermal
sensors provide another payload option for generation of very high resolution aerial thermal orthophotos. This technology allows for
the rapid and safe survey of thermal areas, often present in inaccessible or dangerous terrain. Here we present a 0.5 km2 georefer-
enced, temperature-calibrated thermal orthophoto of thermal ground within the Wairakei geothermal area, New Zealand. The image
represents a mosaic of ~1000 thermal images captured by drone over a period of about 2 hours. This is probably the first such image
of a significant area of steam heated ground ever produced by a drone equipped with a thermal camera. Temperature calibration of
the image allowed calculation of diffuse heat flow (119 MW) from steam heated ground in the survey area (diffuse heat flow excludes
fumaroles). An Red Green Blue (RGB - visible spectrum) orthomosaic photo and digital elevation model was also produced for these
areas, with ground resolution and horizontal position error comparable to commercially produced LiDAR and aerial imagery obtained
from manned aircraft. Our results show that thermal imagery collected by drones has the potential to become a key tool in geothermal
science, including geological, geochemical and geophysical surveys, environmental baseline and monitoring studies, geotechnical
studies and civil works.

Using Infrared Spectrometry to Deduce Fluid History from an Exploration Core, Emigrant Peak
Geothermal Prospect, Northern Fish Lake Valley, Nevada, USA
Chinomso Madubuike, Tom Brikowski, and Ann Moulding
Geoscience Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX • cnm130230@utdallas.edu
Keywords: Fish Lake Valley basin, infrared spectrometry, TerraSpec Halo, hydrothermal mineral alteration, drill core
Infrared (IR) spectrometry and identification of minerals has led to notable progress in quantifying rock alteration in magma-
hydrothermal systems. Similar progress may be possible for the amagmatic geothermal systems common in the western U.S., despite
their much weaker rock alteration. Infrared spectral scanning of core from a dry hole in such a setting at the Emigrant Peak Geother-
mal Prospect in northern Fish Lake Valley, Nevada, suggests several discernable fluid migration events at this site. The stratigraphic
sequence includes shallow Tertiary intermediate and silicic volcanics, Paleozoic greenschist-facies metamorphosed sheared carbonates
and pelites, infrequent lithons of Mesozoic granodiorite, all in detachment fault contact with pre-Cambrian gneissic metamorphic tec-
tonites. IR-detected minerals exhibit a steady downhole progression from smectite to illite to muscovite by TD at 2900 ft., reflecting
shallow diagenetic alteration merging smoothly into much older regional metamorphic assemblages. IR scalars, based on ratios of
reflectance at diagnostic wavelengths, indicate a steadily increasing alkali phyllosilicate maturity with depth (Illite Spectral Maturity
or ISM), largely independent of lithology. At 2400 ft. depth this trend reverses, with increasing immaturity in silicified Paleozoic
metasiltstones overlying the Silver Peak-Lone Mountain Detachment Fault (SPLMDF) at 2733 ft. A distinct break to ISM values
consistent with the shallow diagenetic zone occurs at and below the detachment. Similar trends are exhibited in the Chlorite Spectral
Maturity (CSM) scalar. This suggests a relatively cool hydrothermal event, with fluid temperatures in the range of those observed in
nearby amagmatic geothermal systems, primarily restricted to the SPLMDF and below. Reappearance of smectites and iron-oxides
in this depth range also indicates relatively epithermal conditions. At an even finer scale, minimum maturity ISM values are spatially
correlated with zeolite-smectite mineral occurrences near and below the detachment, potentially indicating now-inactive pathways for
the recent amagmatic geothermal circulation.

Seismic Reflection and Magnetotelluric Imaging of Southwestern Dixie Valley Basin, Nevada
Jeff Unruh1, Brian Gray1, Karen Christopherson2, Satish Pullammanappallil3, Steve Alm4, and Kelly Blake5
1
Lettis Consultants International, Inc., Walnut Creek CA • 2Chinook Geoconsulting, Inc., Evergreen, CO
3
Optim Software, Reno NV • 4Dept. of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence KS
5
Navy Geothermal Program Office, China Lake CA
Keywords: Exploration, Dixie Valley, structural geology, geophysics, seismic reflection, magnetotelluric, neotectonics, re-
source characterization, temperature gradient data
Seismic reflection and magnetotelluric (MT) data acquired in southern Dixie Valley provide a unique opportunity to evaluate
stratigraphy and conductivity structure associated with the seismically active, east-southeast-dipping Dixie Valley fault and related
structures. Based on analysis of 2-D seismic reflection profiles and lithological data from deep borehole 66-16 in southern Dixie Valley,
we recognize four major subsurface lithologic units in Dixie Valley (youngest to oldest): (1) Late Cenozoic fluvial basin fill deposits

17
(approximately 122 m to 183 m thick); (2) Older Basin Fill deposits (244 m to 305 m thick); (3) a Volcanic Tuff and Porphyry unit
(about 360 m thick); and (4) a Lower Volcanic unit (about 1190 m thick) resting on crystalline basement (approximately 1933 m depth).
All units are offset by one or more strands of the Dixie Valley fault. The 3-D MT data reveal a conductive anomaly or anomalies in
southwestern Dixie Valley adjacent to the Stillwater Range front at a depth of about 2000 ft to 3600 ft (700 to 1300 m). Locally, the
range-front conductive anomaly is spatially associated with the Elevenmile Canyon temperature anomaly at the southwestern margin
of the study area. The anomaly is primarily located within the Volcanic Tuff and Porphyry and Lower Volcanic units in the hanging
wall of the Dixie Valley fault, and appears be capped above by the Dixie Valley basin fill deposits. We interpret the conductive zone to
be associated with the presence of fluids and/or hydrothermal alteration. A more laterally extensive conductive anomaly is present in
the upper 2800 ft (850 m) of south-central Dixie Valley at the very northern end of the Navy seismic array and is spatially associated
with the Pirouette Mountain high-temperature anomaly. Assuming that this MT anomaly is associated with geothermal fluids and/or
alternation, and not simply conductive clays within the fluvial basin deposits, the source of the fluids may be a deeper reservoir north
of the reflection array in Dixie Valley basin. If this is correct, the fluids may have migrated up the Louderback Mountains fault or other
structures east of the Dixie Valley fault.

Field Operations
Mitigation of Calcium Sulfate Scaling in Geothermal Production Wells
Jasbir S. Gill1, Gregory T. Jacobs1, and Steven Butler2
1
Nalco Water an Ecolab Company, Naperville IL USA • 2Hudson Ranch Power LLC, El Centro CA USA
Keywords: Calcium sulfate, scale inhibition, reservoir, production well, surface equipment, scale inhibitor, 5200M
Geothermal power generation is growing due to the need for clean renewable energy. The geothermal resources can generate
base load power at lowest cost with minimum environmental impact. Fouling mitigation and corrosion control are big challenges in
harvesting geothermal energy. Salton Sea resource contains hyper-salinity brines at temperatures approaching 700 °F. At the Hudson
Ranch development the majority of the scale is iron-silicate. However, in the high temperature areas of the plant, such as the produc-
tion gathering system and high pressure separator, the scale can also contain calcium sulfate. Computational modeling was used to
predict the precipitation of calcium sulfate based on brine and steam parameters. The paper discusses the impact of scaling in surface
equipment and the use of scale inhibitor to prevent scale deposition in the production well as well as in the surface piping between
the wellhead and high pressure separator.

Measurement of Two Phase and Other Flows Using Radio Frequency (RF) Power Measurements:
Experimental Results
John R. Sisler and Sadiq J. Zarrouk
Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand • jsisler@cruzio.com
Keywords: Geothermal flow measurement, well discharge testing, two-phase, horizontal discharge, enthalpy, dryness frac-
tion, orifice plate
A sensor scheme using radio frequency (RF) power has been investigated for the measurement of two phase flow in geothermal and
other pipelines. The method provides real-time monitoring of water content and velocity and can be installed in areas of limited pipe
runs. It is accomplished by measurement of RF energy transmitted into the contents of the pipe through an antenna, and received by
separate receive antennas. The measurement is used to calculate void fraction, dryness fraction, and flow rate in the pipe. Laboratory
tests were performed to determine feasibility, investigate antenna designs, and improve transmitter protection schemes. The results
and analysis presented in this work show the method has the potential to measure two-phase flow in geothermal pipelines with at least
2% accuracy. It may be used to complement (improve) the accuracy of existing two-phase orifice plates currently in use in geothermal
pipelines, or as a stand-alone method for the measurement of total mass flow, enthalpy, and changes in flow regime in geothermal or
other pipelines on a continuous basis.

Silica Deposits Can Be Controlled

Oleh Weres, PhD • PowerChem / ChemTreat, Reno Tech Center • oleh@powerchemtech.com
Keywords: Silica, geothermal brine, scale control, pH modification, carbon dioxide, Los Azufres, Cerro Prieto
The concentration of silica in a geothermal brine increases with temperature. When steam is separated from brine with an initial
temperature greater than about 250°C, silica-rich deposits accumulate in steam separators and brine pipes. When more steam is separated
or the brine is discharged at atmospheric pressure, massive precipitation of colloidal amorphous silica commonly occurs.
Aside from increasing separator pressure to avoid supersaturation in respect to amorphous silica, the most common method em-
ployed to control silica precipitation is addition of sulfuric acid to the brine to decrease pH, which greatly slows polymerization of
dissolved silica and formation of silica deposits. While sulfuric acid is cheap, this method requires large capital investment to avoid
corrosion. Brine acidified with sulfuric acid is poorly buffered, whereby acid feed rate must be strictly monitored and controlled, and
the vessel wherein acid is added to the brine must be made of a costly, corrosion resistant alloy.

18
 There is no such thing as a practical true silica inhibitor. Products promoted as “silica inhibitors” actually inhibit metal silicates, or
act to disperse colloidal silica particles. Formation of silica-rich deposits in separators and other equipment at high temperature generally
involves precipitation of minute particles of amorphous aluminosilicate composition similar to zeolites or clays. These particles serve
as seeds which initiate the growth of amorphous silica particles which form the deposits. Injecting a silicate inhibitor at the wellhead
enables control of such deposits by preventing formation of the aluminosilicate seeds.
Organic acids or carbon dioxide present in the condenser vent gas of a geothermal generating unit can be used to decrease brine
pH without the danger of corrosion or expensive investments to prevent corrosion. When acetic acid is used, the acidified brine is well
buffered by the equilibrium of acetic acid / acetate anion, whereby over-feeding the acid causes a small decrease in pH. Brine acidi-
fied by adding carbon dioxide is buffered by the equilibrium with bicarbonate ion in the brine; alkalinity of the brine is preserved and
the acidified brine is strongly buffered.

Geochemistry
222
Rn Production in Geothermal Fluids and Its Application to Quantifying Fracture Attributes
Shaun T. Brown1,2, Xin Ding1, Neil C. Sturchio3, John N. Christensen1,
Eric Sonnenthal1, B. Mack Kennedy1, and Donald J. DePaolo1,2 • stbrown@lbl.gov
1
Energy Geosciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley CA
2
Dept of Earth and Planetary Sciences, UC Berkeley • 3Dept of Geological Sciences, University of Delaware
Keywords: Radon, fracture surface area, fracture aperture, isotope tracers
The precise and accurate characterization of fracture attributes, such as spacing and surface area, in geothermal systems is essen-
tial for increasing geothermal energy production. Fracture characterization is particularly important for enhanced geothermal systems
(EGS) where fracture permeability must be increased and sustained compared to pre-development conditions to make EGS economi-
cal. Natural and synthetic geochemical tracers are a promising tool for fracture characterization; however, model validation remains
an unmet challenge in many cases.
We present results of from batch radon emanation experiments designed to calibrate 222Rn as a tracer of fracture aperture and a
preliminary model that combines the calculated aperture data with tracers of fracture spacing (e.g. 87Sr/86Sr and δ18O) to calculate the
available fracture surface area for heat exchange. Later experiments test the model with a custom-designed, flow-through hydrothermal
column with an approximately 1-liter volume. The experiments are precisely controlled for temperature, pressure, and flow rate. Our
preliminary results are applied to prior published data from the Long Valley geothermal system to assess the fracture attributes and
compare to other tracers.

Cumulative Injection Effects on Well 66A-7 in the Coso Geothermal Field

Cliff Buck • Coso Operating Company, Inyokern CA
Keywords: Non condensable gas, vapor phase chloride, injection monitoring, Coso Geothermal Project, reservoir response
to injection, superheated steam
The goal of this test was to determine if converting a production well to injection, and adding injectate to a specific area of the
field, could yield positive effects on the remaining production wells in the area. Injection of brine, condensate, and augmentation
fluids from off site are injected into multiple wells in the Navy I area of the Coso Geothermal Field. This injection, combined with
any natural recharge, created a response in several wells in the area, but mostly to well 66A-7. Increased steam flow rate along with a
subsequent decline in NC Gas were noticed shortly after the conversion of a production well to injection. Surface fluids are degassed
so any mixing helps lower the NC Gas concentration. Surface enthalpies in well 66A-7 were monitored a small change from 1219
btu/# to 1210 btu/# and then stabilizing around 1217 btu/# were noticed over a 7 month period of time. Total NC Gas geothermometers
results were used to monitor reservoir temperatures that did decline at several times but this was managed by converting the injection
well (63A-7) back to production.

Geothermometry of West Coast Geothermal Province, Maharashtra, India

Trupti Chandrasekhar1 , Varun Chandrasekhar2, and D. Chandrasekharam3,4
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay • 2GeoSyndicate Power Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, India
3
Adjunct Professor, University of Southern Queensland • 4Visiting Professor, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Keywords: West coast Maharashtra, thermal springs, geothermometer, mineral equilibrium, direct use
Around 60 thermal springs emerge at temperatures ranging from 40 to 72°C along the west coast of Maharashtra spanning a lin-
ear distance of about 350 km. Silica and cation geothermometers indicate reservoir temperatures of about 120°C, with a few springs
showing higher potential. The mineral phase equilibrium plots (Q/K v/s Temperature) yielded higher equilibrium temperatures ranging
from 120-170°C. The highest being the Unhavre-Farare and the Tural spings, pointing towards more promising sites with potential for
adequate heat generation. Located in an agricultural and coastal area, the province holds great promise for direct heat utilization such
as green house, food dehydration and aquaculture.

19
New Insight Into the Evolution of India’s West Coast Geothermal Province:
Trace Element Signature in the Thermal Waters
Varun Chandrasekhar1, Trupti Chandrasekhar2, and D. Chandrasekharam3,4
1
GeoSyndicate Power Pvt Ltd. • 2Dept. of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
3
Adjunct Professor, University of Southern Queensland, Australia • 4Visiting Professor, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Keywords: India, thermal springs, trace element chemistry, water rock interaction, basalt
Trace element signature in the thermal waters from India’s west coast geothermal province brought out distinct circulation regime
within the province. The northern group of thermal springs circulate within the Deccan volcanic flows with geothermal gradients and
heat flow values contributed by the mantle below the Deccan. The southern group of thermal springs circulate within the Precambrian
granites, registering high B content. Thus, the earlier held view that the entire west coast geothermal province host geothermal reservoirs
within the Deccan volcanic flows is not valid. The west coast geothermal province thus has two distinct sub-provinces: one controlled
the basalt flows and the other controlled by the high heat generating granites.

Scaling Tendency Prediction of the Southeast Geothermal Field in Beijing

Chenyang Duan1, Xiuhua Zheng1, and Shiwei Yang2
1
China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China
2
Drilling Engineering Research Institute, Deyang City, Sichuan Province, P. R. China
dcy1990@sina.com • blankyung@sina.cn • xiuhuazh@cugb.edu.cn
Keywords: Scaling, index, carbonate, silicate, sulfate, geochemical modeling
Scaling is one of the important issues in the process of geothermal fluid extraction. The solubility of minerals in the geothermal
water will change from the reservoir to the surface, as the pressure and temperature decrease. Thestudy analyzed the geothermal water
in Southeast Geothermal Field, Beijing. Index judge method and geochemical modeling were used to predict the scaling tendency. The
results show thatscaling in geothermal wells is little, and the potential scaling minerals are mainly calcite and dolomite.

Tracer Testing in the Svartsengi Geothermal Field in 2015

Sigrún Brá Sverrisdóttir1 and Guðni Axelsson2 • sbs@hsorka.is
1
HS Orka, Reykjanesbær, Iceland • 2IcelandGeoSurvey, Reykjavík, Iceland
Keywords: Tracer test, napthalene sulfonate, sulfurhexafluoride, injection, Svartsengi
The Svartsengi geothermal field has an installed power of 75 MWe and 150 MWth. In order to decrease pressure drawdown in the
field approximately 60% of the extracted fluid is injected back into the system. The risk of a thermal breakthrough due to the injection
has never been estimated. Therefore, a threefold tracer test was initiated in the summer of 2015. SF6 was injected into well SV-24 in
order to obtain information about the steam phase in the system, while 2,6-Napthalene disulfonate (NDS) was injected into the same
well for the liquid phase, as well as injecting 2,7-NDS into well SV-17.
The present paper analyzes the steam phase tracer returns using a one dimensional flow channel model and information about the
field geology. Cooling due to the injection is estimated using the obtained flow channel parameters. The liquid phase tracer tests are
still ongoing, thus minimal analysis has been performed on the liquid tracer test results. SF6 travelled quickly through the system and
only 0.035% of the injected tracer was recovered in the production wells. Cooling due to current injection in well SV-24 was estimated
to be 0.1°C. Liquid phase tracer concentration in production wells is still on the rise but to date 0.7% of the injeted 2,6-NDS has been
recovered and 0.4% of the injected 2,7-NDS.

Geology
Soda Lake Geothermal Field Case History 1972 to 2016
Dick Benoit • Sustainable Solutions
Keywords: Nevada, Basin and Range, Soda Lake, case history, exploration, development, production history
The Soda Lake geothermal field has one of the longer exploration, development, and production histories in Nevada with initial
exploration activities beginning in 1972 and the most recent production well being placed in service in 2016. Six different owner/
developers have explored, drilled, and operated the project in its 43 year history with highly variable degrees of success in developing
and producing the field. Two of the first three wells drilled prior to 1982 were commercially successful but 21 wells and six redrills
since 1990, concentrated in a one square mile area have had a far lower success rate. The project has continuously produced power
since 1987 but the capacity factors have been relatively low, primarily due to a shortfall of produced fluid and reduced production
temperatures. Over most of the project’s history there were remarkably few technical papers published on the resource and its perfor-
mance. Since 2009 the project output has stabilized and even slightly increased with a renewed emphasis on developing an improved
understanding of the overall geothermal resource.

20
The Nevada Play Fairway Project — Phase II: Initial Search for New Viable Geothermal Systems
in the Great Basin Region, Western USA
James E. Faulds1, Nicholas H. Hinz1, Mark F. Coolbaugh1,2, Lisa A. Shevenell2, and Drew L. Siler3
1
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno NV
2
ATLAS Geosciences Inc., Reno NV • 3Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley CA
Keywords: Geothermal play fairway, geothermal exploration, Nevada, Great Basin, blind geothermal system, geothermal potential
Estimates suggest that the Great Basin region is capable of producing much greater amounts of geothermal energy than the current
~600 MW from ~24 power plants. Because most of the geothermal resources in this region are blind, it is imperative that the favorable
characteristics for geothermal activity be synthesized and methodologies developed to discover new robust systems. Nine geologic,
geochemical, and geophysical parameters were synthesized to produce a new detailed geothermal play fairway map of a large tran-
sect across the Great Basin region (96,000 km2) from west-central to eastern Nevada. These parameters were grouped into subsets to
delineate rankings for local permeability, regional permeability, and heat, which collectively defined geothermal play fairways (i.e.,
most likely locations for significant geothermal fluid flow). The primary objective of this work was to reduce the risks in geothermal
exploration and thus facilitate discovery of commercial-grade, blind geothermal fields. Two dozen highly prospective areas, including
both known systems and previously undiscovered potential blind systems, have been identified across the region for further analysis,
of which several will be selected for detailed studies. Multiple techniques, including detailed geologic mapping, shallow temperature
surveys, detailed gravity surveys, LiDAR, geochemical studies, seismic reflection analysis, and 3D modeling, are being employed in
the detailed studies. Initial work on the detailed studies has begun and will proceed over the next year.

Summary of Phase 1 and Plans for Phase 2 of the Washington State Geothermal Play-Fairway Analysis
Corina Forson1, Jessica L. Czajkowski1, David K. Norman1, Michael W. Swyer2, Trenton T. Cladouhos2, and Nicholas Davatzes3
1
Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources, Olympia WA
2
AltaRock Energy, Inc., Seattle WA • 3Temple University, EES, Beury Hall, Philadelphia PA
Keywords: Play-fairway, Washington, Mount St. Helens seismic zone, Wind River Valley, Mount Baker, geothermal favorabil-
ity, heat, permeability, GIS modeling
A geothermal play fairway is constituted by the collocation of heat, permeability, and saturated porosity in sufficient volume that
provide adequate heat exchange at depths accessible by modern drilling technologies. The focus of Phase 1 of the Washington State
play-fairway analysis (PFA) was to develop and apply a methodology to integrate detailed models of heat and permeability potential
for each play (study area). The goal is to minimize risk associated with investments in geothermal exploration of greenfield projects
by rigorously analyzing available data, applying favorability modeling concepts that have been successfully used at known geothermal
systems, and addressing data quality and model sensitivity. The integrated results indicate locations where commercial geothermal
potential is highest, based on available data. These results also reveal where new data are needed to increase resolution and reduce
uncertainty to minimize risk (work conducted in Phase 2), and thus successfully identify sites for exploration wells (in Phase 3).

A New Look at the Thermal Regime Around Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah
Mark Gwynn1, Rick Allis1, Christian Hardwick1, Jay Hill1, and Joe Moore2
1
Utah Geological Survey, Salt Lake City UT • 2Energy & Geoscience Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City UT
Keywords: Roosevelt Hot Springs, Milford, Utah, thermal gradient, heat flow, FORGE
Recent re-evaluation of thermal data from over 100 wells drilled mostly during the 1970s and 1980s in the area of Roosevelt Hot
Springs (RHS) has refined earlier interpretations of the thermal regime. These data have been combined with pre-existing gravity and
magnetotelluric data to construct a 3-D model of the area as part of the site characterization phase of U.S. Department of Energy’s
Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE) initiative. The project goal is to create an enhanced geothermal
system (EGS) reservoir in crystalline rock where temperatures of 175 to 225˚C are present at depths between 1.5 and 4 km to test
development concepts and technology. The 3-D model is amply supported by well data, both in terms of suitable temperatures and
depth to crystalline basement (Precambrian gneiss and Tertiary plutons), and shows that FORGE temperature and lithologic require-
ments can be met over an area of at least 100 km2. The total volume of crystalline basement rock with temperatures over 175°C above
4 km depth is more than 100 km3. Temperatures greater than 175°C within plutonic basement rock are expected at depths ranging
from about 1.8 to 3.0 km, depending on the specific location, over most of the area best suited for deep FORGE drilling based on land
ownership, existing roads, and topographic features. Nearly all of the FORGE area achieves 175°C by 4 km depth. While RHS is an
active hydrothermal system, heat transport farther to the west, on the opposite side of the Opal Mound fault, is primarily conductive.
The thermal regime based on deep temperatures and reservoir rocks suggests the site is ideal for FORGE development.

Phase 2 Activities to Improve a 2015 Play Fairway Analysis of Geothermal Potential

Across the State of Hawaii
Nicole Lautze1, Donald Thomas1, Graham Hill1, Erin Wallin1, Robert Whittier2, Stephen Martel1, Garrett Ito1, Neil Frazer1,
and Nicholas Hinz3
1
University of Hawaii • 2Hawaii Department of Health • 3University of Nevada, Reno
Keywords: Geothermal, Hawaii, Play Fairway, volcano, gravity, groundwater, magnetotelluric, stress, modeling

21
 An initial Play Fairway analysis of geothermal resource potential across the State of Hawaii was completed in 2015. The results
of this probability analysis, coupled with considerations of development viability, led to the identification of ten locations for future
exploration on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii. With funding from the U.S. Department of Energy, the two main
Phase 2 field activities planned are i) geophysical (electromagnetic and gravity) surveys in a few high priority areas, to explore for
heated fluid and intrusive rocks, and ii) a groundwater sampling and analysis campaign in the ten locations of interest, to validate
groundwater indications of geothermal activity and improve knowledge of groundwater flow paths. Non-field activities will include
the production of 3D crustal stress models to better infer subsurface permeability, and the integration of new data into improved 2D
and new 3D probability maps. An introduction to, and description of, each activity is given below. A status update will be included in
the presentation.

Constraining Subsurface Model Resolution at Newberry Volcano Using a Weighted Spatial Analysis
MacKenzie Mark-Moser1,2, Emily Cameron1,3, Kelly Rose1, Lucy Romeo1,3, Jeremy Schultz1,2, and Adam Schultz4
1
National Energy Technology Laboratory, USA • 2Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education
3
AECOM, USA • 4Oregon State University, USA
Keywords: Newberry Volcano, enhanced geothermal system, ArcGIS, EarthVision™, uncertainty, data resolution, multi-
scale, Cumulative Spatial Impact Layer, spatial analysis, modeling
Geologic characterization, geothermal exploration, and assessment of resource potential have been ongoing for nearly a century
in the region surrounding Newberry Volcano. As a result, a variety of surface and subsurface datasets have been acquired that are ap-
propriate to constrain the subsurface geologic framework for Newberry Volcano and also to allow for the characterization of the high
heat-capacity, magmatically-hosted geothermal system at multiple scales. To evaluate the impact of an engineered geothermal system
(EGS) installation at Newberry, various datasets were incorporated into a 3-D geologic model utilizing EarthVision™. A subset of the
input data used in the 3-D model was then spatially analyzed with the Cumulative Spatial Impact Layer tool (CSIL), developed by the
National Energy Technology Lab (NETL), to assess data resolution and characterize areas of higher model certainty. Results from the
CSIL based analysis and implications for the Newberry 3-D model are examined.

The Geologic Framework of the Fallon FORGE Site

Drew L. Siler1, Nicholas H. Hinz2, James E. Faulds2, Brett Tobin2, Kelly Blake3, Andrew Tiedeman3, Andrew Sabin3,
Mike Lazaro3, Douglas Blankenship4, Mack Kennedy1, Greg Rhodes5, Josh Nordquist5, Stephen Hickman6, Jonathan Glen6,
Colin Williams6, Ann Robertson-Tait7, Wendy Calvin8, and Will Pettitt9
1
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
2
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada
3
U.S. Navy Geothermal Program Office • 4Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
5
Ormat Nevada, Inc. • 6U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California • 7GeothermEx/Schlumberger
8
Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno • 9Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Keywords: Fallon, FORGE, EGS, structure, geology
The proposed Fallon FORGE site is located immediately south of Fallon, NV. Data confirm that the Fallon site consists of predomi-
nantly crystalline metamorphic and granitic rocks, with low permeability, and temperatures in excess of 175°C at ~1.7 km beneath the
surface. Well testing data confirm that the Fallon site is not within an existing hydrothermal field. Stress data suggest that the natural
fracture system is well oriented for reactivation during EGS stimulation. The 3D geologic framework model for Fallon confirms that
these characteristics are present in the subsurface throughout the site, and indicate that a minimum volume of ~3.2 km3 rock within ~4
km of the surface satisfy FORGE criteria. As such, the proposed Fallon site represents an ideal environment for development, testing,
and validation of EGS technologies under the FORGE initiative.

The Geologic Framework of the West Flank FORGE Site

Drew L. Siler1, Kelly Blake2, Andrew Sabin2, Mike Lazaro2, Dave Meade2, Douglas Blankenship3, B. Mack Kennedy1,
Jess McCulloch4, Steve DeOreo4, Stephen Hickman5, Jonathan Glen5, Ole Kaven5, Martin Schoenball5, Colin Williams5,
Geoff Phelps5, James E. Faulds6, Nicholas H. Hinz6, Ann Robertson-Tait8, and Will Pettitt9
1
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California • 2U.S. Navy Geothermal Program Office
3
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico • 4Coso Operating Company LLC
5
U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California • 6Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada
7
Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno • 8GeothermEx/Schlumberger
9
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Keywords: West Flank, Coso, FORGE, EGS, structure, geology
The proposed West Flank FORGE site is located immediately west and outside of the Coso geothermal field on Naval Air Weapons
Station China Lake (NAWSCL) in eastern, CA. Data confirm that the West Flank site consists of predominantly crystalline granitic base-
ment rocks, with low permeability, and temperatures in excess of 175°C at ~1.5 km beneath the surface. Well testing data from within
the proposed FORGE test area confirm that the West Flank site is not hydrologically connected to the neighboring Coso geothermal
field. Stress data suggest that the natural fracture system is well oriented for reactivation during EGS stimulation. The 3D geologic
framework model for West Flank confirms that these characteristics are present in the subsurface throughout the site, and indicate
that a minimum volume of rock of ~2.5 km3 within 4 km of the surface satisfy the Department of Energy’s FORGE criteria. As such

22
the proposed West Flank site represents an ideal environment for research, development, testing, and validation of EGS technologies
under the FORGE initiative.

A Workflow for 3D Geothermal Conceptual Models — Moving Beyond the Flat Cartoon

Jim Stimac1 and Petronilla Esther Mandeno2
1
Stimac Geothermal Consulting, Santa Rosa CA • Digital Mapping Solutions, Santa Rosa CA
Keywords: 3D temperature interpolation, conceptual modeling, modeling, geology, geochemistry, geophysics, resource
estimates, well planning
Modern visualization and interpretation software can be used with traditional geothermal conceptual modeling skills to develop
realistic 3D conceptual models. Characteristic patterns in each major data set (geochemistry, resistivity, volcanology, structural geol-
ogy) can be used together to infer plausible conceptual models, with the most important parameter to map being temperature. Since
temperature is related to convective circulation, its distribution indicates fluid flow paths and sources. The hottest areas are likely
regions of upflow, whereas anomalously low temperatures may indicate downflow of cooler fluids. Overturns of temperature typically
indicate tabular outflows.
Focusing on temperature and its relationship to fluid flow is critical to the development of a conceptual model, and has significant
utility when only a few wells have been drilled, and building a detailed structural and stratigraphic model may not be possible. Moreover
most intrusion-related geothermal systems are dominated by fracture permeability rather than stratigraphic permeability, and therefore
mapping rock types is not always very useful. Volcanic sequences are also composed of irregular units that are not regionally extensive
and may be difficult to correlate between wells. Given these complexities we prefer to focus on indicators of hot fluid flow, and attempt
to map the shape of the temperature anomaly using a variety of hard and soft data. Temperature interpretations away from wells is
based mainly on resistivity and fluid geothermometers. Examples of how to infer temperature from the major data available are given.
Once you have created one or more temperature interpolations that are consistent with the main hard data, and represent plausible
variations based on soft data interpretation and boundary conditions, you are in a position to estimate the size of the reservoir. Volumes
can be made directly from alternative temperature interpolation, or built from alternative interpretation of resistivity, since it is typically
the most extensive dataset that can be related directly to reservoir shape. High confidence, most likely, and low confidence reservoir
volumes can be estimated using this approach. Once each volume is constructed, they can be viewed and revised as needed. These
nested volumes can be used to estimate reservoir MW potential, and along with economic assumptions, decide on the next stage of
development. If development drilling is indicated, a portfolio of well options can be planned and reviewed from available or planned
drilling locations. Models can be easily updated as additional data become available.

Intersecting Fracture Geometries in Control of Geothermal Spring Occurrences

in Circumferences of the Madra Mountain, Aegean Region of Turkey
Ayşegül Turan, Salih Saner, and Emre Artun
Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus, Güzelyurt, Mersin 10, Turkey
Keywords: Geothermal, geology, geomorphology, fracture geometries, geothermal gradient, Madra Mountain, Turkey
Abundant geothermal springs occur in the Aegean Region of Turkey. These are all associated with two important phenomena: 1.
Rough topography causing hydrostatic pressure; and 2. Intersecting fracture planes which provide pathways for water to seep down and
flow back to the surface upon getting heated. Deep seated steeply dipping fractures which provide inflow in metamorphic or plutonic
basement rocks are intersected by young normal faults that are pathways for outflow. Young faults are mainly those bounding horst
and graben structures in the region and host hot springs along them.
Strike and dip angles of intake and outlet fracture systems control the depth of intersection line where vadose water flow is diverted
upward. Temperature is related to intersection depth. Strike direction relationships between the fractures determine if cold water will
mix with hot water or not.
Once conditions permit hot water to flow to the surface, a convection circulation system forms and alters the regional geothermal
gradient by heating along the flow pathway. Geothermal spring temperature is related with regional geothermal gradient but while
flowing up cooling does not follow the geothermal gradient because of heating by circulation system developed over the years.

Geophysics
Resource Conceptual Models of Volcano-Hosted Geothermal Reservoirs for Exploration Well Targeting
and Resource Capacity Assessment: Construction, Pitfalls and Challenges
William Cumming • Cumming Geoscience, Santa Rosa CA • wcumming@wcumming.com
Keywords: Exploration, conceptual model, geophysics, geochemistry, resource risk assessment
Building geothermal resource conceptual models to support assessments of well targets and resource capacity is a widely recom-
mended geothermal industry best practice, with potentially serious pitfalls if important data is collected without adequate consideration
of its conceptual context and uncertainty. The process is illustrated by a detailed step-by-step example of the construction of an explora-
tion conceptual model for a synthetic volcano-hosted geothermal reservoir using a representative data set including the geochemistry
of hot springs and fumaroles, maps of surface geology and structure, and images of the low resistivity clay cap using magnetotelluric

23
(MT) surveys. A range of conceptual models representative of both data and conceptual uncertainty supports well targeting and resource
capacity risk assessments. Well targeting failures in recent geothermal exploration and development projects have highlighted pitfalls
in the conceptual model approach and also its resilience in identifying remedies and focusing attention on unresolved challenges. For
example, MT surveys typically avoid incised drainages and so may fail to detect extensive outcrop of propylitic alteration that implies
a higher probability of encountering relict alteration that is relatively cool and low in permeability. As prospects that fit the exploration
assessment methods outlined in this paper are drilled, the remaining prospects are a poorer fit to the paradigm. Whatever alternative
data sets are gathered to reduce risk in the remaining prospects, it is likely that they will more effectively address well targeting and
resource capacity risk using a conceptual model approach.

Preliminary Three-Dimensional Temperature Structure of the Williston Basin

Will Gosnold, Samantha McLaughlin, and Christopher Colby
Harold Hamm School of Geology and Geological Engineering • University of North Dakota, Grand Forks ND
Keywords: Geothermal, heat flow, thermal conductivity, modeling, low-temperature power production
Three-dimensional analysis of the temperatures in a sedimentary basin aids in identification of sites suitable for binary geothermal
power systems and provides information on the thermal properties of the basin that are relevant for oil and gas development. Sixty-
three, regularly spaced, 5.5 km deep temperature profiles derived from heat flow, formation thermal conductivities, and stratigraphic
thicknesses were used to develop a 3-dimensional temperature model of the North Dakota portion of the Williston Basin. Construc-
tion of isotherms using Golden Software’s Voxler® software reveals high and low temperature regions that may be used to identify
geothermal resources and for interpretation of the thermal maturity of petroleum source rocks.

Using Seismic Networks to Explore for Geothermal Resources in Western Saudi Arabia
Robert J. Mellors1, Victor Camp2, and Abdullah Al-Amri3
1
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory • 2Consultant • 3King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Keywords: Saudi Arabia, passive seismic, exploration, volcanic, geothermal
Saudi Arabia possesses potential for geothermal energy, but only a limited amount of exploration efforts have taken place. We are
conducting a low-cost, reconnaissance level evaluation of the volcanic area based on mapped geology and existing passive seismic
data. A geological study has been completed and we are now using seismic data. Particular focus is on identifying areas with possible
shallow magma chambers by looking for micro-seismicity, anomalous attenuation, and low velocities. The emphasis is on the Harrat
Rahat volcanic area in western Saudi Arabia. The goal is to test the procedure and identify areas for future, more intensive study.

3D Geophysical Inversion Modelling of Gravity Data as a Subsurface Geothermal Exploration Tool

With an Example From Akutan (Alaska, USA)
Jeffrey B. Witter1, Pete Stelling2, Paige Knapp2, and Nicholas H. Hinz3
1
Mira Geoscience Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada • 2Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, USA
3
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
Keywords: Geothermal exploration, 3D geophysical modelling, gravity data, Akutan, Hot Springs Bay Valley geothermal
system, GOCAD, VPmg
Three dimensional geophysical modelling was performed using gravity data collected from the Hot Springs Bay Valley geother-
mal area on Akutan Island, Alaska. The aim of this effort was to assist an ongoing subsurface exploration program. The geophysical
modelling performed included four techniques: apparent density inversion modelling, 3D forward modelling, 3D depth-to-basement
inversion modelling, and 3D unconstrained, heterogeneous inversion modelling. Density measurements on rock from drill core and
surface samples were analyzed and used to ground-truth the geophysical model results. Apparent density modelling produced a map
showing geologically-reasonable lateral variations in density across the project area. Forward modelling was performed on an existing
3D pseudo-basement model and was found to have a poor fit to the observed gravity data. A new depth-to-basement model derived from
3D inversion modelling was generated. This new model fit the observed gravity data better, but overall, a simple two-layer geological
model was deemed inappropriate for Akutan. The 3D heterogeneous inversion model result fits the gravity data well, matches observed
density measurements from geothermal wells, and appears to be consistent with observed surface geology and structural trends. The 3D
density model created from heterogeneous inversion modelling serves as a good, initial 3D geological model for Akutan but it should
be updated and improved with more geological constraints as additional drilling and geoscience data are collected.

Muang Rae Geothermal System: Drilling and Borehole Geophysics, 1000-m Core Hole Into Granitic
Rock, Amphoe Pai, Mae Hong Son Province, Northern Thailand
Spencer H. Wood1, Kriangsak Pirarai2, Aranya Fuangswasdi2, Wiboon Kaentao3, Albert Waibel4,
Fongsaward S. Singharajwarapan5
1
Department of Geosciences, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho, USA
2
Department of Groundwater Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand
3
Geological Engineering and Business Development Division, Panya Consultants Co.,Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand
4
Columbia Geosciences, Hillsboro, Oregon, USA
5
Groundwater Technology Service Center, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand

24
swood@boisestate.edu • kpirarai@gmail.com • aranyaf@yahoo.com • wiboon_k@panyaconsult.co.th • awaibel@hevanet.
com • fongsawardsingha@gmail.com
Keywords: Thailand, geothermal, geology, Muang Rae, Pai, Mae Hong Son, granite, resistivity, borehole geophysics, tem-
perature logs, geochemistry
In 2015, a 1-km core hole was drilled into granitic rock at the Muang Rae geothermal area. Previous drilling in 1993 to 200 m was
unsuccessful in obtaining flows, but one of the “dry” wells began flowing in August, 2013 at 9.75 L/s of 96.9°C water from a fracture
zone 80 m deep. In the sandy bed of the Pai River, 150 m south of that well is a 600-m long line of hot seeps, oriented NE, with highest
temperature measured at 94.5°C. Geology is foliated Triassic (?) granitic rock cut by a NE-SW-trending normal fault zone (dip 65°
NW) with extensive fluorite mineralization. Mineral equilibrium geothermometer analysis predicts a reservoir temperature of 132°C.
The core hole was sited NW of the seep zone to drill into the fault zone at 600 m. MT indicated a low-resistivity anomaly 150-500 m
deep at the site. The well did not flow, but was pumped at 6.4 L/s of 86°C water with 2.5 m of drawdown. Temperature logs indicate
the well intersects a fracture with flowing hot water of 91.5°C at 600 m. The log shows a temperature inversion related to the transient
effect of conductive heating of the surrounding rock by hot-water flow in the fracture. The bottom 150 m of the well shows a 23°C/
km temperature gradient, which reflects the regional crustal conductive gradient.

GeoVision
Update to Enhanced Geothermal System Resource Potential Estimate
Chad Augustine • National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Keywords: Enhanced geothermal systems, EGS, resource potential, supply curve, temperature-at-depth maps
The deep EGS electricity generation resource potential estimate maintained by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory was
updated using the most recent temperature-at-depth maps available from the Southern Methodist University Geothermal Laboratory.
The previous study dates back to 2011 and was developed using the original temperature-at-depth maps showcased in the 2006 MIT
Future of Geothermal Energy report. The methodology used to update the deep EGS resource potential is the same as in the previous
study and is summarized in the paper. The updated deep EGS resource potential estimate was calculated for rock at depths between
3 and 7 km whose estimated temperature exceeds 150°C. The updated deep EGS electricity generation resource potential estimate is
5,157 GWe. A comparison of the estimates from the previous and updated studies shows a net increase of 925 GWe in the 3-7 km depth
range, due mainly to increases in the underlying temperature-at-depth estimates from the updated maps.

A Methodology for Calculating EGS Electricity Generation Potential

Based on the Gringarten Model for Heat Extraction From Fractured Rock
Chad Augustine • National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Keywords: Enhanced geothermal systems, EGS, resource potential, supply curve, electricity generation potential, heat recov-
ery, heat extraction, heat mining
Existing methodologies for estimating the electricity generation potential of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) assume thermal
recovery factors of 5% or less, resulting in relatively low volumetric electricity generation potentials for EGS reservoirs. This study
proposes and develops a methodology for calculating EGS electricity generation potential based on the Gringarten conceptual model
and analytical solution for heat extraction from fractured rock. The electricity generation potential of a cubic kilometer of rock as a
function of temperature is calculated assuming limits on the allowed produced water temperature decline and reservoir lifetime based
on surface power plant constraints. The resulting estimates of EGS electricity generation potential can be one to nearly two-orders
of magnitude larger than those from existing methodologies. The flow per unit fracture surface area from the Gringarten solution is
found to be a key term in describing the conceptual reservoir behavior. The conceptual model is not indicative of reservoirs that can
be created with demonstrated technology, but instead illustrates the scale and challenges of creating commercial EGS projects. The
methodology can be applied to aid in the design of EGS reservoirs constructed by creating multiple isolated fracture zones (similar
to that done in unconventional shale oil and gas completions) by giving minimum reservoir volume, fracture area, fracture spacing,
number of fractures, and flow requirements for a target reservoir power output. Limitations of the idealized model compared to actual
reservoir performance and the implications on reservoir design are discussed.

Strategies for Increasing Geothermal Direct Use in New Zealand

M. Climo1, B. Carey1, A. Seward1, and S. Bendall2
GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, Taupo–, New Zealand • 2Environmental Management Services, Taupo
1 –, New Zealand
m.climo@gns.cri.nz • b.carey@gns.cri.nz • a.seward@gns.cri.nz • simon.bendall@emslimited.co.nz
Keywords: Geothermal, direct use, geoheat strategy, economic growth, regional growth, New Zealand, update
New Zealand seeks to grow its geothermal energy use to support economic growth and increase the uptake of renewable energy.
National energy growth opportunities are in the three main areas of electricity, transport and process heat. Process heat is the most
likely opportunity for geothermal direct use to have a short to medium term impact.

25
 This direct use opportunity is not new and New Zealand already operates many direct heat applications. Domestic direct heat use
has had periods of growth, decline and little or no change over time. A strategic approach is required to change this into a trajectory
of positive, sustainable growth.
This paper reviews strategies for increasing geothermal direct use in New Zealand, including regional action plans, and a proposed
whole-of-industry approach.
Diverse stakeholders are united in their common purpose to leverage the advantages of geothermal energy, and in doing so in-
crease direct geothermal energy use. The challenge for New Zealand is to coordinate these strategies for mutual benefit and long term,
sustainable growth.

A Review of Exploration Methods for Discovering Hidden Geothermal Systems

Patrick F. Dobson • pfdobson@lbl.gov
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Energy Geosciences Division, Berkeley CA
Keywords: GeoVision study, exploration, hidden (blind) systems
One of the tasks of the Exploration team for the US DOE Geothermal Technologies Office Geothermal Vision study is to evaluate
the distribution and likely future deployment of geothermal resources for power generation. The 2008 USGS assessment of geothermal
resources in the western US noted that the largest potential resource base consists of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS); however,
significant technical and economic challenges remain to be overcome before large-scale commercial utilization of this resource type
can occur. Of the remaining moderate and high temperature resources, undiscovered hydrothermal systems (which are typically hid-
den systems with no surface thermal manifestations) have three times the resource potential than identified hydrothermal systems. If
geothermal field development rates are to increase above the current rate of deployment, the discovery of hidden systems will be a
critical need. To assist future exploration of these systems, this study reviews successful discoveries of hidden geothermal systems
that have been developed in the Imperial Valley and Basin and Range provinces, and summarizes the different exploration methods
that have been utilized in these efforts. Based on this review, several initial recommendations are made that might reduce the risk as-
sociated with exploration of hidden systems.

An Overview of Geothermal Heat Pump Applications and a Preliminary Assessment

of Its Technical Potential in the United States
Xiaobing Liu1, Patrick Hughes1, and Arlene Anderson2
1
Oak Ridge National Laboratory • 2U.S. Department of Energy
Keywords: Geothermal heat pumps, vision study, residential, commercial, buildings, space heating, space cooling, water
heating, technical potential, renewable thermal
Geothermal heat pumps (GHPs) utilize the shallow subsurface of the ground as a heat source for heat pumping operation and a
heat sink for the cooling or refrigeration process. GHPs have been proven capable of producing large reductions in primary energy
use and associated carbon emissions for satisfying the thermal demands of buildings, such as space conditioning and water heating.
However, the current adoption rate of GHPs in the United States is low and GHPs receive little attention by either the general public
or policy-makers. The U.S. Department of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) is developing a Geothermal Vision Study
(Vision Study) in order to articulate GTO’s investment strategies, discuss geothermal growth scenarios for 2020, 2030, 2040 and 2050,
and to address all market segments of the geothermal industry. The Vision Study Thermal Task Force is developing tools and data that
include GHPs for non-electric-power-generation geothermal applications. Work described in this paper is being conducted to provide a
credible analysis of potential GHP growth scenarios. This paper gives an overview of the current status of GHP applications, including
system configurations, cost and performance, market penetration, and the barriers preventing wider adoption. This paper also intro-
duces the methodology, supporting data, and preliminary results of an assessment for the technical potential of applying GHP systems
in businesses and homes of the United States. The assessed technical potential includes energy savings, carbon emissions reductions,
reduced summer electrical peak demands, and consumer energy cost savings. Preliminary results from this assessment indicate that
GHPs have potential, in each year, to save 6.4 Quads of primary energy, avoid 412.7 Million tons of CO2 emissions, and cut $77.3
Billion energy costs. In addition, GHPs can also significantly reduce peak demand on the electric grid.

Findings From the DOE GeoVision Reservoir Management and Development Task
Thomas S. Lowry1, Mack B. Kennedy2, and Charles R. Carrigan3
1
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM • 2Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA
3
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Livermore, CA • tslowry@sandia.gov • BMKennedy@lbl.gov • carrigan1@llnl.gov
Keywords: GeoVision, enhanced geothermal systems, EGS, hydrothermal, sedimentary, crystalline, thermal, hydraulic,
drawdown, drilling
The Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Vision (GeoVision) Study has been established to identify the challenges and
necessary actions to increase the opportunities for U.S. geothermal energy production. Within that broad objective, emphasis is being
placed on assessing the history of geothermal development, quantifying the ranges of performance, costs, benefits, and impacts, and
developing credible analyses of future growth to identify the opportunities and hurdles. The GeoVision Study has been broken into
seven distinct tasks (Reinhardt, 2015) that are being led and implemented by the National Laboratories with considerable input from
private interests, academia, and other subject matter experts. This talk will present the results to date of the ‘Reservoir Management
and Development’ (Reservoir M&D) task of the GeoVision Study.

26
Characterizing U.S. Heat Demand for Potential Application of Geothermal Direct Use
Kevin McCabe, Michael Gleason, Tim Reber, and Katherine R. Young
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden CO • Kevin.McCabe@NREL.gov
Keywords: Direct use, low-temperature, geothermal, heat demand, thermal demand, residential, commercial, manufactur-
ing, agricultural, Geothermal Vision Study
In this paper, we assess the U.S. demand for low-temperature thermal energy at the county resolution for four major end-use sectors:
residential buildings, commercial buildings, manufacturing facilities, and agricultural facilities. Existing publicly available data on the
U.S. thermal demand market are characterized by coarse spatial resolution, with assessments typically at the state level or larger. For
many uses, these data are sufficient; however, our research was motivated by an interest in assessing the potential demand for direct
use (DU) of low-temperature (30° to 150°C) geothermal heat. The availability and quality of geothermal resources for DU applications
are highly spatially heterogeneous; therefore, to assess the potential market for these resources, it is necessary to understand the spatial
variation in demand for low-temperature resources at a local resolution. This paper presents the datasets and methods we used to develop
county-level estimates of the thermal demand for the residential, commercial, manufacturing, and agricultural sectors. Although this
analysis was motivated by an interest in geothermal energy deployment, the results are likely to have broader applications throughout
the energy industry. The county-level resolution thermal demand data developed in this study may have far-reaching implications for
building technologies, industrial processes, and various distributed renewable energy thermal resources (e.g., biomass, solar).

An Estimate of Shallow, Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources of the United States

Michelle Mullane, Michael Gleason, Kevin McCabe, Meghan Mooney, Timothy Reber, and Katherine R. Young
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden CO • Michael.Gleason@nrel.gov
Keywords: Direct use, low temperature, geothermal, hydrothermal, EGS, sedimentary basin, convection, conduction, coastal
plain, isolated, delineated area, NREL, SMU, bottom-hole-temperature, hot dry rock, megawatts thermal, beneficial heat
Low-temperature geothermal resources in the United States potentially hold an enormous quantity of thermal energy, useful for
direct use in residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural applications such as space and water heating, greenhouse warming,
pool heating, aquaculture, and low-temperature manufacturing processes. Several studies published over the past 40 years have pro-
vided assessments of the resource potential for multiple types of low-temperature geothermal systems (e.g., hydrothermal convection,
hydrothermal conduction, enhanced geothermal systems) with varying temperature ranges and depths. This paper provides a sum-
mary and additional analysis of these assessments of shallow (≤ 3 km), low-temperature (30°–150°C) geothermal resources in the
United States that are suitable for use in direct-use applications. This analysis considers six types of geothermal systems, spanning
both hydrothermal and enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). We outline the primary data sources and quantitative parameters used
to describe resources in each of these categories and present summary statistics of the total resources available. In sum, we find that
low-temperature hydrothermal resources and EGS resources contain approximately 8 million and 800 million TWh of heat-in-place,
respectively. In future work, these resource potential estimates will be used for modeling of the technical and market potential for
direct-use geothermal applications for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Geothermal Vision Study.

Geothermal Value Proposition

Christopher Richard,1 Edward Eugeni,2 Aloysius Makalinao,3 Allan Jelacic,1 and Max Vigalys3
1
BCS, Incorporated • 2CSRA • 3Stanford University
Keywords: Electricity, direct use, geothermal heat pumps, GHG, EGS, value, industry, commercial, residential, emissions,
impact, benefits
Geothermal energy has provided the United States with clean energy as far back as the 1890s, when Boise, Idaho, began using
geothermal heat for commercial use and residential heating (City of Boise, Idaho 2015). Since then, geothermal energy technology
has expanded with utility scale power, distributed heat, and the augmentation of various industrial processes. Even with versatile ap-
plications, only modest rates of market penetration have been experienced in both the U.S. power and thermal energy sectors. With
recent technological developments, however, geothermal energy has the potential to not only enhance or augment energy use but to
drive larger scale deployment across industrial, commercial, and residential sectors.
This paper defines a multi-technology value proposition across all geothermal technologies and demonstrates how key stakeholder
categories benefit. The value proposition statement centers on six stakeholder categories and the unique combination of challenges
and solutions provided by a full spectrum of geothermal applications. The findings show the tangible benefits of geothermal energy,
ranging from electric utilities, universities, and industries to individual residential consumers and rural municipalities.

Geothermal Vision Study – GRC Annual Meeting Brief

Christopher Richard,1 Max Vigalys,2 and Timothy Reinhardt3
1
BCS, Incorporated • 2Stanford University • 3U.S. Department of Energy
Keywords: Geothermal, vision study, ReEDS, GHG, water, electricity, direct use, geothermal heat pumps
Advancing competitiveness and performance of clean energy technologies inspires the need to develop, analyze, and assess a “vi-
sion” for deploying these technologies in the United States. This paper’s treatment of geothermal energy is not limited to electricity;
it includes both power and thermal applications. The vision will include many potential scenarios to improve market penetration and
environmental impacts. As a result, the implementation of a geothermal vision will aim to reduce costs and enhance the performance

27
of a full spectrum of geothermal technologies. This vision will collectively portray a cleaner energy future, and it will corroborate not
only the benefits of geothermal technologies, but of a whole host of commercial clean energy technologies. This paper introduces the
motivations, methods, key players, and intended impacts of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Geothermal Vision Study.

Geothermal District Heating Systems: Country Case Studies From China, Germany, Iceland,
and United States of America, and Schemes to Overcome the Gaps
Marietta Sander
International Geothermal Association, c/o Bochum University of Applied Sciences, Bochum, Germany
Marietta.Sander@hs-bochum.de
Keywords: Geothermal district heating, policy, legislation, success factors, best practice, China, Germany, Iceland, USA
Geothermal district heating systems (GDHSs) are extensively used in some countries and only scarcely applied in other countries.
Even though the geothermal potential is available and population densities and outside temperatures would call for a geothermal district
heating system, the small number of systems installed leave the question why not more municipalities use GDHS. Based on country
assessments of China, Germany, Iceland and the U.S. challenges and opportunities of GDHS were identified. Recommendations were
developed in view of interested countries wishing to install GDHS.

Survey of Recent Market Trends for Geothermal With a Snapshot of Potential Additional Research Areas
to Expand Deployment
Bethany Speer and Katherine R. Young • National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Keywords: Geothermal, electricity, power, finance, exploration, policies
This paper looks at financing barriers to geothermal resource exploration in the United States (U.S.) for electricity generation proj-
ects and analyzes why the market is not developing as quickly as international geothermal markets or as quickly as other renewable
energy technologies in the U.S. Research opportunities and approaches to understanding these discrepancies are discussed, particularly
whether government policies and programs are spurring development activities. Further analysis to understand policies, programmatic
cost efficiencies, potential project revenues, and other economic impacts are recommended together with the preliminary conclusions.

Future Scenario Development From Disruptive Exploration Technologies

and Business Models in the U.S. Geothermal Industry
Anna M. Wall • National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden CO • anna.wall@nrel.gov
Keywords: Disruptive technology, scenario analysis, business models, exploration, strategic planning
The rapidly changing market for electricity generation and distribution raises challenging questions about the best strategies for
development in the geothermal industry. With recent trends toward intermittent U.S. renewable energy sources, the current geothermal
industry potentially faces a crossroads: adapt, disrupt, or be left behind. Equipped with current trends, strategic planning with scenario
analysis offers a framework to characterize plausible views of the future–as well as disruptions to the status quo. To inform strategic
planning in the Department of Energy’s (DOE) Geothermal Technology Office (GTO), the Geothermal Vision Study is tasked with
offering data-driven pathways for future geothermal exploration and development.
Scenario analysis is commonly used in corporate strategic planning as a way to prioritize and manage large investments in light
of uncertainty and risk. Since much of the uncertainty and risk in a geothermal project is believed to occur during early stage explora-
tion and drilling, this paper focuses on the levers (technical and financial) in that process that can affect change. Given these potential
changes, this work first qualitatively explores potential shifts to the geothermal industry. Future Geothermal Vision Study work will
incorporate these qualitative scenarios quantitatively (i.e., in competition with other renewable and conventional energy industries).

Oil and Gas

Enhancing Energy Recovery From Abandoned Oil Wells Through Geothermal Technology
Chukwuemeka Aniodoh • Center for Environmental Management and Control, UNN, Nigeria
Keywords: Abandoned oil wells, refrigerant, Kalina cycle, binary cycle, Enhanced Oil Recovery, Enhanced Geothermal Sys-
tem, heat exchanger, retrofitting
Finding alternative means of energy generation other than the use of fossil fuel-derived energy is imperative and requiring urgency,
if we are to avoid doomsday predictions by climate change analysts. The objective is to identify the potential of utilizing abandoned
oil wells through geothermal technology to generate electricity.
Current practices include the manipulation of non-traditional geothermal resources by enhancing the system. This involves the
introduction of secondary fluids through an injection well into deep hot dry rock formations to extract its heat before being pumped
out through a production well. Binary systems are suitable for use in such systems where temperatures are usually of low quality and
fluids with low boiling points can easily vaporize in a heat exchanger, with the vaporized gas used to drive a turbine.
This article proposes an integration of Enhanced oil recovery and Enhanced geothermal systems principles to improve efficiency of
energy output from abandoned oil wells. A new system was designed, the schematic illustrating the flow and interaction of geothermal
fluids within the system units where heat is recovered from the reservoir to generate electricity.

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Power Plant
Axial Exhaust Steam Turbine and Low Level Type Direct Contact Condenser
for Kamojang Geothermal Power Plant Unit5 in Indonesia
Tsuyoshi Asano and Toshie Muto
Fuji Electric Co., Ltd., Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Japan • asano-tuyoshi@fujielectric.com
Keywords: Geothermal steam turbine, condensing, axial exhaust, low level type, direct contact, dry steam, Kamojang,
Indonesia
Kamojang Geothermal Power Plant Unit5 was put into commercial operation on July 15th, 2015. The plant applies the combina-
tion of the axial exhaust type turbine and the low level type direct contact condenser. Since a condenser is horizontally connected to a
turbine when a axial exhaust turbine is used, additional protection consideration is mandatory to protect the turbine from water back
flow from the condenser. Therefore, various protection logics and instrumentation (redundancy) are considered to minimize such risks.
This paper introduces those logics and instrumentation for the turbine and the condenser at Kamojang Geothermal Power Plant Unit5.

Using “Ski Slopes” to Capture and Mix Oxygenated Water to Improve the Efficiency of a Condensate H2S
Abatement System at Aidlin Power Plant
Brian Benn, Allen Sonneville, Leslie Morrison, and Tom Bahning • Calpine Corporation, Geysers Power Plant
Keywords: Hydrogen sulfide, H2S abatement, secondary abatement, condensate, air pollution, iron chelate
A novel retrofit to an existing geothermal condensate hydrogen sulfide (H2S) abatement system (“Ski Slopes”) provides the benefits
of increasing reaction time, oxygenated water, and ferric iron, to react with and reduce emissions of H2S. As a result, reaction rates
are improved and less iron chelate abatement solution is required to meet the regulatory H2S emission limits. The retrofit captures and
redirects oxygenated cooling tower water containing oxidized (ferric) iron chelate as it cascades from the top of the cooling tower.
The captured water is redirected to the edge of the cooling tower basin where it is admixed with H2S rich condensate from the power
plant’s surface condenser. After mixing, the combined streams are channeled circuitously through the cooling tower basin to provide
increased reaction time between H2S and ferric iron prior to completing the cooling circuit at the top of the cooling tower. The develop-
ment of the retrofit process is described and data are reported documenting a 30% reduction in the iron chelate requirements to date.

Off Design Operation of Hybrid Noncondensable Gas Removal Systems

for Flash Steam Cycle Geothermal Power Plants
Jason Devinney • Project Engineer, Vooner FloGard® Corporation, Charlotte NC, USA • jdevinney@vooner.com
Keywords: Noncondensable gas, NCG Removal System, steam jet air ejector, liquid ring vacuum pump, hybrid vacuum
system, off design
The Noncondensable Gas (NCG) Removal System for the condenser of a flash steam geothermal power plant must be able to
remove the NCG load at all plant operating conditions. Hybrid vacuum systems, incorporating steam first stage jet air ejectors (SJAE)
and second stage liquid ring vacuum pumps (LRVP) have proven to be reliable and efficient in this service.
The design basis for the NCG Removal System is determined by the conditions corresponding to the highest expected vapor
mass and volumetric load. As SJAEs are substantially constant mass flow devices and LRVPs are positive displacement near constant
volumetric flow devices, any variations from the design basis will have different effects on the NCG handling capacity and loading of
each stage. Since the SJAE and LRVP operate in series, limitations or excess in capacity of each stage will affect the other. The system
must be designed so that the NCG Removal System will operate at expected off design conditions.
This paper provides an overview of the operational limits of a typical NCG Removal System at several combinations of off design
basis conditions.

Advances in Turbine and Direct Contact Condenser Configurations, and Balance of Plant Considerations
Matt Fishman1, Josh Gunderson1, and William Harvey2 • 1POWER Engineers • 2Reykjavik University
Keywords: Axial exhaust, direct contact condenser, gas cooler, subcooling, turbine
The bottom exhaust steam turbine coupled with a spray type direct contact condenser has been a common geothermal plant con-
figuration for large (50+ MW) units since the 1970s. In recent years, a wider variety of available turbine and condenser configurations
has proliferated, including axial exhaust turbines exceeding 50 MW and direct contact condensers with structured packing. In this
paper, we review key characteristics of the various equipment configurations, provide factors to consider in the evaluation of turbine
and condenser offerings, and present a case study of several configurations for a reference plant to illustrate relative differences in
plant performance and cost impacts. We conclude that recent technological advancements in axial exhaust turbines and direct contact
condensers can result in improved project economics based on increased gross and net power output and cost reductions for the pow-
erhouse, major equipment, civil works, and operations and maintenance.

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Increased Generation Performances by Using Sulfur Dispersant in the Cooling Tower at the Wayang Windu
Geothermal Power Plant (A Lesson Learned from Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant Operation)
Ismail Hidayat, Mahendra Kuntoaji, and Dea Nurivawati Falah
Star Energy Geothermal Wayang Windu Bandung West Java Indonesia
Keywords: Cooling tower, cooling water quality, sulfur deposits, microbiological growth, chemicals injection
Cooling tower performance is the essential instrument to maintain an efficient geothermal Power operation. The historical data
from the Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Plant shows that all microbiological cooling water parameters are much lower than the
allowable limit; however, it shows that the cooling tower temperature increases about 0.3 oC that equals with 0.3 MWe decrease
of the electricity production per year. In the geothermal operation, sulfur sediments is found around water distribution, nozzle
and fills etc from the non-condensable H2S gas that can potentially decrease the cooling water performances. The plant performs
mechanical cleaning at least on yearly regular basis that needs at least 1 week shutdown of each single cell of cooling tower (8 cell
total for each unit).
The field operation team initiated literature study and developed the prototype scale by installing the bio box. The inside bio
box put CT small CT fill, than flowing by condensate injected with some chemicals to make sure the potential control of the sulfur
sediment during filling inside the boxes. The sulfur deposit on the box injected with some chemicals had the smaller particulate and
was easier to wash off. The trial was continued with actual injection to cool down the system with several dosages of chemicals in 6
months period, and the result showed significant improvement of main cooling water temperature. In 2013 WW operation decided
to perform injection control of sulfur treatment in the cooling water system. The following year we found that we need not to clean
sulfur sediment in pipeline mechanically anymore, and the approach temperature decreased about 0.23 oC (better performance than
the previous condition).
Although it was successfully implemented in WW Geothermal, the treatment could not be implemented directly in other power
plants due to the differences of site-specific characteristic of cooling water content. The beginning the process approach by literature
study, used the mini scale box than continued by full scale of cooling system. The same process approach potentially conducted in
other geothermal plant to minimize the potential risk to the running Plant when applying optimum chemical dosage. In overall the trial
is success in controlling sulfur deposit at the main cooling system, at the time operation conducted continuous using sulfur dispersant
in the main cooling water system operation.

Upgrading Both Geothermal and Solar Energy

Kewen Li1,2, Changwei Liu2, Youguang Chen3, Guochen Liu2, Jinlong Chen2
1
Stanford University, Stanford Geothermal Program, Stanford CA, USA
2
China University of Geosciences, Beijing • 3Tsinghua University, Beijing • kewenli@stanford.edu
Keywords: Hybrid solar-geothermal systems, solar energy, geothermal resources, exergy, high efficiency
Geothermal energy has many advantages over solar and other renewables. These advantages include: 1) weather-proof; 2) base-load
power; 3) high stability and reliability with a capacity factor over 90% in many cases; 4) less land usage and less ecological effect; 5)
high thermal efficiency. The total installed capacity of geothermal electricity, however, is much smaller than those of solar energy. On
the other hand, solar energy, including photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP), has a lot of disadvantages and problems
even it has a greater installed power and other benefits. Almost all of the five advantages geothermal has are the disadvantages of solar.
Furthermore, solar PV has a high pollution issue during manufacturing. There have been many reports and papers on the combination
of geothermal and solar energies in recent decades. This article is mainly a review of these literatures and publications. Worldwide,
there are many areas where have both high heat flow flux and surface radiation, which makes it possible to integrate geothermal and
solar energies. High temperature geothermal resource is the main target of the geothermal industry. The fact is that there are many
geothermal resources with a low or moderate temperature of about 150oC. It is known that the efficiency of power generation from
thermal energy is directly proportional to the resource temperature in general. Alternatively, solar could be used to increase the tem-
perature of geothermal fluids significantly and then improve the efficiency of geothermal power generation significantly. Geothermal
fluids could be served as the storage systems of solar energy, which may solve the problems of solar such as weather dependence and
stability. It is concluded that the integration of geothermal and solar systems could upgrade the quality of both geothermal and solar
energies in terms of either efficiency or power generation cost in many cases.

Fuzzy PID Control Applied in Evaporator of Organic Rankine Cycle System

Xiuli Li, Zhigang Wang, Yan Wang, and Wencheng Fu
1
Tianjin Key Laboratory for Control Theory and Applications in Complicated System, Tianjin, China
2
School of Electrical Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China • fuwch@tjut.edu.cn
Keywords: Low-temperature waste heat power generation system, Organic Rankine Cycle, fuzzy, PID controller, simulation
In this paper, the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) in waste heat utilizing process is investigated. In order to study the performance of
the ORC system, the method of mechanism analysis is applied in modeling. In order to achieve both transient performance and steady-
state energy saving, a control strategy is proposed for the system by incorporating a Fuzzy control with a PID controller. MATLAB
software of Simulink toolbox is applied in this system to study the dynamic characteristics of the object to adapt to parameter changes
and anti-interference of control object. Simulations demonstrate that the proposed strategy can obtain satisfactory performance.

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Advantages of Dual Enhanced Heat Transfer Tubes in Organic Rankine Cycle Based Geothermal Plants
Jesus Moreno1 and Thomas Lang2 • 1Wieland Thermal Solutions Lda, Esposende, Portugal • 2Wieland-Werke AG, Ulm, Germany
Keywords: Organic Rankine Cycle, enhanced heat transfer, dual enhanced tubes, shell-and-tube heat exchangers, CAPEX
and OPEX benefits
Evaluation on the use of dual enhanced heat transfer tubes has been carried out. As a benchmark for validation of this mature
technology, an existing organic rankine cycle based geothermal has been selected. Results show that a significant size reduction of
shell-and-tube heat exchangers of the organic rankine cycle can be achieved by introducing this existing technology in the heat ex-
changer’s design. Heat exchanger’s size reduction will bring immediate CAPEX and OPEX savings and thus increase attractiveness
of geothermal plants in the power generation market.

MHPS Axial Flow Turbine & Direct Contact Condenser, and Recent Projects in Mexico
Yu Morita, Katsunori Kawahara, and Shojiro Saito • 1Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd.
Keyword: Geothermal power plant, plant performance, availability, reliability, turbine, axial exhaust, direct condenser, Mexico
In the case of geothermal power generation, the enthalpy of the steam used is lower compared to thermal power generation. The
steam is mostly saturated at the inlet to the steam turbine, and the wetness increases at low pressure, therefore increasing the erosion
rate. In addition, impurities contained in the steam and the hot water cause scale, precipitation, and corrosion of metal material to all
sorts of equipment. Therefore, it is essential for reliable operation to ensure and enhance the performance and reliability of the power
generating facilities including steam turbines. In this article, we introduce how we have grappled with the enhancement of performance
and reliability for the facilities we have delivered in these past few years.

Binary ORC Turbogenerators for Small and Medium Scale Plants in the Eastern Caribbean Islands
Clotilde Rossi di Schio and Joseph Bonafin • Turboden, Brescia, Italy • info@turboden.it
Keywords: ORC, binary, medium enthalpy, low enthalpy, geothermal, Caribbean, distributed generation, renewable energy,
triple bottom line, island operating mode
After the successful scale up of Turboden turbines up to 25 MWel, with a 18 MW plant in Croatia, Turboden has been exploiting
his position of market leader for binary geothermal plants in the size of 5-10 MWel to address the Caribbean market. Turboden, based
on his experience from his four 5 MW state of the art geothermal power plants in Bavaria, a 3 MW plant in Turkey, and a 5MW plant
operating in Japan, has recently designed a 9MWplant for the Eastern Caribbean.
This paper focus on the market opportunities for ORC technology in the Eastern Caribbean area, with reference to economic,
environmental and social benefits to the region.

Gumuskoy Repowering Case Study

Gad Shoshan and Anton Fiterman • Ormat, Reno NV, USA • gshoshan@ormat.com • afiterman@ormat.com
Keywords: Repowering, geothermal power plant, Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), Ormat Energy Convertor (OEC), supercriti-
cal ORC, binary, Turkey, Ormat Technologies, Inc., Gumuskoy
Located in Turkey, Aydin district, west of Germencik, the Gumuskoy geothermal power plant is currently producing 9.4 MW via
two identical ORC units, fed both geothermal steam and brine as the heat source. The Gumuskoy power plant was originally designed
and commissioned in 2013 by a third party as a supercritical ORC utilizing R134a as the motive fluid. The ORC units went through
multiple critical failures since initial startup, including critical turbine and pump failures during 2014. Eventually, the owner was forced
to shut down the power plant. The owner then approached Ormat, to repower the plant with minimal additional capital investment
while maximizing the existing resource power utilization.
Following a thorough thermal, mechanical and control analysis of the existing equipment and based on ORMAT’s experience in
a similar case at Steamboat geothermal power plant in Nevada, US - Ormat proposed, designed, manufactured and successfully com-
missioned two sub-critical ORC units. The plant repowering was performed by replacing the existing turbines with Ormat engineered
and manufactured turbines, utilizing n-Butane as the motive fluid. A new plant control system was also engineered and implemented
by ORMAT. Existing major power plant components that were installed originally; such as- cycle pumps, air cooled condensers and
all tubular heat exchangers, were maintained and successfully utilized. The project was carried out within 8 months from contract
signing to commissioning.
This paper discusses the main practical differences between super and sub critical Rankine thermodynamic cycles using Gumuskoy
as a case study. It discusses the repowering process, looking into the business and engineering aspects. It analyzes thermal and economic
considerations in existing equipment utilization; maximum power with minimum capital investment, and discusses operational control
aspects of a sub critical cycle executed with super critical cycle heat exchangers.

Active Disturbance Rejection Control of Waste Heat Recovery Systems With Organic Rankine Cycles
Jing Zhang, Yan Wang, Zhigang Wang, and Wencheng Fu
1
Tianjin Key Laboratory for Control Theory and Applications in Complicated System, Tianjin, China
2
School of Electrical Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China • fuwch@tjut.edu.cn
Keywords: Waste heat recovery, Organic Rankine Cycle, ADRC, ESO, disturbance,simulation

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 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is an effective technology to recovery low grade waste heat from exhaust gas. Many advantages of
ORC are high efficiency, simple system, low pressure of working to seal, environment friendly and so on. A novel control algorithm
called Active Disturbance Rejection Control (ADRC) is applied to vapor temperature control at the outlet of evaporator of organic
Rankine cycle (ORC) system. The disturbances imposed on the waste heat recovery system are estimated through an extended linear
state observer and then compensated by a linear feedback control strategy, it can eliminate disturbance via disturbance compensation
independent of the accurate mathematical model of the plant. It is reliable, efficient and simple. Simulation examples demonstrate the
simplicity of the design procedure and the good tracking performance.

Reservoir Modeling
A 2-D Numerical Method for Tracking a Moving Water Table
Emily K Clearwater, Michael J. O’Sullivan, and Rosalind A. Archer
Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand • emily.clearwater@auckand.ac.nz
Keywords: Water table, TOUGH2, moving boundary, numerical method, modelling
A new numerical method has been incorporated into the existing TOUGH2 framework to allow for more accurate tracking of a
moving water table in a non-isothermal system. The method is based on the calculation of the mass flow into or out of the top surface
of the model (the water table surface). The correct position of the water table is one where fluid is no longer moving into or out of the
top surface of the water table block. This paper describes a numerical scheme for accurately tracking the movement of the water table.
It is implemented through python scripting without interfering with the TOUGH2 code.
To demonstrate the method a 2-D non-isothermal model representing a shallow reservoir with constant fluid production is consid-
ered. For comparison, an equivalent air/water EOS model was run using standard TOUGH2. The results demonstrate the improvement
the new method holds over current approaches of either using a fixed water table or using an air/water model and moving the water
table block by block.
Further development and extension of the method will be explored in order to extend water table tracking to boiling flow and to
include the vadose zone.

Update of Augmented Injection Benefit Model of The Geysers

Steven L. Enedy • GraphicVision, Santa Rosa CA • stevenenedy@hotmail.com
Keywords: The Geysers, reservoir management, harmonic decline, injection derived steam, tank model, numerical model
Injection Benefit (IB) for a typical injection well has been estimated for The Geysers Field. The IB incorporates the actual / proposed
injection rate for wells in gallons per minute (gpm) and converts the injection rate to an average meagwatt (MW) increase in steam
flow that is based on a rate analysis and a material balance for all or part of the Field and is a function of time. One aspect of the IB is
the calculation of Injection Derived Steam (IDS) which is based on a tank-model and incorporates the water augmentation history of
The Geysers Field and future plans for reservoir management.
The Geysers Field is now made up of ~ 402 production wells and 56 injection wells. This includes an estimate of the confidential
wells not available to the author but estimated for this study. Geysers electrical generation was ~880 MW gross and the injection mass
replacement ratio was ~70%. As the program of augmented injection has increased the mass injection to mass production ratio, the
rate of reservoir pressure decline has been significantly reduced such that steam flow decline is between 1 and 2%. A tank-model was
successfully applied to California Division of Oil, Gas and Geothermal (CDOGGR) data for The Geysers Field. Historical flow data
between 1987 and 2015 is included in a single decline rate model. Based on study results of a single tank-model, 82% of water injec-
tion is needed to match production. A 500 gpm injection well brings about a 3.9 MW benefit over ten-years. This paper documents
the overall use of a single tank-model for the entire Geysers Field, and further subdivides the field into three cells when a single tank-
model doesn’t give satisfactory results.
The concept for this model was originally presented in 2014 at the GRC Annual Meeting in Portland, OR. and updated with avail-
able data for the last two-years.

Complexity Analysis of Generalized Tank Models

Yuxi Li1,2, Egill Júlíusson3, Halldór Pálsson4, Hlynur Stefánsson2, and Ágúst Valfells2
1
Tianjin University, 2Reykjavík University, 3Landsvirkjun, 4University of Iceland
Keywords: Geothermal reservoir modeling, lumped-parameter models, complexity analysis, information criteria, complexity
reduction algorithm
Lumped parameter models have been shown to be a useful tool for geothermal reservoir analysis and production planning. Tank
models are a common form of lumped parameter models, incorporating tanks of given capacitance partially filled with fluid. Between
the tanks are connections with given conductance, that allow fluid to flow between connected tanks with different fluid levels. In this
work, we analyze how tank models of varying complexity compare in terms of accuracy and utility. We introduce an algorithm for
reducing complexity in generalized tank models, apply it to the Laugarnes geothermal field in Reykjavík and show how application
of information criteria can be used to select an appropriate model.

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A Numerical Method for Fractured Reservoir Poromechanics
Using a Mixed-Continuum Embedded Fracture Model
Jack H. Norbeck and Roland N. Horne • jnorbeck@stanford.edu
Department of Energy Resources Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
Keywords: Poroelasticity, embedded fracture model, fracture mechanics, reservoir simulation
In this paper, we introduce a numerical modeling framework that is useful for understanding behavior in fractured reservoir sys-
tems. We extended a model called CFRAC that coupled fluid flow, fracture deformation, and fracture propagation to incorporate the
effects of poroelastic deformation of the rock surrounding the fractures. The model was based on an embedded fracture modeling
framework, which allowed fracture propagation to be handled efficiently. Fluid flow was solved with a finite volume approximation,
fracture deformation was solved with a boundary element approximation, and poroelastic deformation was solved with a finite ele-
ment approximation. This novel approach leveraged the advantages of each numerical method while making limiting assumptions
where appropriate in order to achieve an optimal balance between a proper descriptions of physical complexity and computational
performance. We verified the accuracy of CFRAC by comparing solutions with another fractured geomechanics reservoir simulator,
called AD-GPRS, for a synthetic scenario of fluid circulation in a fractured reservoir.

Improvements to the AUTOUGH2 Supercritical Simulator

With Extension to the Air-Water Equation-of-State
John O’Sullivan, Mike O’Sullivan, and Adrian Croucher
Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand • jp.osullivan@auckland.ac.nz
Keywords: Geothermal reservoir modelling, supercritical, TOUGH2
Developing a numerical simulator capable of reliably modelling supercritical thermodynamic conditions is becoming increasingly
important in geothermal reservoir modelling. This work presents improvements that have been made to the supercritical TOUGH2
algorithm developed by Croucher and O’Sullivan (2008) which increase its reliability. The algorithm has also been extended to apply to
the air-water equation-of-state (EOS3) and the details of the extension are explained. Large, complex, supercritical geothermal systems
can now be simulated using the improved algorithm with domains extending from the brittle/ductile transition all the way up to the
surface. Three dimensional simulations of a number of supercritical systems have been carried out successfully and the convergence
behaviour of the simulations has been shown to be very good.

OLGA Modeling Results for Single Well Reinjection of Non-Condensable Gases (NCGs) and Water
R. W. Stacey,1 L. Norris,2 and S. Lisi3 • rstacey@slb.com • LIII@slb.com • simone.lisi@magmaenergyitalia.it
1
GeothermEx, Richmond CA, USA • 2Schlumberger Software, Houston TX, USA • 3Magma Energy Italia, Arezzo Italy
Keywords: Production technologies, injection well design, NCG injection, CO2 injection, OLGA, injection transient model-
ing, high temperature reservoir
A simultaneous gas and water reinjection system for a high temperature geothermal project has successfully been modeled, which
provides critical insight into how to better design and operate a gas and water injection system under various operating conditions. A
model of the system was developed using the OLGA simulation software, including two-phase buoyancy and thermal effects, and has
been able to accurately model the downhole injection of non-condensable gases (NCGs) (consisting of primarily CO2) into a water
injection stream. The overall results of the modeling analysis have demonstrated that the single-well injection system is a feasible
approach to reinject both NCGs and water.
The modeling feasibility study was performed using the OLGA simulator, which is a general transient multi-phase simulator for
flow in pipes and wellbores used extensively within the oil industry to model multi-phase flow. The OLGA simulation model developed
was able to account for the individual properties and solubility of all seven gas components found in the geothermal fluid (CO2, H2S,
NH3, Ar, N2, CH4, and H2). The model was then used to perform sensitivities to investigate the impact mixing depth, injectivity index,
and gas mixture solubility would have upon the required gas injection pressure.
The system was modeled through complete operating conditions including start-up, steady-state operation, and shut-down, in order
to best understand how the system will perform under both static and dynamic operating conditions.
The results indicate that the optimum gas reinjection depth, which would minimize cost and the injection pressure, is between 300
m and 500 m depth for the system modeled. The model indicates that the NCG-water mixture can be injected under all conditions
examined, provided enough injection pressure on the brine and NCG injection line.
In addition to minimizing injection power requirements, the OLGA model has also benefited the project by demonstrating that by
reducing the gas injection depth the difficulty of shutdown and startup operations for the injection well can be reduced by reducing
the gas injection pressure.
Overall, the modeling feasibility study has confirmed the concept of using a single well for concurrent NCG and water reinjection,
the next step will be to design the well completion to implement this injection system.

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Tools & Instruments
Development of a Wireline Tool Containing an Electrochemical Sensor
for Real-time pH and Tracer Concentration Measurement
Grzegorz Cieslewski, Ryan F. Hess, Timothy J. Boyle, William G. Yelton, Bonnie E. Klamm, Lauren Goldfarb,
and Isabella N. Stork • Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque NM
Keywords: Tracer, pH, tool, sensor, instrument, wireline, high temperature electronics
Understanding the connectivity of fracture networks in a reservoir and obtaining an accurate chemical characterization of the geo-
thermal fluid are vital for the successful operation of a geothermal power plant. Tracer experiments can be used to elucidate fracture
connectivity and in most cases are conducted by injecting the tracer at the injection well, manually collecting liquid samples at the
wellhead of the production well, and sending the samples off for laboratory analysis. This method does not identify which specific
fractures are the ones producing the tracer; it is only a depth-averaged value over the entire wellbore. Sandia is developing a high-
temperature wireline tool capable of measuring ionic tracer concentrations and pH downhole using electrochemical sensors. The goal
of this effort is to collect real-time pH and ionic tracer concentration data at temperatures up to 225 °C and pressures up to 3000 psi.

Heat Exchanger for Down-Hole Condensation Process Theoretical and Experimental Investigation,
Considering Surrounding Fluid Properties
Benedict Holbein1, Jörg Isele2, Luigi Spatafora3, Veit Hagenmeyer 4, and Thomas Schulenberg5
1
Down-hole tool engineering, Institute for Applied Computer Science (IAI) • 2Work Group: Geothermal Energy, IAI
3
Down-hole tool engineering, IAI • 4Head of Institute, IAI • 5Head of Institute, Institute for Nuclear and Energy Technolo-
gies (IKET), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
Keywords: Cooling system, deep geothermal energy, down-hole investigation and interaction, heat transfer simulation, ther-
mal water properties, tool engineering
A major challenge for tool operations in deep geothermal boreholes is the combination of high ambient temperatures and the demand
for electronic components for various measurement, investigation and data processing tasks. Different approaches to handle this include
the usage of high temperature electronics in combination with heat shields and in some cases temporary cooling systems. However an
alternative approach, pursued at KIT, is the development of a continuous cooling system, based on the cooling machine principle. It
would allow the usage of standard electronics without time limitations, thus provide a widely extended range of performable operations.
One of the critical parts for realization of a down-hole cooling machine is the external heat transfer from the used refrigerant to the
surrounding fluid, which requires condensation to allow a closed thermodynamic cycle. Among pressure and corrosion conditions, the
difficulties for the design of the external heat exchanger lay in the estimation of the outer heat transfer process, regarding the unknown
properties of the surrounding fluid and their influence on the heat transfer process.
For the consideration in the present contribution, a worst case situation with free convection of stagnant thermal water is assumed.
Based on literature data on saline geothermal and sea water, the temperature and salinity dependence of important properties for the
heat transfer are taken into account for the theoretical consideration. Additionally an approach for the experimental investigation of
the heat transfer process at high temperatures, using a heat exchanger model and first results are presented.

Development of a Geothermal Well Inspection Camera With Active CO2 Cooling

Randy Normann1, Charles Normann1, Joe Henfling1, David A. Glowka1, and Marshall Soares2
1
Perma Works, LLC, Patterson TX • 2ReChip, Inc., Salt Lake City UT
Keywords: Geothermal well logging, inspection camera, wellbore imaging, downhole tools, active CO2 cooling
A downhole camera for geothermal well inspection has been developed and is on the verge of deployment for the first time. The
camera employs a unique cooling system powered by solid/liquid carbon dioxide (CO2, dry ice) to keep critical camera components
cool in wells up to 250°C. The tool can be operated in either a forward-looking mode, to provide images of wellbore objects such as
lost tools and twisted-off drill pipe; or a side-looking mode, to provide images of the wellbore wall, including fractures, lithology,
and casing damage or scaling. The tool has been designed and built, laboratory tests are underway, and field tests are planned for the
near future. This paper focuses on the design and fabrication of the tool, including a detailed analysis that predicts the thermodynamic
behavior of the CO2 cooling system, optics modeling for optimizing the camera’s optical design, adaptation of commercial video
imaging systems, development of software for de-coning and enhancing images taken through a conical mirror, and incorporation of
a recently developed high-temperature microprocessor.

Geo-Nuclear Energy Concept

Kibet Ronoh • Kenya Electricity Generation Company
Keywords: Geothermal, nuclear, power shortage, electricity cost, steam and geo-nuclear
Today geothermal energy is known as one of the most reliable alternative renewable energy source which has proved to be techni-
cally and economically feasible. However development of geothermal power is undermined by the long development durations spanning
from the drilling of wells to their connection to the conventional power plant. The cost as well as the risk involved in drilling production
wells are enormous and require specialised Geoscientific research to mitigate the risk of barren production wells.

34
 Nuclear technology on the other hand has evolved from the conventional gigantic power plants that cost over 50BUSD to miniatur-
ized and portable nuclear energy reactors that are extremely secured and safe.
The miniaturized nuclear portable nuclear reactors are:
i. Factory Assembled
ii. Highly Portable
iii. Entirely Secured & Safe
Geothermal Technology & Nuclear Technology run on similar generation technology and can share the following processes:
i. Both run Steam Turbines to generate power
ii. Both use steam condensers
iii. Both use steam condensate for cooling water
In addition to the above similarities, geothermal & nuclear power are clean, green and renewable meeting the energy trilemma
requirements. This paper elucidates how a clever combination of geothermal and miniaturized portable nuclear power shall reduce the
cost of electricity production by over 40% while minding the underlying energy trilemma.
The combination will include nuclear energy supplementing geothermal generation while utilizing the geothermal power plant
facilities.For a developing country like Kenya, the above combination will be a relief in solving the following challenges:
i. Acute power shortage
ii. Escalating cost of electricity
iii. Lengthy geothermal power development duration.
The concept is new and should revolutionize the energy generation industry by immensely reducing the cost of electricity and the
development duration.

Performance Evaluation of Mineral Additive-Free Perfluoropolymer Nanocomposite O-Ring in

Simulated Geothermal Environments at 300°C
Toshifumi Sugama and Tatiana Pyatina
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Sustainable Energy Technologies Department, Upton, NY
Keywords: O-ring, perfluoropolymer, nanocomposite, mineral additive, scaling, oxidation, water absorption, geothermal
environments
This work evaluates the performance of O-rings made with a mineral additive-free perfluoropolymer (FFKM) nanocomposite in
mitigating silica- and silicate-scales, inhibiting oxidative reactions, minimizing the changes in mechanical behaviors, and maintaining
the integrity of O-rings after their exposure to five different simulated geothermal environments at 300°C. For comparison, various
mineral additive-filled EPDM, FEPM, and FFKM composite O-rings were employed. The tensile strength and ultimate elongation of
the mineral-free nanocomposite O-ring were equal to, and even higher than those of the mineral additive-filled composite O-rings.
The magnitude of silica- and silicate-scaling on O-ring surfaces was governed by: 1) The oxidation reactions of the –CH2- groups;
2) the incorporation of oxidation derivatives, such as C=C, C=O, and COO- groups; and, 3) the water uptake by the mineral additive
and the degraded polymer. Among the tested environments, the geo-brine fluid caused the highest precipitation of these scales. The
water uptake by O-rings was due to both their oxidative degradation and the presence of mineral additives. In contrast, mineral-free
FFKM nanocomposite did not absorb any water in all environments, demonstrated a low susceptibility of -CH2- groups, the minimal
rate of oxidation, and the limited scaling. The high rate of scale deposition strongly affected mechanical behaviors of the O-rings. In
the thermal shock tests, the degradation of the O-ring was promoted by the sensitivity of mineral additives to the reaction with CO2 (gas)
leading to the dry carbonation. EPDM underwent very high oxidation, allowing water to permeate through it. The mineral additive-free
FFKM nanocomposite displayed the best performance in maintaining the integrity of O-ring in all test environments demonstrating a
high potential not only for O-rings use, but also for gaskets, seals, and packers.

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36
 Alphabetical Index of Authors
A Cieslewski, Grzegorz 34 Gill, Jasbir S. 18
Acosta Ospina, Lucrecia 16 Cladouhos, Trenton T. 12, 21 Gleason, Michael 27
Ádám, László 12 Clearwater, Emily K 32 Glen, Jonathan 22
Adhikari, Birendra 6 Climo, M. 25 Glowka, David A. 34
Ajo-Franklin, Jonathan B. 14 Colby, Christopher 24 Goldfarb, Lauren 34
Akar, Sertaç 5 Coolbaugh, Mark F. 21 Gosnold, Will 8, 24
Al-Amri, Abdullah 24 Croucher, Adrian 33 Graham, Paul 9
Alfonso García Gutiérrez 6 Cui, Liu 10 Gray, Brian 17
Allis, Rick 21 Cumming, William 23 Grimmer, Harald 8
Alm, Steve 16, 17 Czajkowski, Jessica L. 21 Grubelich, Mark C. 14
Anderson, Arlene 26 Guðlaugsson, Steinar Þór 12
Aniodoh, Chukwuemeka 28 D Gunderson, Josh 29
Archer, Rosalind A. 32 Gwynn, Mark 21
Arshad, Mahmood 11, 13 Davatzes, Nicholas 21
Artun, Emre 23 Dell, Robert 7 H
Asano, Tsuyoshi 29 Delwiche, Benjamin 3
Audinet, Pierre 3 DeOreo, Steve 22 Hagenmeyer, Veit 34
Augustine, Chad 14, 25 DePaolo, Donald J. 19 Hardwick, Christian 21
Aviña Jiménez, Héctor M. 5, 6 Devinney, Jason 29 Harvey, M. C. 17
Axelsson, Guðni 4, 20 Dick, Aaron 8 Harvey, William 29
Ding, Xin 19 Henfling, Joe 34
B Dobson, Patrick F. 26 Hernandez, Jonathan A. 1
Dua, Chenyang 10 Hess, Ryan F. 34
Bahning, Tom 29 Duan, Chenyang 20 Hickman, Stephen 22
Barasa, Cedrick 15 Dunnington, Lucila 11, 13 Hidayat, Ismail 30
Beitler, Carrie 3 Higgins, Brian S. 11
Bendall, S. 25 E Hill, Graham 21
Benítez Torreblanca, Miguel Ángel 6 Hill, Jay 21
Benn, Brian 29 Enedy, Steven L. 32 Hinz, Nicholas H. 21, 22, 24
Benoit, Dick 20 Epplin, Dave 8 Hohl, Carsten 8
Blake, Kelly 16, 17, 22 Erincik, Mehmet Zeki 8 Holbein, Benedict 34
Blankenship, Douglas 22 Eugeni, Edward 27 Horne, Roland N. 33
Bonafin, Joseph 31 Eustes, Dr. Alfred 12 Huang, Bor-Shouh 2
Boyle, Timothy J. 34 Hughes, Patrick 26
Brikowski, Tom 17 F Hulen, Jeff 2
Brown, Shaun T. 19 Hu, Lianbo 12
Buck, Cliff 19 Falah, Dea Nurivawati 30 Hu, Xiaodong 10
Butler, Steven 18 Farquharson, Neil 7 Hu, Xiexiaomeng 12
Faulds, James E. 21, 22
C Fisher, Kevin 3 I
Fishman, Matt 29
Calvin, Wendy 22 Fiterman, Anton 31 Ingimundarson, Ari 12
Camargo, Marcelo A. 1 Flake, Scott 15 Isele, Jörg 34
Cameron, Emily 22 Forson, Corina 21 Ito, Garrett 21
Camp, Erin R. 4 Fox, Don B. 11 Itoi, Ryuichi 2
Camp, Victor 24 Frazer, Neil 21
Cardona, Juan F. 1 Fridriksson, Thráinn 3 J
Carey, B. 25 Fuangswasdi, Aranya 24
Carrigan, Charles R. 26 Fujii, Hikari 11 Jacobs, Gregory T. 18
Chandrasekharam, D. 19, 20 Fu, Wencheng 30, 32 Jahanbakhsh, Kamran 11
Chandrasekhar, Trupti 19, 20 Jahan Bakhsh, Kamran 13
Chandrasekhar, Varun 19, 20 G Jalilinasrabady, Saeid 2, 11
Chatterjee, Kamalesh 8 Janis, M. 13
Chen, Jinlong 30 Gacek, Sobieslaw 8 Jasso Rivera, Andrea 6
Chen, Wei-An 2 García-Gutiérrez, A. 5 Jelacic, Allan 27
Chen, Youguang 30 Garg, Sabodh 12 Jiang, Xin 8
Cho, JaeKyoung 14 Garrison, Geoffrey H. 12 Ji, Guodong 10
Christensen, John N. 19 Ghassemi, A. 13 Johnson, Timothy C. 14
Christopherson, Karen 17 Ghassemi, Ahmad 12, 13, 14 Júlíusson, Egill 32

37
K Meade, Dave 22
Kaentao, Wiboon 24
Kamali, Amirhossein 13
Kaspereit, Dennis 2
Kato, M. 5
Kaven, Ole 22
Kawahara, Katsunori 31
Kennedy, B. Mack 19, 22, 26
King, Dennis 14
Klamm, Bonnie E. 34
Klotzer, Sundaie 8
Knapp, Paige 24
Knox, Hunter A. 14
Knox, James M. 14
Krough, Bradley 9
Kumar, Dharmendra 14
Kuntoaji, Mahendra 30
L
Langat, Reuben 3
Lang, Thomas 31
Lautze, Nicole 21
Lazaro, Mike 22
Letvin, Amelia 9
Li, Feiyue 10
Li, Gensheng 10
Li, Kewen 30
Li, Xiuli 30
Li, Yuxi 32
Lisi, S. 33
Listi, Renan 10
Liu, Changwei 30
Liu, Guochen 30
Liu, J. 13
Liu, Jinsong 8
Liu, Xiaobing 5, 26
Liu, Xueling 8
Lovekin, James 3
Lowry, Thomas S. 26
Luckhardt, Jane E. 15
Lv, Zehao 10
M Pérez González, Eduardo 6
Macpherson, John 8
Madubuike, Chinomso 17
Makalinao, Aloysius 27
Mamrosh, Darryl 3
Mandeno, Petronilla Esther 23
Mann, Mary 2
Mark-Moser, MacKenzie 22
Martel, Stephen 21
McCabe, Kevin 27
McCulloch, Jess 22
McIntush, Kenneth 3
McKaskle, Ray 3
McLaughlin, Samantha 24
Mellors, Robert J. 24
Merino, Almudena Mateos 3
Mines, Greg 1
Mitchell, Nicholas 7
Mohammadzadeh Bina, Saeid 11
Mooney, Meghan 27
Moore, Joe 21
Moreno, Jesus 31
Morita, Yu 31
Morris, Joseph P. 14
Morrison, Leslie 29
Moulding, Ann 17
Mukeu, Pharis 3
Mullane, Michelle 27
Muto, Toshie 29
N S
Nakagawa, Masami 11, 13
Nakao, Yoshinobu 4
Nelson, Thomas 9
Nishikawa, N. 1
Norbeck, Jack H. 33
Nordquist, Josh 22
Norman, David K. 21
Normann, Charles 34
Normann, Randy 34
Norris, L. 33
Nthiga, Moses 15
O Schulenberg, Thomas 34
Oishi, T. 1
Okamura, Yoshihiro 2
Orme, Christopher 6
Osborn, William 2
O’Sullivan, John 33
O’Sullivan, Michael J. 32, 33
P Shi, Yu 10
Pálsson, Halldór 32
Pettitt, Will 22
Petty, Susan 12
Phelps, Geoff 22
Pirarai, Kriangsak 24
Prasetyo, Imam M. 10
Pratama, Raka Aditya 10
Preston, Leiph A. 14
Pritchett, John 12
Pullammanappallil, Satish 17
Pyatina, Tatiana 9, 35
Q Stacey, R. W. 33
Quintero Loaiza, Jaider A. 16
38
R
Ramírez Bueno, M. A. 15
Reber, Timothy 27
Reinhardt, Timothy 27
Rhodes, Greg 22
Richard, Christopher 27
Rickard, Bill 2
Robertson-Tait, Ann 1, 22
Rocha Ruiz, D. A. 15
Romeo, Lucy 22
Ronne, A. 9
Ronoh, Kibet 34
Roque, Raysa 1
Rosa-Urbalejo, D. De la 5
Rose, Kelly 22
Rossi di Schio, Clotilde 31
Sabin, Andrew 22
Saitet, Daniel 4
Saito, Shojiro 31
Sander, Marietta 28
Saner, Salih 23
Sanyal, Subir 2
Saputra, Muhamad Bayu 10
Sato, K. 5
Scagliarini, Stefano 9
Schoenball, Martin 22
Schroder, Jon 8
Schubert, Dr. Achim 7
Schultz, Adam 22
Schultz, Jeremy 22
Self, Jordan 9
Severiano Pérez, Patricia 6
Seward, A. 25
Shen, Min-Lin 2
Shevenell, Lisa A. 21
Shimada, T. 1
Shnell, Jim 1
Shoshan, Gad 31
Siler, Drew L. 21, 22
Singharajwarapan, Fongsaward S. 24
Sisler, John R. 18
Smith, Jared D. 4
Snyder, Neil 8
Soares, Marshall 34
Song, Xianzhi 10
Sonnenthal, Eric 19
Sonneville, Allen 29
Spatafora, Luigi 34
Speer, Bethany 28
Spielman, Paul 3
Stefánsson, Hlynur 32
Steiner, Ulrich 7
Stelling, Pete 24
Stimac, Jim 23
Stork, Isabella N. 34
Stroud, Paul 9
Sturchio, Neil C. 19
Sugama, Toshifumi 9, 35
Sverrisdóttir, Sigrún Brá 20
Swyer, Michael W. 21
T Vigalys, Max 27
Tan, Huijing 10
Thomas, Donald 21
Tiedeman, Andrew 22
Tobin, Brett 22
Toni, Apriyansah 10
Tosha, T. 1
Toth, Aniko N. 2
Turan, Ayşegül 23
Turchi, Craig 5
Tuttle, John D. 10
Tutuncu, Dr. Azra 12
U Wei, C. S. 7
Uchihori, Nobuo 2
Unnthorsson, Runar 7 White, Allen 9
Unruh, Jeff 17 Whittier, Robert 21
Williams, Colin 22
Williams, Tom 8
V Wilson, Aaron 6
Witter, Jeffrey B. 24
Valfells, Ágúst 32 Wood, Spencer H. 24
Vega S., Elsa Juliana 1 Wu, Shu-Yao 2
Velázquez Madrazo, Olga 6
Y
Vogel, Erin 16
Yamato, Asada 5
Yang, Guoxing 11
W Yang, Shiwei 11, 20
Yelton, William G. 34
Waibel, Albert 24 Young, Katherine R. 27, 28
Walker, J. Douglas 16
Wall, Anna M. 28
Wallin, Erin 21 Z
Wang, Honggang 5
Wang, Quanyang 11 Zarrouk, Sadiq J. 18
Wang, Yan 30, 32 Zerpa, Luis E. 14
Wang, Zhigang 30, 32 Zhang, Jing 32
Zhang, Zhen 11
Wendt, Daniel 6 Zheng, Xiuhua 10, 20
Weres, Oleh 18 Zhou, Mengnan 14
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