Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

From Quanta to Quarks

4.1 Atomic Structure

4.1.1 Discuss the structure of the Rutherford model of the atom, the existence of the
nucleus and electron orbits

 Rutherford’s model of the atom includes:

– A small central nucleus of concentrated mass and positive charge.
– Negative electrons orbiting about the nucleus.
– A large proportion of the atom being made up of empty space.
 Before Rutherford proposed this model, Thomson’s ‘plum pudding’ model described an atom
featuring negative particles (electrons) embedded in a large, uniformly positively charged sphere.
 In an attempt to test this plum pudding model, Rutherford designed his gold-leaf experiment,
where he bombarded thin gold foil with positively charged alpha particles.
 Because gold is dense, Rutherford reasoned that by Thomson’s model, atoms of gold would exist
very close together. Therefore, Rutherford predicted that most of the -particles would pass
through the gold foil while interacting with multiple atoms and undergoing multiple scatterings to
emerge deflected by a small angle.
 However, it was observed that:
– Almost all the -particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deflection.
Rutherford reasoned that this could only be possible if the atom consisted largely of empty
space.
– Of the -particles that were deflected, many were deflected by very large angles (greater than
90° or as large as 180°). The probability of deflections occurring with an angle 90° occurring
following multiple deflections was so small that Rutherford concluded that these deflections
must be due to the encounter of an -particle with a dense positively charged region of a
single atom. This is the atomic nucleus.
 Rutherford hypothesised that the atom was a ‘mini solar system’, where electrostatic forces
between the positive nucleus and negative electrons provided the force required to keep
electrons in orbit around the nucleus.
 There were a number of problems with Rutherford’s model of the atom:
– A constantly accelerating electron in orbit should emit electromagnetic radiation (EMR), but
they did not.
– Emission of energy from the atom in the form of EMR should lead to orbital decay. However,
the electrons existed in a stable orbit.
– Rutherford’s model could not explain the occurrence of the hydrogen-spectrum as it did not
take into account the arrangement of electrons within the atom into quantum energy states.

1
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.1.2 Discuss Planck’s contribution to the concept of quantised energy

 The inability of classical physics to explain the curve associated with black body radiation was a
significant issue. In particular, the UV catastrophe – a result of applying classical physics to black
body emissions – suggested that there is an infinite amount of energy in the universe.
 Planck offered a solution to the UV catastrophe, proposing that the energy emitted or absorbed
by the walls of a black body is quantised, occurring in discrete ‘packets’.
– This energy is described by multiples of: .
 This was the beginning of the concept of quantised energy and led on to further developments to
give us quantum physics as we currently know it.

4.1.3 Define Bohr’s postulates

 Bohr took Rutherford’s model of the atom and built upon it in order to solve some of the
problems associated with the model.
 He put forward 3 postulates:
1. Electrons in an atom exist in ‘stationary states’ or stable orbits in which they do not emit
EMR and possess an unexplainable stability.
2. A transition between two stationary states is accompanied by the emission or absorption
of a quantised amount of energy, where:

3. Angular momentum of electrons is quantised. An electron in a stationary state has an

angular momentum that is an integral multiple of ( ).

4.1.4 Analyse the significance of the hydrogen spectrum in the development of

Bohr’s model of the atom

 Bohr’s theoretical equation for the wavelengths of the spectral lines of hydrogen agreed with
earlier empirical formulas of Balmer and Rydberg.
 In addition, the hydrogen spectrum and Balmer’s equation for the wavelength of these spectral
lines suggested the existence of certain allowable energy states within the atom.
 This significantly influenced Bohr’s development of his model of the atom in which he quantised
electron orbits into allowable energy states.
nd
 His 2 postulate explains the origin of spectral lines.
 Note:
– An emission spectrum is produced when a gas is excited.
– This can be achieved by heating the gas or by passing an electrical current through a low
pressure gas.
– The light produced when viewed with a spectroscope will be made up of a series of bright
coloured lines.

2
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.1.5 Describe how Bohr’s postulates led to the development of a mathematical

model to account for the existence of the hydrogen spectrum:

 Using Bohr’s postulates, together with the energy of electrons calculated from ‘classical’ physics
applied to the Rutherford model, it is possible to derive a theoretical equation for the wavelength
of spectral lines of hydrogen which is the same as the Balmer-Rydberg equation.
 In order to derive this equation:
rd
1. Use Bohr’s 3 postulate (the quantisation of angular momentum into multiples of )
together with the energy of protons and electrons (calculated using the electrostatic force
attraction between protons and electrons) to find the specific orbital radii of electrons.
2. Use these radii to calculate the value of the energy within specific electron orbits.

nd
3. To this, apply Bohr’s 2 postulate regarding the transition of electrons to different
energy/stationary states to arrive at Rydberg’s equation.
4.
nd
By Bohr’s 2 postulate, every
transition from a certain energy
level will release a photon of the ( )
−𝐸1
same energy. Hence this When is
𝑐
produces specific wavelengths of ( ) calculated, it agrees
light for the hydrogen spectrum. with the Rydberg
( ) constant.
 Bohr’s model and his postulates successfully accounted for the hydrogen emission spectrum and
allowed the theoretical calculation of the wavelengths. The theoretical derivation of Balmer’s
equation provided strong support for the Rutherford-Bohr atomic model of the hydrogen atom.

4.1.6 Discuss the limitations of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom

4.1.7 Analyse secondary information to identify the difficulties with the Rutherford-
Bohr model, including its inability to completely explain the spectra of larger atoms,
the relative intensity of spectral lines, the existence of hyperfine spectral lines and the
Zeeman effect

 The Bohr model introduces quantum theory to the atom but has a number of limitations:
– The Bohr model works reasonably well for atoms with one electron in the outer shell but
cannot explain the emission spectrum of larger atoms.
– Examination of spectra shows that spectral lines are not of equal intensity (indicating that
some types of transitions were more preferred than others) but the Bohr model does not
explain this relative intensity of spectral lines.
 In fact, it is the probability of transitions between energy levels that indicates the relative
intensity of spectral lines.
– More careful observation shows that one spectral line consists of smaller hyperfine lines. The
Bohr model cannot account for this.

3
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

 The hyperfine lines are actually the result of sub-orbitals or subshells within each principal
atomic orbital.
– When an element is excited and placed in a magnetic field, the emission spectrum produced
shows splitting of a single spectral line into several separated lines, called the Zeeman effect.
The Bohr model cannot account for this.
– The Bohr model is a mixture of classical and quantum physics, which, in itself, is a problem.

4.1.8 Process and present diagrammatic information to illustrate Bohr’s explanation

of the Balmer series

 The value of for each stationary state or orbit of the Bohr atom is the principal quantum number
of that orbit.
 The Balmer series includes any emission from atoms due to electron transitions occurring as
visible light ( ).
 This occurs when an electrons transitions from a stationary state , to .

 As increases, energy levels come closer together.

 As goes to infinity, the energy levels approach a continuum.
– Ionisation of hydrogen refers to an electron transition to the energy level.

4
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.1.9 Perform a first-hand investigation to observe the visible components of the

hydrogen spectrum

 Aim: To observe the visible components of the hydrogen spectrum.

 Equipment: power pack, induction coil, hydrogen discharge tube, leads and alligator clips,
spectroscope.
alligator clips
 Method:
and leads
1. The equipment is set up as
shown, inside a darkened room.
The spectroscope is held towards
slit
the hydrogen discharge tube.
2. Stand more than 3 from the
induction coil. high voltage EMR
3. Switch on the power pack and induction coil
observe the hydrogen discharge
tube by looking through the eye
piece. spectroscope
hydrogen
4. Record observations.
discharge tube
 Risk Assessment (Risk, Resolution of
Risk, Assessment):
– The induction coil creates a very
high voltage, which carries with
it the risk of electrocution. Care must be taken not to touch the coil while it is in use. The
power pack should be switched off and unplugged before the induction coil (which is
connected) is moved.
– The induction coil also produces X-rays, which are harmful to the human body. A 3 radius
should be made around the induction coil, within which students should not stand.
– General issues with the glass discharge tube, which is fragile.
– If these precautions are taken, this investigation is acceptably low risk.
 Observations:
– The hydrogen discharge tube glowed pink-purple when the induction coil was switched on.
– In a darkened room, the spectroscope could be used to observe the 4 colours of the
hydrogen emission spectrum: red, green, blue and violet.
– The relative intensity of each of these spectral lines was not the same.
 It is important that the experiment is performed in a darkened room, or else all other wavelengths
of light from external sources will interfere with the unique wavelength for hydrogen gas,
preventing the successful observation of the hydrogen spectrum.

5
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.2 Matter Waves and the Quantum Atom

4.2.1 Describe the impact of de Broglie’s proposal that any kind of particle has both
wave and particle properties

 De Broglie proposed that all particles (not just photons) have both wave and particle
properties. The wavelength of any particle is determined by:

 Impacts:
– It provided a quantum exploration of Bohr’s model of the atom which previously relied on
classical physics.
– It was able to explain the stability of electrons in stationary states in Bohr’s atom in terms of
allowable standing waves.
– This wave-particle duality of matter was able to explain the properties and interactions of
atoms and small particles, acting as a starting block from which the theory of quantum
mechanics was developed by scientists such as Heisenberg, Pauli, Schrodinger and Born.

4.2.2 Define diffraction and identify that interference occurs between waves that
have been diffracted

 Diffraction is the bending or spreading out of waves that have encountered an object or an
opening with size of the order of magnitude of the wavelength of the wave.
 Waves that have been diffracted will constructively and destructively interfere to form a pattern of
light and dark patches known as an interference pattern.

4.2.3 Describe the confirmation of de Broglie’s proposal by Davisson and Germer

 Davisson and Germer conducted an experiment to study

the surface of a piece of nickel by examining the scattering
of electrons off its surface.
 During the course of the experiment, a crack was made in
the discharge tube containing the nickel and air entered the
vacuum chamber, resulting in a thin oxide layer being
formed on the metal surface. In an effort to remove this
layer, Davisson and Germer heated the nickel to just below
its melting point, which annealed the metal, forming large,
single crystal regions which could act as diffraction gratings.
 Following this, electrons bouncing off the surface of the nickel crystal produced an interference
pattern of light and dark patches. They recognised that the electrons were being diffracted, much
like the X-rays in Braggs’ X-ray crystallography experiment. As diffraction is a property of waves,
this was taken as confirmation that electrons had wave properties, showing that de Broglie’s
proposal of wave-particle duality was true.
 From the interference pattern, they were also able to measure the wavelength of the electron
waves that resulted from the diffraction pattern (using ). This wavelength
corresponded exactly to that predicted by de Broglie’s equation , confirming his proposal.

6
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.2.4 Explain the stability of the electron orbits in the Bohr atom using de Broglie’s
hypothesis

 De Broglie proposed that all matter has both wave and particle properties.
 The wavelength of a particle is determined by:
 De Broglie explained the stability of electrons in
stationary states by suggesting that only orbits made
up of a whole number of wavelengths of the electron
are able to exist, making a standing wave pattern.
– Each orbit (stationary state) was occupied by an
integral number of wavelengths that fitted
around the circumference of the orbit. The
circumference of a circular orbit is and hence
an integral number of wavelengths: .
rd
– This enabled a mathematical derivation for Bohr’s 3 postulate – the quantisation of angular
momentum – adding rationality to this postulate.
 As electrons are now standing waves, they are no longer moving charges, and hence will not emit
EMR. Standing waves do not propagate, and therefore are stable and will not lose any energy.
 Intermediate electron energy levels containing a non-integer number of wavelengths would cause
electrons to destructively interfere with themselves, and hence they would be unstable and
undergo decay.
st
 In this way, de Broglie’s hypothesis could explain the stability of electron orbits (Bohr’s 1
postulate) using quantum physics.

4.2.5 Gather, process, analyse and present information and use available evidence to
assess the contributions made by Heisenberg and Pauli to the development of atomic
theory

 Heisenberg:
– Heisenberg founded matrix mechanics, a mathematical system which is applied to physical
quantities.
 Applying matrix mechanics provides an explanation for the nature of small particles (e.g.
subatomic particles such as electrons and protons) and their interactions.
 Matrix mechanics was able to successfully predict and mathematically explain the
emission spectra of many elements, not just hydrogen, and also solve the problems
with Bohr’s model (such as the differences in intensity between spectral lines, hyperfine
structures, and the Zeeman effect).
– Heisenberg was also able to explain bond formation (ionic and covalent), and the behaviour
of ferromagnetic materials.
– Heisenberg also put forward his uncertainty principle, which stated that uncertainty is an
inherent property of quantum mechanics.

 If the position of an object is known accurately, then its momentum cannot be known
accurately.

7
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

 This principle explains the uncertain, probabilistic nature of atomic behaviour and
interactions, and has come to be a central feature of quantum theory today (e.g. Bohr’s
planetary model with electrons in fixed orbits was abandoned in favour of ‘electron
clouds’ or ‘orbitals’, where an electron’s position is a statistical probability).
 Pauli:
– Pauli proposed the Pauli Exclusion Principle which states that no two electrons may exist in
the same quantum state or have the same quantum numbers in an atom.
 These quantum numbers are principal, angular momentum, magnetic and spin quantum
numbers.
 This exclusion principle could explain the electron distributions in atoms and the
position of elements on the periodic table.
– Pauli also proposed the existence of the nearly massless, neutrally charged neutrino, and in
doing so, enhanced our understanding of nuclear transmutations and explained the
continuous spectrum of beta decay.
– Pauli also predicted Rydberg’s constant, and introduced the concept of spin to the electron.

4.3 Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Energy

4.3.1 Define the components of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) as nucleons and
contrast their properties

 The components of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) are nucleons.

Property Proton Neutron

−
Charge
− −
Mass

 They are both bound by the strong nuclear force into atomic nuclei.
 The nucleus described by Rutherford was simply a concentrated mass of positive charge, around
which electrons orbited. The composition and internal structure of the nucleus was unknown at
the time.
 Protons were the first nucleons to be discovered, in a similar way to the discovery of electrons.
The charge-to-mass ratio of the protons was measured in a discharge tube containing hydrogen
ions (which are simply protons).

4.3.2 Define the term ‘transmutation’

 Transmutation is the process by which the constituents of a nucleus are altered,

transforming one element into another as a result of either radioactive decay ( or ) or
bombardment with particles (neutrons, ions, particles, etc.).

4.3.3 Describe nuclear transmutations due to natural radioactivity

 Transmutations due to natural radioactivity occur due to spontaneous radioactive decay.

– A radioactive atom emits an or particle, leaving behind a heavy leftover part which is
chemically and physically different to the parent atom.

8
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

 Natural transmutation occurs when radioactive elements spontaneously decay over time to
transform to more stable elements.
– Alpha ( ) decay:
 Alpha decay refers to an unstable nucleus emitting an alpha particle (energetic helium
nuclei). It occurs for elements with large unstable nuclei (if their atomic number 83).
−
−
– Beta ( ) decay:
 −
decay: The −
particle is identical to an electron. −
decay occurs when the ratio of
neutrons to protons is too high. It involves the transformation of a neutron into a proton,
an electron and an antineutrino ̅ .
−
 decay: The particle is identical to an anti-electron (positron). decay involves the
transformation of a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino .

 Note:
» An antineutrino accompanies the emission of the electron ( − ).
» A neutrino accompanies the emission of the anti-electron (positron) ( ).
» Neutrino and anti-neutrino, as well as electron and positron, are known as matter
and anti-matter pairs. When matter meets anti-matter, they annihilate each other’s
mass completely. This mass is converted to energy in the form of gamma rays,
according to .
– Gamma ( ) radiation:
 Gamma radiation is the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation in the EMR spectrum.
 After the emission of an or particle, the daughter (resultant) nucleus is left in an
excited state. The change in energy from this excited energy state to the ground state of
the nucleus results in the emission of a gamma ray, a high energy photon.
 Gamma radiation is pure energy and does not change the atomic number or the atomic
mass , so it is not a transmutation.

» The * denotes that the nucleus is in an excited state.

4.3.4 Discuss the importance of conservation laws to Chadwick’s discovery of the

neutron

 Chadwick had observed an

experiment where particles were
fired at a beryllium target and a
highly penetrating, neutral radiation
could be obtained. This radiation
was directed towards a paraffin wax
block target, resulting in the ejection
of protons.
 The unknown neutral radiation that was emitted was much more penetrating and energetic than
the other known neutral radiation, gamma radiation (though it seemed similar to radiation).
 To measure the mass of the proposed neutrons:

9
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

– Chadwick allowed the neutrons to strike a block of (proton-rich) paraffin wax and collide with
and knock out protons (these protons had very high energy).
– Protons were ejected from the paraffin wax and since they have charge, their momentum and
kinetic energy could be measured by the detector.
 For a proton to be ejected at 5 , the equivalent incident gamma radiation would need
50 energy. However, the energy of the incident alpha particles was measured to be
5 only.
 The problem was the 10 fold increase in energy, which violated the principle of
conservation of energy. This led to much debate as to whether the conservation laws held
true on a subatomic scale.
 Chadwick, however, assumed that these laws did apply and was able to calculate the mass of the
neutron by applying the principles of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum to
the interaction of a neutral particle with a proton.
– He did so by measuring the recoil of nuclei of hydrogen and nitrogen atoms in the paraffin
wax after interacting with the neutral radiation.
– He found the mass of the particle to be times that of a proton.
– He named this heavy, neutral particle the neutron.

4.3.5 Discuss Pauli’s suggestion of the existence of neutrino and relate it to the need
to account for the energy distribution of electrons emitted in -decay

 When particles are emitted from a source, their energies are identical or vary predictably.
 When considering radiation, it was expected that
-decay emitted from a particular radioactive
species would be emitted with a set energy.
However, it was established by Chadwick (using a
Geiger ‘point counter’ to detect beta particles) that
particles were emitted with different energies,
which seemed to violate the law of conservation of
energy. This finding led to considerable debate as
to whether particles had a continuous spectrum.
 In an effort to explain this continuous range of
energies in radiation, Pauli predicted the
existence of another subatomic particle, the neutrino, which accompanied decay and could
account for the varying levels of energy. The neutrino carried away a variable fraction of energy
(that was less than the maximum kinetic energy possible for an ejected beta particle) during
decay so that the total energy of the decay is always conserved.
 Pauli described the neutrino as neutral, nearly massless, highly penetrative, travelling at the
speed of light with momentum, energy and spin and proposed that the number of electrons
and neutrinos was not constant, but they could be created and destroyed when neutrons and
protons turned into one another.

−
decay: −

decay:

10
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.3.6 Evaluate the relative contributions of electrostatic and gravitational forces

between nucleons

4.3.7 Account for the need for the strong nuclear force and describe its properties

 Therefore, the ratio of the forces acting between two protons in a nucleus is:

 If the values for and are used:

 This indicates that the force due to gravitational attraction is considerably smaller than the force
of electrostatic repulsion. Thus, it would seem impossible for the nucleus to hold together its
protons, unless another force (stronger than electrostatic repulsion) exists between nucleons to
keep them from flying apart.
 This force is the strong nuclear force (a fundamental force of nature), responsible for holding the
nucleons together inside the nucleus.
 Properties of the strong nuclear force:
– It is independent of charge (i.e. acts between all nucleons with the same force).
 This is supported by evidence that protons and neutrons are equally likely to be ejected
from a nucleus in a collision.
– At distances corresponding to the
diameter of a nucleon, it is a very strongly
attractive force (much stronger than
electrostatic forces). However, it becomes
strongly repulsive at smaller distances. At
larger distances, its strength rapidly
decreases.
– It is a short range force acting between
adjacent nucleons only (over distances of
-15
10 ).
 This is supported by evidence based on the observed stability of the nucleus.
– It exists only between nucleons (and their nearest neighbour nucleons).
– It favours the binding of pairs of nucleons with opposite spin and pairs of pairs of nucleons
each pair having total spin of zero.
– It is carried by gluons (pi-mesons/pions).

11
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.3.8 Explain the concept of a mass defect using Einstein’s equivalence between mass
and energy
Loss of mass (mass defect)
therefore emits energy
Total mass of Total mass of the
constituent nucleons nucleus
Requires energy (binding energy)
therefore gains mass

 In an atom, mass of all the individual nucleons actual mass of the nucleus.
 The mass defect is the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the total mass of its
constituent nucleons. This mass defect is due to the energy required to overcome the binding
energy in order to separate the atom into its constituent nucleons.
 Thus, the binding energy is the energy equivalent of the mass defect of the nucleus.
 According to , the energy put into the system to separate nucleons is transformed into
mass, making the final particles heavier. This creates and is equivalent to the mass defect. Bond
formation (when nucleons combine) liberates energy, which carries some of the mass away with it.
 The stability of the nucleus is indicated by the average binding energy per nucleon. This is the
total binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons:
binding energy Eb
Binding energy per nucleon
atomic mass number
– has quite a high binding energy per
nucleon, which makes it very stable and
explains why alpha particles (rather
than single protons) are ejected from
nuclei in alpha decay.
 This concept of binding energy and mass
defect allows for energy changes in nuclear
reactions.
 Nuclear fission is the splitting of atoms;
nuclear fusion is the joining of atoms.
 From the graph, either splitting high-mass
nuclei or fusing lighter nuclei will increase the
binding energy per nucleon.
 The nuclear binding energy of elements increases with increasing number of nucleons until Fe-56.
Heavier atoms become less stable (and so have lower binding energy).

4.3.9 Describe Fermi’s initial experimental observation of nuclear fission

 Fermi observed that if various elements are bombarded by neutrons, new, heavy elements are
produced by nuclear fusion. Fermi explained that the neutral neutron would experience no
electrostatic force when approaching a nuclear surface, and so can penetrate and interact with the
charged nucleus.
 However, when Fermi bombarded uranium (atomic number 92) with new neutrons, a number of
unidentifiable products were formed. Later analysis of one of these products identified it as
barium ( 56). This suggested that the uranium nucleus, having absorbed a neutron, could split
into smaller atoms with the release of energy. This process was named nuclear fission.

12
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.3.10 Describe Fermi’s demonstration of a controlled nuclear chain reaction in 1942

 A controlled nuclear chain reaction is a self-propagating nuclear reaction in which one

neutron released by the splitting of a nucleus is allowed to hit another nucleus to cause
further fission reactions, resulting in the steady release of energy.
 In 1942, Fermi constructed the first artificial nuclear fission reactor (atomic pile) in a squash court
in Chicago to demonstrate the viability of nuclear reactions as an energy source.
– Fermi aimed to create a reactor in which the neutron multiplication factor is greater than one:
no. of neutrons emitted in one fission
1
no. of neutrons lost to environment
– This would mean a self-sustaining chain reaction would occur.
 In order to achieve this, Fermi built an atomic pile consisting of natural uranium in the form of
“slugs” dispersed through graphite bricks. Graphite was used as the moderator as it was the
only one available in sufficient purity.
 Control rods of cadmium, known to be a good neutron absorber, were inserted into the atomic
pile amongst the uranium and graphite blocks to control the reaction. They could be withdrawn or
inserted into the ‘pile’ to control the number of neutrons and thus the rate of the fission reactions.
This was to prevent the chain reaction from becoming supercritical.
 Initially, many control rods were inserted into the pile. As the control rods were removed, the
radiation produced was measured using a Geiger counter. Fermi withdrew the rods until the
energy emitted was a steady 0.5 of thermal power, and allowed the reaction to proceed for 28
minutes. He then reinserted the cadmium rods to halt the nuclear reaction.
 His ability to start, maintain and stop a nuclear fission reaction demonstrated a controlled
nuclear chain reaction.

4.3.11 Compare requirements for controlled and uncontrolled nuclear chain reactions

Controlled nuclear chain reaction Uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction

Properties  Only one neutron from the splitting of
the nucleus is allowed to hit another
nucleus to cause fission. All other
neutrons are absorbed (e.g. by
cadmium) or lost to the environment.
 Approximately the same number of
neutrons is present for each of the
subsequent fission reactions. Energy is
released steadily.
Uses  Used in nuclear power plants to
produce heat energy at a steady rate.
Requirements  Requires an amount of fissile material
(fuel) at critical mass.
 Moderator
 Control rods
 Coolant
 Radiation shield
 More than one neutron from the
splitting of a nucleus is allowed to hit
another nucleus and cause further
fission so that the energy released
increases exponentially with time.
 Used in nuclear weapons as the
large amount of energy can be put to
destructive use.
 Requires an amount of fissile
material (fuel) that is of supercritical
mass.
 Moderator (required for slowing
neutrons even if an explosive
reaction is required, because pulling
out control rods can cause the
explosion)

13
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

 Fissile mass:
– A fissile material is a substance able to undergo nuclear fission.
– A critical mass is the smallest amount of a fissile material needed for a sustained
nuclear chain reaction. This mass depends on the material’s nuclear properties, density,
shape, purity, temperature and its surroundings.
– If a fissile material has subcritical mass, too many neutrons escape to be effective in sustaining
a reaction (i.e. neutron multiplication factor 1).
– If a fissile mass is supercritical, the reaction will be uncontrolled.

4.3.12 Perform a first-hand investigation or gather secondary information to observe

radiation emitted from a nucleus using Wilson Cloud Chamber or similar detection
device
perspex viewing
supercooled,
window
supersaturated
ethanol vapour

felt rings
soaked in
source of ethanol
radiation
(𝛼, 𝛽 or 𝛾)

dry ice

 A cloud chamber is a device used to detect the ionising radiation. It allows for observation and
manipulation of radiation in order to assess its properties.
 The Wilson Cloud Chamber consists of a chamber filled with the vapour of a polar substance (e.g.
ethanol). This vapour is supercooled by dry ice and kept supersaturated by felt rings, soaked in
ethanol, on the sides of the chamber.
 Radiation enters through the side of the chamber and a Perspex window is located at the top of
the chamber for viewing.
 When ionising radiation enters the chamber, it strikes the vapour particles, causing ionisation. The
surrounding polar vapour particles are attracted to the ionised particle, causing droplets of
precipitation to form. This forms a visible track of droplets along the path of the radiation through
the chamber.
 The nature of the track is characteristic of the type of radiation:
– particles (highly ionising and heavy) create thick and straight paths.
– particles (less ionising and much lighter) create more faint and zigzag tracks as they are
easily deflected.
– rays (least ionising) produce very faint trails as they do not interact strongly with matter.
 A magnetic field or electric field may also be applied to the chamber at 90° to the plane of the
movement of the radiation. and particles will curve in opposite directions, while rays will
pass straight through.

14
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.4 Applications of Nuclear Physics

4.4.1 Explain the basic principles of a fission reactor

 The function of a fission reactor is to maintain a controlled nuclear reaction which

generates heat to be used for the production of electricity.

control rods
steam
outlet

fuel heat
rods exchanger

moderator water
inlet
coolant

concrete radiation shield

 Fission reactors are based on several principles of nuclear fission reactions, and require certain
parts to function:
1. Fissile material
 The fissile (fissionable) material is used in the form of fuel rods.
 The fissile fuel (e.g. U-235) must be enriched to a critical mass such that there is enough
material present for the reaction to be self-sustaining.
2. Moderator (e.g. graphite, normal or heavy water (deuterium))
 The neutrons produced by fission are fast neutrons with too much energy to interact with
nuclei and cause fission.
 Fission is most effectively induced by slow neutrons, which spend more time in the
vicinity of the nucleus and are thus more easily captured.
» The moderator absorbs some of their energy and brings neutrons into thermal
equilibrium with their surroundings so they are within an energy range most likely to
cause the fission of the fuel-material.
» Therefore, the moderator must be made of a material which does not absorb
neutrons or undergo fission/fusion, but allows collisions between neutrons and
moderator atoms to slow them down.
3. Control rods (e.g. cadmium, boron)
 Control rods are used in order to ensure the fission reaction is controlled, and a steady
amount of energy is released.
 They control the number of neutrons which are allowed to collide with U-235 by
absorbing them and not undergoing any fusion/fission reactions.
 Extra neutrons are absorbed by the control rods so that the number of neutrons present
for each of the subsequent fission reactions remains roughly constant.

15
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4. Coolant (e.g. water, heavy water (deuterium), )

 Nuclear fission reactions produce heat energy, which is removed by the coolant.
 The coolant transfers this heat to a heat exchanger where it boils water to create
pressurised water.
» This steam is used to power turbines for the production of electricity.
5. Radiation shield
 A lead shield is used directly inside the reactor core.
» This reflects neutrons and prevents them from escaping, ensuring that there are a
sufficient number of neutrons within the reactor core for a self-sustaining reaction.
 A thick, dense concrete shield is used around the outside of the reactor.
» This absorbs radiation, preventing it from coming out of the reactor core, and
protects workers from potentially harmful exposure.

4.4.2 Describe how neutron scattering is used as a probe by referring to the

properties of neutrons

 Neutron scattering is a powerful method of analysing or probing the internal structure and
properties of matter using neutrons.
 This involves elastic or inelastic collisions with the molecules to be studied and hence, the
neutrons scatter in directions determined by both the neutron’s wavelength and the structure of
the molecule. The interference patterns produced by the neutrons can be interpreted to give
insight into the internal structure of matter.
 How it is carried out:
graphite cylinder
monoenergetic
– Some nuclear reactors are designed
neutron beam
so that a beam of low-energy
neutrons is allowed to pass through
a small graphite cylinder in the neutron beam
reactor
shield wall. core crystal
– After many collisions with carbon
atoms in the graphite, the neutrons
emerge with a range of low
energies.
– They are then reflected off the surface of a crystal, and a single monoenergetic beam is
selected, which can then be diffracted by other materials to study their structure.
– The scattering of neutrons can be detected by a diffractometer or spectrometer.
 Properties of neutrons:
1. Neutrons have no charge, so do not experience electrostatic forces and so are not deflected
by the nucleus. Therefore they interact with the nucleus by collision only and so can penetrate
the interior of the nucleus, providing more precise measurements of interatomic distances.
2. Slow neutrons have a de Broglie wavelength that is comparable to the spacing between
atoms in molecules. Thus, they can be scattered by these crystals and produce interference
patterns which obey Bragg’s Law. The interatomic distances and the structure of the material
can then be mathematically calculated.
3. Neutrons have a magnetic moment that makes them an ideal tool for studying magnetic
structures and materials.

16
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4. Neutrons have energy similar to the vibrational energy of atoms in liquids and solids,
allowing the detailed study of the motion of atoms in molecules.
5. Neutrons can be used to study materials without causing destruction.
6. Neutrons interact strongly with nuclei. This varies for different nuclei, making it possible to
study isotopes of lighter elements.
 The disadvantage of neutron scattering is that a nuclear reactor is required to produce the
neutrons.

4.4.3 Discuss the key features and components of the standard model of matter,
including quarks and leptons

The standard model of matter is a description of the fundamental units making up matter and
all matter interactions. It describes 12 basic subatomic particles and the forces between them:

For each particle type, there is a

corresponding anti-matter particle
All matter
with opposite charge

Matter particles Force particles

- Known as Bosons
- ‘Carry’ different forces
Quarks Leptons Force Particle
Gravity Graviton
6 ‘flavours’ of quarks: 6 ‘flavours’ of leptons: (not yet
Flavour Charge Flavour Charge discovered *)

Up 2 Electron –1 EM force Photon

+
3
Electron-neutrino 0 Weak 𝑊 , 𝑊−
Down 1
– nuclear force and 𝑍
3 Muon –1
2 Strong Pi meson/
Charm Muon-neutrino 0
+ nuclear force gluon
3
Tau –1
Strange 1
– Tau-neutrino 0 * Gravitons have not yet
3
2 been discovered, but they
Top
+ have been predicted to exist
3
Quarks have half-integer spin, so as part of the elusive ‘dark
Bottom 1
– combining 2 gives a whole integer, matter’ within the universe
3
and combining 3 gives a half integer which is responsible for
keeping the universe from
flying apart.
Hadrons ← Combinations of quarks
(quarks do not exist alone)

Baryons Mesons

- Combination of 3 quarks - Combinations of 2 quarks

- 0 or integer charge - 0 or integer spin
- Half integer spin - Composed of a quark and an
- Are types of fermions (particles which have half- antiquark
integer spin and thus obey Pauli’s exclusion principle)
2 2 1
- e.g. proton-uud; charge + + – +1
3 3 3
2 1 1
neutron-udd; charge + – – 0
3 3 3

17
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

 The standard model of matter state that all matter is composed of small elementary particles that
exist by themselves or group together to form subatomic particles and to transmit force.
– Quarks are fundamental particles – the smallest particles that cannot be broken down further.
 All quarks, and thus all hadrons, act through strong nuclear force, which enables protons and
neutrons to form the nucleus of an atom.
– This is the reason for the strong nuclear force to act equally between proton-proton, proton-
neutron and neutron-neutron, since all are made from different numbers of the same quarks.
 All leptons interact through weak nuclear force, and the charged leptons also interact through
electromagnetic force (which binds negatively charged electrons to positively charged protons in
the nucleus).
 Usefulness & Applications:
– The standard model of matter is useful for explaining the large number of particles and
particle interactions which exist within the universe.
– This can also be used to explain what happened at the time of the Big Bang and predict what
may happen at the end of the Universe (the ‘Big Crunch’).
 There are, however, a number of disadvantages with the standard model of matter.
– The standard model is a quantum-mechanical model, while Einstein’s theory of general
relativity is not (i.e. they are incompatible). Thus, the force of gravity cannot be incorporated.
– The model does not (yet) give a reason for the mass of particles.
 Note: The proposed mass particle is Higgs boson. Recent research has discovered a boson
whose behaviour is consistent with a Higgs boson, although further testing is required to
confirm its properties.
– The model does not give reasons for the number of particles (e.g. 6 flavours of quarks or
leptons).
– The model is not a grand unifying theory (which unites all four fundamental forces).

4.4.4 Identify ways by which physicists continue to develop their understanding of

matter, using accelerators as a probe to investigate the structure of matter

 Physicists’ primary means developing their understanding of matter is by using particle

accelerators, where beams of charged particles are accelerated to relativistic speeds and fired at a
target.
 Because of mass dilation, the particles’ mass increases as they never reach , giving them very
high kinetic energy, sufficient to disintegrate into smaller particles upon collision.
 High speed particle accelerators are able to explore deeper into the internal structure of matter.
 With increasing speeds of particles in accelerators, particles are able to:
– Get close enough to the nucleus to experience the strong nuclear force, and allow its
properties to be determined.
– Get close enough to the nucleus so that it is absorbed, and a new radioisotope is produced.
This allows the study and increased understanding of matter not usually found in nature.
– Cause the nucleus to shatter and produce new particles. This allows the formation and the
properties of these new particles to be studied.
– Probe the interior of nuclei. Also, the de Broglie wavelength of these particles is small enough
to allow the study of the internal structure and arrangement of nucleons inside a nucleus.

18
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

– Probe the interior of protons and neutrons to gain an understanding of their structure at a
quark level.
 Various collisions of high energy particles using particle accelerators have allowed physicists to
infer the existence of over 200 sub-atomic particles and the fundamental forces binding them.
This provided physicists with the experimental evidence that led to the standard model of
matter.

Examples of particle accelerators

 Cyclotron:
– A cyclotron is composed of two conducting
‘D’s placed inside a uniform magnetic field
which passes perpendicular to their surface.
The ‘D’s are each attached to one terminal of
an AC source.
– The charged particle that is to be accelerated
originates within the gap between the 2 ‘D’s.
When the particle is within this gap, the electric
field accelerates the particle towards one ‘D’.
– Once the particle reaches the edge of the ‘D’, the electric field is switched to the opposite
direction, allowing the particle to be once again accelerated. This alternating electric field
arises as a result of an alternating voltage source attached to the two ‘D’s.
– The magnetic field within the two ‘D’s keeps the charged particles moving in a circular path,
which increases in radius as the velocity of particles increases. This magnetic interaction is
mediated by the motor effect ( ) and the radius is determined by the laws of circular
motion ( ).
– Eventually, the particle reaches the outer edge of the two ‘D’s where it escapes the cyclotron
to be directed towards a target. A pulse of particles is produced.
 Linear Accelerator:
– Linear accelerators are constructed using
conducting tubes, each attached to
alternating terminals of an AC source.
– The charged particle that is to be
accelerated originates before the first tube.
When the particle is outside/in between
tubes, the electric field is switched on.
– This accelerates the particle towards the first tube.
– Once it enters the tube, the electric field is switched off, and the particle travels in a straight
line (due to inertia) until it reaches the other end of the tube.
– At this point, the electric field is switched on again, but now in the opposite direction.
– This causes the particle to be accelerated in the same direction due to the attraction and
repulsion towards the next tube, accelerating it across the gap.
– Once it enters the next tube, the electric field is switched off, and the process is repeated.
– In the accelerator, the frequency of the AC is constant, but the velocity of the particle is
increasing.

19
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

– Thus, the particle will travel increasing distances in the time it takes for the AC to undergo one
‘oscillation’, which requires the conducting tubes to increase in length.
– Once the length of the tube becomes impractical to add anymore, the particle is allowed to
strike the target.
– A beam or pulse of particles can be produced.
 Synchrotron:
– Synchrotrons use multiple magnets placed around the circumference of a circle, with electric
fields placed between each magnet. The electric field accelerates particles around the circle,
and each magnet deflects the particle by a small degree.
– Particles are accelerated in bursts, and both the frequency of the accelerating potential
(oscillating AC source) and the strength of the magnetic field are varied as the particles are
accelerated, keeping the orbital radius constant. Often, a beam of charged particles is
accelerated by a linear accelerator, and then fed into the synchrotron for further acceleration.

4.4.5 Describe some medical and industrial applications of radio-isotopes

4.4.6 Identify data sources, and gather, process, and analyse information to describe
the use of a named isotope in medicine, a named isotope in agriculture and a named
isotope in engineering

 Medicine:
– Technetium-99m is used in diagnostic imaging.
– It is used in imaging of many organs of the body, e.g. the circulatory system and the heart.
– The fission of uranium produces molybdenum-99, which undergoes continuous beta decay to
form technetium-99m:
−
– Use:
 Tc-99m is used as a diagnostic tracer to detect abnormal blood clots, constrictions and
other circulation disorders.
 For example, when imaging the circulatory system, Tc-99m is combined with a tin
compound, and then incorporated into a blood serum. It is then injected into the blood
stream and travels with the circulatory system.
 This allows abnormalities to be visualised or detected in blood flow (e.g. clots,
constrictions, dilations) using a scintillation counter.
– Properties related to its use:
 Tc-99m has a short half-life of 6 hours so it is rapidly eliminated from the body to
cause minimal exposure and damage to tissue due to radiation.
 It emits gamma radiation which is detectable from outside the human body, and causes
the least amount of ionisation compared with and radiation.
 Tc-99m has a number of oxidation states that allows it to react to form a range of
biologically active compounds which bind to the organ of interest.

20
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

 Engineering:
– Sodium-24 is produced in a nuclear reactor by neutron bombardment of the naturally
occurring sodium-23.
– Use:
 Sodium-24 is used in detecting leakage from underground water pipes. It is
introduced into the water pipes as a compound such as and undergoes
continuous decay to emit beta and gamma radiation.
 The radiation (mainly ) is then detected at ground level, with any abnormal distributions
or increase level of the radiation detected indicating a leakage.
– Properties related to its use:
 Sodium-24 is a co-emitter of beta and gamma radiation. The gamma radiation is
penetrative enough to reach the surface so that it can be detected.
 It has a short half-life of 15 hours, which is long enough for the process of detecting the
leakages but does not stay in the water system long enough to cause harm to end users.
 Agriculture
– Cobalt-60 is used in gamma ray food irradiation in agricultural settings.
– The stable isotope cobalt-59 is placed in a nuclear reactor and absorbs a neutron to produce
cobalt-60. Co-60 decays with the emission of beta and gamma radiation, killing bacteria and
disease causing organisms which cause food poisoning and rot foods like fruit, vegetables
and meat. This prevents the spread of food-borne diseases that are central to food poisoning.
– Use:
 Co-60 is enclosed in 2 steel layers and placed inside a chamber with thick, concrete walls.
 Food is passed through the chamber on a conveyor belt, and is exposed to the radiation
for a specific length of time. The conveyor belt is timed so that the amount of gamma
radiation is significant enough to kill bacteria, but not enough to make food radioactive.
 The gamma radiation kills food-poisoning bacteria/micro-organisms, allowing the food to
be preserved longer. An example is the irradiation of wheat.
– Properties related to its use:
 Co-60 emits gamma radiation which is energetic enough to kill micro-organisms in food.
 It has a long half-life (5.5 years) so does not require replacement often.

21
 Module 4 – From Quanta to Quarks

4.4.7 Gather, process and analyse information to assess the significance of the
Manhattan Project to society

 The Manhattan Project, code-named the “Manhattan Engineering District”, was a US effort during
WWII to build the first nuclear weapon. This research was with the assistance of the UK and
Canada in response to the possibility of Nazi Germany developing nuclear weapons.
 This project was commenced following its recommendation by Albert Einstein.
 This has many political, scientific, environmental and ethical impacts.
 Assessment: The Manhattan Project was of great significance to society in both positive and
negative ways:

Advantages
Nuclear weaponry led to the early conclusion of
WWII, sparing many lives, and allowing nations
to restabilise.
Nuclear fission research led to the development
of nuclear power generated from nuclear
reactors.
This had several important impacts:
 Reduced the consumption of fossil fuels
 Provided society with an alternative power
source
 Created jobs in nuclear power plants.
Further research has allowed nuclear reactors to
be harnessed for the production of
radioisotopes for use in industries, agriculture
and medicine.
 In medicine, this has led to new methods of
diagnostic imaging and treatment, saving
lives.
 In industry, radioisotopes allow precise
measurements and imaging to be made.
Countries are aware of the destructive power of
nuclear weaponry, and may avoid this in the
future.
Disadvantages
More than 100,000 people were killed in the 1945
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. There were
thousands more deaths due to cancer caused by
radiation in the years following.
There are a range of issues regarding nuclear
wastes (which are difficult to dispose of and emit
harmful radiation) and the exposure of plant
workers to radiation.
There is also the danger of explosions occurring,
such as Chernobyl and Three Mile Island.
Workers using radioisotopes are at great danger of
radiation exposure.
The destructive potential of nuclear weapons has
given mankind the ability to destroy itself.

22