rity ie IN DEFENCE OF aos RHETORIC Frac acon an Renasance Prose (Canrige,1968) (Gostiod Rosin Eglin Poet Landon Towards Geek Tragedy Condon 157) Shtespenr Coat Landon 971981) Brian Vickers ‘ett eeaten it nen near Reralaed arghamton, NY 192) ‘ema td cee Wenateen tc Resinanoe Canbr.9) ‘sibs, Mase Meiaton Eesachingen nr Vasa on ie Costu Za 385) sci: Hey Macken, Tefen (Onl, 96,98) ‘Shakepene The Ctl Mortage, 12st, vol (london snd Boson 74-80) ‘abla Bate fein he Seventeenth Cent: The Machen Evelyn Dette sat NY 798) raglan ene Bacon to Newton (Camis 3987) CLARENDON PRESS + OXFORDAN OUTLINE OF CLASSICAL RHETORIC ‘avrnro poourrres el yoo, Govern, youl ely Into go orem wis lyon. a wang syon hmeaingio yon ‘utr git of thotre Obes he yr a i ative ‘onder. Feng ol you x wang fl Jourli walling total yn Sentient htt te ‘kh sn sn I slo acount or he mendaty ond atone, Sta, Pygalin, Act Rhetoric the art of persuasive communication, has long been fcopazed a2 the" systematiaton of natural eloquence ‘Rectding 10 thls tation, the fet wets of sete books ‘Ghserved tutions in ral fe where loguance suceeded, [halsol the esoures used by auch spekers, and developed teaching method which could impart thse skis. As one ofthe ‘Speskes in Clct's eialogae De Ost” having summarized themaln docines in shetose, pats renee) (Quinta, ator of the mort comprehensive asia! weatise ‘On the Teaching of Oratory, the inetato Orton, noted tat reything whieh at har roaght to perecon oxpnated in tse (217-6) beit medicine, sreteetare, musi © oratory wat, then, mare st cated specs, and been tha ‘gine that of speing Tart amen dove he att of ‘mls by ctoerng tnt ee things were hey and sexe the "riers fvening stn insomnia p.evs, 0 they breve tht some things were ul and sme {hla in spenng, tnd soted the formation ee wean, Whe thy added ceri er procpt songs heer sopgsed These cserasons ere cone y pence and ech On proeded totanch ht helm 02 : ‘The same process, the at ofshetore cong natura sbi, bo determined the invention of topics the dscovery of [arguments was not the eral ofthe publication of textbooks, Dt (very Hind of argument was pot forward before ny rales were Isis down (101120) ‘While waters of shetoric bos eallctd, analysed, and asailea methods of discovering and organising arguments, floquence islf continued to Hoursk in a natural ste Defending thetore from Pito's charge in the Gorgas and Phasing that # wae a mere eoack’ or outing, not worthy of bing declared» ‘nda? or ars, Aristotle, in the opening paragraph of his Rhtoric_pronosneed there to be he {Enslogue or counterpart af ides (whose satus as 8 sexious ‘spine was indipotabe), since the geraal han of all mon and belong who dete sence, ‘Ailing amen sake woe" of bol fort 8 sin een ‘hen stomp! to diva tants and fo mainin tem 0 een {Pemcier and to aac otis. Orsnary People do thi ier st ‘Sido or rough pace and fun soqused abt ge) ‘The parle existence ofnatural and acquire eloquence means that the Inter mus aways resemble the former “For a9 art stated from nature’, one of Cler's speakers in De Oratare ‘ware, woul carainly be deemed fo have fale ft had nak 2 nara power of aeting os and ease” ‘Wordsworth sid ofthe poet 'eman speaking men and the proverbial injunction of tha eto! tadiion, ws eerie ‘em, reminded the orator that however elevated hissy and footings became he should not ae touch with what an ordinary person coud think and feel As Quintin advised im, Jor ourLiNi oy ctassieat nitrronre 2 your eyes on nature and flow her. ll eloquence i oncemed ‘nth the activites of Sif, . an the mind ls sways Teast ‘ffectve a mars speaking the more in ascoréance vith the ature of eloquenct will # be (2x a0. 4gr4). The sucesfal Speaker ‘stinulates us by the animation of his delivery, and ‘ines the imagintion, not by presenting us with an elaborate ‘pictur, but by bringing an ito acta contact wih he hg Temostves (08) Home soe fry Hes in is Rit drawing on hi for ‘samples of specch and behaviour wich are wes the sume Side sate ae vetoes to contenp ost His. 80 he ditingushos two type of witnees ‘cent ad ‘ancient, the ter comping the pows and other notable mons‘ whose. fdgenents are Eoown to alr Thu the [Rthenianw appealed to Homer as 2 winess bout Salami (csrss fy Anatole even beleer ha he mon ester” Gf al are the “ancient wineses, ince they cannot Be Conruped :n7636), which toa modern reader sce 1 cy Serounce (oo far’ Homer’ or Hesod tay ste general ‘encpes, but they are surely not on the sume level ss people ‘io ive observed something connected witha cine! "The reverence fr Hlomer shared by Greeks snd Homans, for whom he was aeady the calc Merry text. meant tha the ems wore coealy scrtinized for evidence of thetora in ight condact and im good spasch, nor were proessoe in two ‘Spans groups, bol the sume mass gettin both nes ‘SEEe hear fornstunce te get Pheenxin Homer, who yee4 sountNworctassteat amrronie eo acd othe yg Acs by He Sher Ras 1 a dow ofdond0.15- 57 id § 449) ‘Quinlan pcs up the same point, end adds that nat only dos ‘omer mention a numberof rt’ but ‘the various sys ae represented by the speeches of Swe of the chiefs, and the rong men ae eet to contend among thers) Sealvoeeramaneabaa (37.8) in is indacoilsorvey of lsc erate IBook so, which diseases the authors whom the budding (fata should read, Quinlan flows the prinile of Aras ‘yi Jove let us begin"—in staring with ome, whe a8 ‘multiple as his wnt conception of Oceat, the soure and ‘napiation for every departinent of eloquent speech, ay, © say nothing of is eoguens, whith he howe in pis, ‘thorn and nell, do ot he ninth Bok setae the Gntany Aches the et desing the une! bebe Chit, ee the spencer Severed by the coud inte scons ‘play ll the tesa a 9 Be flowed in fone: cr delete tor? 8 a7) omer was ‘master ofall the emotions tender and vehesent alike and inchinclvely observed such rhetorical device ‘zrdim, nara, proof an refutation, perraion, and al the tmaments of speach "They are eo numerous that he sje ‘of wnters on the pinclpes of shetarc have gone to his werk forexamples ofa thee things (es). The signifcane of eloquence n Homers double, Writers on shetone conte 4, das asous evapo, ‘Butwherhe et he get vols go om sched he words he tig Soe tn heer er ac SESE yn 29 Rn ta 925g mca aloe to sets, Homer tas an adced sigaiance in he Hitiy of eloquence in tat hit orators ae al resent {peaking acconding fo the need of si imenediare statin, ala itary x personal Reto has always exited in & Bymbiotc ratship wih sone, expanding or eontcting ‘Matfaconding tothe demand ht sl gro makes on Since sort fa ofthe int and more than foes a he Oley are devoted to spenches by the characters at Inettngs of the sony ears tn coun, of the. solder’ ‘Sremlly,ofembasies of czens—we And there all he baie iermo of communication that ext oral calues (and ot crip thee) acetosace plitcal conic, sires of force, Esimustion app fr ery. Speakers do not avays get Sehat they want ine Be word subject tothe wil and in Home asin eal He, perseion does not always raced {a propagandist lor herons ght have consoced tingt Sikeehigy Btn hese poems tan inves ha whale blag int eee rh nr hy ope nl ng ree tow poignantly han Dram, beggieg. tiles t0 rear the Tdy Sisson eso for bs in, a 76 8), The statis tna power of slaguence in ner Gr ie sad ise in {he Giguey, where Odysseus xpans to Bayes that {hep do motes gracias nite, nee nso or ot inbrtin or Saguence {brine sca hind ofan sent orb bn popu comelincn on sons and they ho Tea wari carta Sree Waa ot et as {Semen eae Sal pr fhe ar to ne elle a Slee the oy» Eat Biyori sp‘ ‘aw ouruine oF ctassieat ansrone refit with jy tthe igh an he pels themn ‘tot oer snag nen, es ara ‘hove who eines * and peo on Sion gpd when be waln th cy Gresisocety needed eats, nd valued ehetoricians, ‘The rst teachers of rhetoric hat we know of emerged precisely in answer to a new goal need. A sjeematcrhetonc was ft ‘developed in the Cresk towns of Sil afer the expulsions, between 471 and 46) 36, of tyrants who, emong other ge) acts, had seized’ propery. To reste Is ownership Widespread gation was nacenary, and one Coeor tn his ‘Ppl Tyas st up in Syracuse the fs rule-based methods for Fandlig ji eispates. Litt ie known of the defi of thee teaching but itincked a rudimentary acount of the strctare ‘of 8 speech, whale to Tysias (among other) is asibed the fefintion of setae 39 the dongs, er, of persuasion? Much more i known about nother product ofthe Gresk province In Sy, who Irom Leoatin in 427 se to request Athenian ha anges n botn Athenian polis and law inthe If ofthe ith century puta much greater premium on the ize’ dat volvement with community decsons, The ila ms rf es he Azeopagus gave way to one involving lge popular fren, the itera, consting of fom 201 fo gor clizens, with ‘complete jurisdiction over tril proeedings. There belag no public provector, enna eases were Brought by chizen who Eppoated in person to age thes case ina cing set post fot tther side Iisno aciden thatthe eeyhandoooke of etre, Including Aristotle’, pay 0 much atetion tothe techniques of sceessfl gation. Am bilty to speak effectively wes t 1 Opa Rede Lain New Yr) te, 1 Keaton, pag scesty forthe Hbety and prosper of any propes Athenian, ‘he need to address a lage jury coherently. on a singe appearance encourage the compostion of speeches that were Careful reasoned, ceary arranged, and also appened to he notions, much to the dake of Adotole and other more conservative. thinkers’ In plies, too, democracy Wes bondening the base of partipation in pubic if, so that the zen who oraned to speak success in the Assembly Counc might take lessons fren the Sophist, who specaliaed ‘politcal ontory. In the dilogue named after fim, Piso ‘kes Gorgias st out the praca advantages of eloquence. Reto is inv uth he geste oon fort rng een oman in {uote and ocak an conuen over othsin sown county. {iStan ie power to convince by your worde he adges nc te scrote Coura the poopie tthe Assembiy, or in ny ote Tits Ristori fact, more fal in thi canary than = any other that tyrants ar totalitarian slates destoy eedom ff spesch. Under the Thirty Tyrants in Athans at one pot the tescher of rhetoric were forbden to work, and whan Lain letches of het appeared in Rom at the begining ofthe frst centry ne the sao party, regarding them 263 gh ‘Tr attude ir pariuley strong inthe Sopa, a8 we see, fom Prolagoas to Iscrates. For Aso plied ontry ‘es nobler banines’ than forensic Guia) oratory, “and ter for’ ctinen than that which concern the relations of private 2 Go eal: Wb Wondbndin Pat 6 Pee ron te nhs Nas, x nd Saat, Desh isco p838 Jo OUTLINH OF cLASsICAE RIEETORIC Individual’ (29543). To him, indeed, pallies was “a more Instuctive ar anda more rel branch of knowledge’ than _hotode(3303), bat for boeates, the lending representative of the Soptists (he val tation to Pato and Asatte), betode ‘was the puimary tet in education, and education wae direc hotoneis eld to have taught men, when society was sll ‘znformed, that they met work fo he comuon good (= 3) ‘When rhetoric becrme corapted men opt oto theatre ie (6.3.4) bat Roman orators and politicians rehimed the at foxdar © protec th sate (4.5) Mhetoue is now defined a2 dleparement of the scientist of poles, whl ator sly abel ener pls a een te le 5.5 ‘he mature De Onto (3 wo) ines namerous passages ssing thet In lowing ene for giving those who master Fhe power toast had on ase one ‘ued the ery a pence and equi Ds oe at hs Saye Doubt oer he teat and ve ened Spee’ What een opm warty of ho ee = og besitos bee fon pe oon nmin tc sgh Tw intel oe Sagi retical eps lcs ey, ate yas ont Sromlesue Got snpripmecapettaeenatp en lee a eevee one et enced aan ih atasatrer aes AN OUTLINE OF CLASSICAL RMETORIC 9 and his two greatest campaigns, the defeat of Catlin and the Stack on Matk Antony, dspuyed both omforat power and Marable integrity. Yet the collapse of the Republic and the fstablchment of te Enpire in 31 ne meant at rhetoric and free speech no longer fourehed in puble alfa, the ortor ‘aing ven fom the helm of tte’ as Cassushad put itin De Cntr, thrust dovin and locked up ectusiey in wcourts fd pety lil assemblies, a8 ina pounding (21 4) ‘Guinan was confined fo an even smaller apace, the school fom, frst aaa sate professor of thetooe and then as {htor fo the Emperor Domian’s nephews. From that positon Denaturaly disagreed with those soho ‘dently thetorc with Doles”. 25.33) angung hat pltal questions provide ony oF is mata os 2). Yeti comprehensive engiy to [Re creer of he orator, fom boyhood torebrement, pied an important process in which shetre became ester pa ein anather sphere, education, Tell chook whore grouse inctaded somo ofthe outstanding ‘men of thee generation, among them the general Tote, the ‘isonans Theopompus and Ephors, and Nicodles, the King of (Cyprus, As Cicero scored, ot Uus tine there arose sora, the Maver ofall thetorcans, Kom whose school as from the Hove of Toy, none tut lesdore emerged, some of whom i is i coemonial thers inaction (De Or. 2 22 99). a heaiees teas ap erase eet ee anata By 3 Ma ee PY Clee ae goss Fe Sire ie oe Ge i ae eS eee ice gt Gonos Renee icusare ree ae at icin gh and G-A. Sambo tee item orga 988.fn thetic! edustion—nstre,tning, and practe. The | teacher mat not only explain principles bat provide mamyeg fest at model, and guide sadn tatheasuiateg a ‘ral wisdom. Ksocates" importance na the fae of "utorcathool is masked by the many sina instars tat sprang opin the ancient wo, and is intaence on educa extended to Remissanoe Europe. Dut is sgaiicams at ‘Geet his actual facing patie, In hs extent spehen Which were ‘ten for tading rather thn publ Seivesy, Hones sa language ste dengan a Truett or bes we fer not a om hanna ein {5 bend may tn siesta and theres ba ‘eco thee bo nu the power pends at shot cutee whatever we wa, wo tt ony have conpod ey, ing rs, bt ob coming tage fave usa te ea Sty lows ht evenied sty ta Spec has peso ‘ral allot the things we ive devord Forse ‘Ride lowe bout fase ant instr and oso ae ante ‘ot wh gross we sd not beable ne aga Zot we rete he wile and pa he gad By ey ‘Steele gnorantandinrm te oe Sie “nthing doe wh ntigece i dane wot sec then spec the marl fll stars aloe ores wither guacant "Cami pre ngage ten Se trainee by say tr 2 ctrl Ws see hgh Ca pg as nah ten century, played a major rein forming the image a the eat 'reatnchn, The cy De etn aban ee iccaian mode y pogo tinh sen mecion tng md telnet ae gate ‘toy rg acy, on itl ee ees tr tae tha on ages fen ly two ron an ease a) Onc ei oer me evade fons yal hry, pesundon nas a ay tng ot Eng men alt tenets anh de (Anis 55 ye Remy 9p. (6.2.3) Rhetoric continues to playa cuca ella and poicl roi, frit preserves the commurity, renders Me sae, anout- {WE and protects bends 60 that jst a men excel animals ‘most by Daving the power of specc, that mam has won 8 splendid possession seho excels men themselves in that sty ‘uote almost verbatim in the mate works 8.523). The lture given ther of dae orator leading seater humanity ‘tof brutish existence Inthe wilderness upto ur presen fondion of sivkaion ae men and ae ctizene, helping to treats Socl communities, laws, teal, and Gviright was taken. over bodily by ‘many Renaissance writes. on toric” Quinlan siulady descaed ortary asthe highest tof providence to man” (2 1.7), and exhoad lozrtes and er x crociting eloquence with a clizing funcon (235.9) Inti nd orto being a divine gift to elevate us over Use bests (6.125, 2.20.9, 3. 21, 3). Hence the omer, in exeing ther men in thew capacities, becomes the highest realisation of Inumanity (2:36.27). “The eifect (and. peshaps intention) of these programmatic celebrations of theta was to confinm the valet of rhetorical tsinenton and to attract both esehers and pups By Ue idle of the fourth century ye shetene had become the cee iaspine in Greve uation, affecting ‘al pbc uterances snd indeed al intellect! activsy" and it became yet mote Widespread inthe Hellenic period 338 ¥e onan). reck ‘etorcans began facing in Rome in the second cenfy BC, tvithgret success. Choro recorded that when the Romana na “hesed the ‘Greek ortors gained. acquaintance with, their erature ad called in Gresk teachers, ovr people were Bred ‘wih 2 rely incredible ents for elequenc®” (De Or SRP as cae yae 9pr. somes1. 4 4) The shetor was the Best paid and most respected cf teachers: Vspasan pa them sles of up to toy Sestoces andi" aD 74 he oven ecused ramuans s ‘Melorcns tom lel igtons, such es tesand leg ‘boy's education began with planar and sete she Sody of shetorc could lat fom four fo eight yeas, indeed ‘higher eduation was reduced to hee inthe ete See ofthe wor wich dominated tnching in Rome by fe Nat Centuty ve The Romane made sheions oven more yates tala though tat sem but ad i of tac Oy fo Oe Greek corpus. Yet although thet afeted maay ares of Roman lle and irertes it nover became te oni fink tetween school and sda acy in polis end Te that ad’ een in Greece Tor whereas af Greek ieee cod erase the right peak onthe on bhatt in the wou, the senate, and serbia, was pratand hit by relatively sal er offs ata gly onaciovs of techniqes and of this wn sles Paso then, the number af people shilyng ret incensed dy ile the number prctsing it ws reduced. Fersecre, “readom of expression in me was elatve mater Tvs tak something townch every cinan was efile and shough he JR ac by bly wath Serv, th eons as five lined by hers Bt the widespend Keowee of {lors through the school jstenundoubtely acount fe Gissemination through the whole of Lain feature” and ‘ters ould be sre tat he seers were able open tha a. From Rome rstoric tn eatin in pu cei and in all for of writing spread rough ine wo, Wo Inence warngonly nthe enceenh century Rhetoric was ental element in education—stng ase the losses suffered by literary ulture in gener —irom before Plt Baer, A My of en Ein. Vol The Ain Ht (en ah. en aS Bones, 5 Keep Ga ap lap: Danas: mer 7. aw ourtineorciasiteatnmpronie 19 to after the Romantics During most ofthis petiod theta was posed on either by. dies leaching. where the, master hounded prnspl® from his Own lowed, the stents ‘tubing note and performing eercoes under his gldanee, or ke by teubooks thar cess schon, universe, orm See) at ng, Any ne wing to lam the range and Cipaity often mus sll have recourse fo uch estbook, Recon tnd oe adapta tohianceds. Tis ensenta ono ie or tents, alo to elie that they an ery diverse composts Some of tm begin the eng gy pe ap Rename eis ane ths book bepine, with paces of eloquence a6 2 runing dcpine in which re als othe fl his Go {Bren fal, whose cubation wil benefit both soe and imrc Otcegencral tops may inde s history of etre, Groove ptéar brah erty fe epistolary theory Such pasepescan bud up tothe Inporaee of and ned fer this Treat, and ince cpareeng temas about ml ents. Aastoedoesthis, a5 does usa or many Crensions oni conte a topos downto the Renalsance Se wees even dling tat all previous featments are fdecve thes alone perfect, Nive thoughts may sce 0 fiibut ne moet gb rears, sch dlaparaging comments on ihe shtons beck tay Rave ad comity daa ‘Sec on het tclt) When the text get down te dsl hey ‘Sn hill ¢ precapive fncton, giving speakers or weer ‘Rc i maods of angen enon rei ‘Tey cam alan be Gesripive, analyang notable amples a trator. Cher mker DesnatNenes, Quintin otk Denoathnes tnd Ciro for istnet flog evelopment, Sek pe Ofer wes ante se ten ms of Spec gullies clnty, omateess,appropeateness—or iter schools of iy auch or Asian and Atm. Rhetoric bonisean devote enue to ge pe fear, re jcc) ing the most popular = Roman eloquence, or 8 Sofie gene, Sach ar te semen or Iter in medieval and Renaatnce ines tt he Os ry of atl cn coping the facta not al of equal ietrest. The erect [ete has never bon wren, nor one tat could meet tetet nn oy ah fe os 2S ae ah eee si ae Rena ae cae Ice ong it dean Eee cia Sarason: ven a oa ee tag Base Sooty OE eerie pane aoe onsihenc nme te Seeey ad eee separ ns sire pty in Rely pa Fees stl Sy wea my seperate aged han abst scabies erent Se Shetcperes begs man oars mente” hace Sy ee eee Dial ay he wad he Mie etch acre es at So cents Ribeiro oegtese secon parses Sei Seats eet osha adie Stele vats Serene echt seat rates Selsea igen sieeiennrnoaae Face nena SL Ra Not all authors of shetorc books have seeped the presciptive ‘ole alginate, Pt, te crit surviving water onthe tad lngly ngativefcngs abot dsc tt epesesed the mir’ dullenge to Soomtc dec in hs Pass (is di) he makes Socates rel of in alight contemptucas anne, contentef the nly fa or arts ote, The ‘ncls ofthe at he sets, cate the tang haa sporch niet begs wis preamble, her mone on to exposion diet and nds evidence, probate, proofand ‘SSpplemenary root, end refstaon both for prosecution and Selper eca een incr» ped ty, bt ek pene howl to chen ad Petorene one dtc note Sf bony in hs slrences tothe sirable Evens of ars, the weston of covert allusion and indret pliner» the incre censure al memorized With fhe help of e mncmon sytem real maser that js Souatee onlay, leving ts to wender about that scange Conbtaton of devioamess snd prepared devices. Tyan and orp ave ls ced to min, who ronbred fst probably Genres mare ceopect than also mc the Ware for ‘httove thent—and had what Pato allege tobe the Sopis fargercus abiiy to tansforn ther subjec-outer by thee feng of cabing “ois sem inpatant and sport Dein ies by the force ofr ngonge” (27 2). Pat's ety to shetoc so grt and ho srepresentation 199 ‘Seems, ha iris impose Wo takes tonsa velo Finny orexpotton Sel a ary ander wil observ, his own dalogue inca both’ duertcal diomsine of lguence and practial ceplg, jut Hi elfconessed etre books, eve though Smal ve csowned te label. Cearge Kennedy has args Sheth oo pt of te Pas sete vo min pes of thera aching in arent Grace, the it part comms thee specches (though hoe they ae hac "specinen ot than so they would be ino normal etc), the second Spungen of here nd fore popes The Shots Saight be ald. ant aashetons they of an ‘thernatve’theton, and ina certain senge Bip rue that Pato thought ‘he coud do's beter fob teaching *etore than the Shetstang’> The ft pat bees with eiten-otspech, {eat alow by Pheedras and supposedly composed by Uys, ‘uth describes how a handsoni boy we temple, but nt Tiives tne the Gever part oft. He asin that surrender {hould be fo one who lot in love rather than to oe who i {257 Thins meant to bes psche ands parody of Sophie ‘Bete deacton by cston 2 2940-10 ply 9 what16 —_aNovrLinsos ctassicatanzromic the nave youth Phar deszbes as an ‘extraordinary fn speech Socrates seams to extemporzeaeply which has both clearer shear structure and beter igi development han Lin’ atempTeay seems t,t dw attention othe Rone within ato’ carey composed ogee, ato pont up the fac that since Plato had alo waiten Lyi’ speech he was able tomake't inept in order to outshine Soerstesnow ses out he answering case, the disadvantages of accepting sucha lover (G38 snags), and there in the hand Of & lester writer the Abate might have ended. But Pato makes Socrates fl tat his sin is rebuking him for having dene something wrong, ingling love, who is after alla god, and he then delivers & ‘much lager and more personal speech, which makes the de preceding seem ike thetorcl exercise, Now he argues tt fevour ofthe over In his none scen ofthe nate ofthe soul and the forms of love tough the myth of the caster (2s a2s7b) This is the stand stil one ofthe mot bia ‘tomples ofthe thetrel practice of arguing i ulna perfen, onbaitsdesofaninme. Se Mnanenin "Plato's critique. of exiting shetore in tho Phair has 2 reforming, 35 well a a detucive intent. Although he sts Socratic lalet and the spoken word shove all ther forms of ‘rumuricaton, ‘he i ll concerned with inpeoving the at, luping the cheiosan to fem fom dalectic how to make deintions disingush gens or space and subepeccs he roses of drei division bing acordedan aot mt Dower to divine the tai), and preduce an ergnie whole. In ‘what has been called “probably the mst infoental eres! latent in Pato,” Scates pois othe defieny of Lys Specch in fang Yo unity is component pars “any discourse (ugh tobe constructed lke a vng reat, wah sown body, Si were; must not Ie ether ead of fete ust fav 4 ide end exten co composed a fost each oer and the wiole work” (266) That concept of organi unity wil ‘reappear in Cero in Horses rockon, an in counies ter tates. Moving fom formal eopertis fo the goal of thetore ‘which his earlier been dined aga Kind of iftuencing the ‘ind by means of words, not only in courte of law ad other ube gatherings (261 a bat als in Socrates” prefered face > Kono p38 toacedslectsl encounter, Pio outs a new approsch to {Reto Souetes develope he implstons offre ct a the ‘jos on which our dium sought tobe & the su ‘Anyone iho sonocly press a scenic Peto wll ia the tat plac, dese bn soul very proce (2-27 3), rderng wha trl opty has a pon what and ow fue aced upon, Then, ring peyholgial ownage fo the wtb we the male of = sore ‘ton Sal aly the typeof cnoare and te peso teal and Ge vasous weapon which tuls ae alee" ey Te rat's pupose in making such an lnventry is to achive sighs dees of pean {Rtn risa Iw what pes of oa ose ze. Now thee ‘Neo detente namie and sry tr na vr of ‘Raina, To the typeof sl hes scat there conespe ‘Escminte number of yon of soe. Hence #ctaln type of Sarr wil bu ogy peo bys cenain ype speech take sh nd such atom esac ad eth vaso, wheather ype wl be ‘indtopesude, “The orator must study tis reaction, watching it ‘scaly Sensing exmped so mes conduct fr the Roemness of forceps’ that he develope oil given he ait 1 know {ashe ype of man sssceptiBle fo what kindof discourse (Ghd) lowing the chart, he must so know the ght casons for apeaing and for Laeping let the ght and Strong tine fer thw bachylogy, the peti passage, the Groat, and lth rest of bis seounplshmen's 72) ‘Ths isthe fst sketch of 2 concept of theo decorum, using tle audience response Pst oct not el us how to classy ether sous or types of lacoursey but oe. ean, accept his genera argument that Seca peso of amon ngs pee piu ent Smowiedge of poychlogy” fo whch veal devices ae Nbordiete We can a acept Soeales’ smisng ‘the ‘rcbentday authors of mantas of eto’ for never Raving Epcrmed ehemscles wi he sul a7). Mos portant, yet tantly so, us pasngepluces Po’satacks on tetoiin38 awourtimsor ciassicat anronic 4 new Ugh He evden ft hse bet esac the at fn rea acetic nal, had been npr enough fe in {© doso, One wishes hat head eagle we arith ers destruc be considered in the next ap) tat ar enor inlenth an energy the om construc, Ths aden concer ‘oe out the someston between fheoric end eye Seema to lad nowhere im P's system, ues es beh {Se eppleatono petucon fe ee propoganda tt enc, 2s we sl, inthe at logue. Oterise we are with {he tee pardons of Po as "he tetsan ho distr. ‘etre he pot who abolishes poeuy or Ns ate andthe ue of of dalocte who pulses dialogues worked out ‘wth enor cae Pat ttsnenely quent and deeply distrustful of his own of expression, eather ike ‘mas Hees ho itso ihe end of Leta (65 that ‘heres noting st maven ay Sonate “To ponteiy Pao has more ofen fered he outancout iemy.of hon rete or nel scedngly Yt is itumtae inact winin the Acdony war constocve, His pup Assol bean lecturing on tetas Pat's eat ‘ident with hs mast’ approval and inecaes extending Ger a peed of yes bot) expanded Pits peiive suggestion and iu ome of tacos wl beeen Ghapir > low) Awareness of te extended gens of ‘Aino’ Rao een for he wnestendg of xt thu otherwise seen in places sifconsndcry. Aa Pedi Sms wan the ft 0 show "Aristotle prob stated hs Ircure-oure (given nthe ernoos, when les tlectaly emanding topes wore tele) when he rtsed Athens > Kamrady 9 p.. 2 Xone ted Condo’ than, eM. Osha (Ono, 246; se eae ne ea ec ee See ie eae coon RE diy a i iad ps tpn peat ‘Steetntergae Rkemnate pp gpa ns eh Ne SESS Sg Pa gt ar tn ph eae py psec te a Edie ais pheah ht nd ANOUTEINEOF CLASSICALAMETORIC 18 and opened Ms own schol in about 335 4, although ay rt nae om his ere prod w the Ady or- Sipsand even om hit Fed taadon Gar 39) whe te 2 vrs nay hove ban eed by pop tere eth The olin io des non ent nf re or nove st of Intute hve bean aed tegts by sncoe concerned {proce eveying te mate had ss ot Gang et tol sspanci ete hem Aa every ade ln, Sening Zeon seis the extn sete oaks on Owe ron, fer dacaing the elo the encore tnd of tue tpi pesuatn, and for enumerating och tgs ts the par of orton Bat Ante deve cho Bonk vo the a tpi an pao Bok Fee oe sone ‘ai In some pn’ Ant he gest sven Fe ‘Rhyne spe proc nkng Stores 0 Stn hough wh ary ape ne xe wen Sher ples te" Gocrber perenne The {Shtpolemtu ofhe x saes pose eo ear Stevo as al thought ont seer ot tsa ioe oves, Other str wesks he wn fae tests reo inducing an edge nthe or ode, Talc Ground seo sets Spmpge feo, smmaning he Fedo of ner eke tn a Cea oe of Tost tran oor “Mitsids preceapeion with sto, we conte, was icon whi hr surpeang ine of spre Gre i an cation ante tar Pat hol pose STAT Sniie aoe ured ats dinproal ok Poors Pat he shows hina ho own man by Salngig Fis obm poses hed a0 sao He anosneee tutte il dectbe the ptenac pone of Rhea ae ‘dees its the aly of oscrng many gence he ‘rule mea of pean gol ht set ape fo al Sher ane tappastgh Tay bw alert Pa, by stn peruse gata tay nosey ane TsrTRbower stench who wuld ink tcl with Ghia He ten daanguahe tive kinds or moder of Pern he rt pen on he pron hace of ‘exter aay the scan on pty ine sane it a voted urate none ol or apne rotprovided by the words of the spech ite” (1561). Eas Involves the speaker in appearing to be good sid hence worthy of tus, fr we believe good men more aly and more rely {han other and» speakers ‘harry not Bead the ‘ot efletve means of perevason he poses (5), that ‘works when the speech atin the readers emotions, fr “our Fdgnents when ware roased and flendly are not the se 1 when we ate pained and host” Akstole postpones dened scusio of he emotion to whats ow kaon so Bock Two, chaplers is (enin hes tedonal vison for eave ofelorence, but they are not Arsotles nor do they mak ny dear division of subjectmater) He then turns Io eimusson by proot, ating te log esources of tea the xample end entyneme, tat ctrespond fo he icon sash in lei Ts length of lst secon (950 ‘33833) andthe ey family of the detail show where ‘Aisole’s greater sympathies le, ingpting ler ihetonane fo ‘ttempe nose union between store an logic. "These three modes of pervason ae len up in varying et liter thor given the leat space (Book Two, re alo shaper 1) fof]owed by Patios (econ haf of that Chapter and the’ next tn, with 2 further sie chapters appended onthe various types of human character) Forms ot argument art Alncaseod forthe remainder of Book Two (ch. 9-28, bul cur Bok The, whch nota ote Sie he ah, when Ais comes to arangentnt, lite forms of argument in general 2. 17), and specie arguments to exe or alsy Prejudice (cha. 4-25) This tpl von the ma ngaizing Hed ofthe Rion and was o prove very tue tte Ieterogenelty ofthe work slow Ariston to discuss sever ‘ther opie. Equally indent, and appareny og, was Nisdastcation of thetode into ieee ivsons, drmined ty the tes css of tne to ‘pect. For of the tree clement in sponcrning spi, ‘Sbjct, and ptson desea the WN one, he outa ‘arming the speed en and objet. (958369) ‘That a classi statement of what I would calla functional or holistic view of sete the We element of speaker, subj, ‘nd dienes being seen ae an interdependent tris. Is 8 ppl Aristotelian poy, of couse, to seek out the detrmining ‘Beer on ahich others depend and in ica resale in he Important easication ofthe hearer aa ler a judge, with fzcsion to make about things past of future, or an observer ‘The judge’, a8 member of ary ina lnecourt, decides about things tat haveskeady happened, which gives the etepory af forensle Gegal or judical) oratory, a member of pelleal ‘sembiy he dacdes on srhat must be done, in pies! (or eiveretive) orto; and a sbuerver oF onlooher he recep to a set speach of diaplay om ceremonial ocions plese ortory, on which no formal judgement Is expected 350-33) The dlvson fe elborsted farther in a pregnant formation ‘whlch Gesrbes the ation and purpose relevant teach ta sping wg ut ro foo eng of Stone somebody ove or oer of as vo Urge mt sivas be Ane y the prs incase, The ceemonil toy of Sipay eather one ox ceures somebody. 9). ‘The thre Kinds also involve thre diferent phases of tie, past, ‘ature, and present, and, mae important, they have istinet “he pola) ontor sine at etabising the expeincy oF the ‘rman of + prope cure of atom fhe arg ts ace ‘Nex he doe 20 Sn fe grou ti wll do god he spe ‘Secon he dos soon pound that evil 30 Name an a ober favs tach so whether te open ju or onan, honsrble OF Ethorousbie, fe beings nasa one atv ft ain ‘Sidon, Pere fs cases ten te ater ‘jure of same setim und they foo bing nal eter otis Ss ‘ubiday and ene 1 ths oe Thoe wh page or atac man {nat pou him warty ofa orthe reves, a he 00 ea oe costeraonewihrelerene 9 hone (55053-5) ‘le admiting the janice of hat classcaton, ones st Teaponse sof surprise atthe cay with which Aso shows tien of pots tobe ue seal concn the good off state, uveal or prospety, and ready 1 xt ynusbe oF honour on one side. Not muny thetoni-bokscontnally stinalate their readers to consider fundamental ‘Sous, and other uae analysis so cogent. This abity to get at escent to discover the determining factors or sean! modes of epertion in human ey kee ‘Arsioti’s Rictoe competing Teating, and of fr greater Sgnicance than the usual tedne. Parsing his Caslicaion ot {he thee kinds of thetic he note that what they have in common that speakers inesch kind tempt not ony to prove the pont snenned fut sso fo show Hat he good or Be ham, the honour or disgrace, he fstice or injut gretor smal, ther sbsclutely or reltvely (Gosyyas). That he Sspeakerin each kind of eratory mse know the eects on mah bungs of cerain modes of econ, whether sting or suring. The plea spenker, as well as knowing about rational defence, wat and peace, ways and means, law and lepton (Book Gne, eh 4 must, sine he urges his hearers to take OF fold couse of acon. chow that he is concerned with thelr Tappines. Ths fundamental point leads Ato to ascertain ‘what isin genera the ate of happnese’ Book One, ch 5). He. gives four defniions of happiness, and ete fourteen convent pars, divided iio extemal valaes—good bith, fends, money, honourand internal values goods of the soul and body (i677). The definitions end iscassions ae ‘ots igrous a in Artote’s eel and police! works, Sat {hey are empl enough to ry Ne can that "ator on cifshoot of let and so of ec studer’ which cy sd be cal polite (39%25-6. Although the pote rte as srigaly een as concerned solely with «countrys wear, i rr to appeal othe intrest of hs hearers he mat know what things are ‘good 20 Atte adds» discon of "ho main fags about Goodnes and Usity genera!” abe and lave (36220-736520). By allowing topes to branch cut ngrical fom the main tui of estou, he leads int vewidening areas oie “Turning the epideicic speaker, who pases vistue and cenaures ce, Arte surveys these tpi defnng vce nt ‘a acalty of providing snd preserving good things or acy of confersing many great benefits - (966964), He defines {he forms ofvirwe jst, courage, tenperance, magnience magnaninis, becaliy, genlenes, pradence, widen’, and ANOUTLINEOFCLASSICALRHETORIC 23 mamedlataly ranks them viewe is afaatyofbenefcence, the [ghest kinds of i must be those which see mast use fiers, and fr thie seaeon men honour most the Just and ouragenus, since courage lanl oathers in wat, usin both Invwarand pest’ (966%-6),This‘other-cented’ concepts one tthe key pnp of he tea and Avitote invokes here Some ofthe basic principles of his ethic, albeit in implied form. The forensic spear sao sent back to fst principles, Since his wabjet is ieee verongdoing he mst et geen ‘the nature and nimber of the incentives fo wrongdoing second, the sate of und oF wrongdoers thi, the Kind of persons who are wronged, and their condition’ (9692-5). Fitonedoing is defined se injury voluntary infted contary {0 law, lw being then defined a ether “Spec that the ‘itn awe which regulates he le ofa parce community’ tr general howe unwtten principles which are supposed fo ‘Be Shnowlged everywhere’ (ss). There follows 2 boef but Penetrating etry into te poycalogy ofthe cin (who acts Ether for cious motives lacking recone); Ns goals and ‘odances, whith leads tos chssifaton of human aon into even couse: thre involuntary—chance nature, compulsion— nd four soluntary—habit Tewoning, anger, and. appetite (Gpesronsss6). Voluntary aeons are undertaken bemuse {Bey promie ether whet edvanageoss or good (tore ‘ssady discussed), or what fs plenant, which leads t0 8 ‘etiton and decusion of pleasure (19630-13723). Having mnaiered the motives thal make men do wrong to others ‘Alte next enews the states of mind a which they dot, {a the pereons to whom they d0 i, whieh leads him on 10 3 ‘ors detailed disses of justice, natal a, unvwriten in, ‘ruly and the comparative Danes of minal actions (3724 5750. Th tho way Astoll’s dassifation of the thee kinds of there and this goa has led him ito elosssing politics, ‘hc, erminology:juspmidence, and the enuses of human dhives ond deses, This remaziably opewminded spit of fnguiry ino everything that depends on language ives ‘Rrbtoles Ristori wre quali. fal reafrees the point fom which 1 began, that, 88 gially conetved, theta i intimately soncemed with every aspect of human Ife. This24 awouruinnorctassicatamronic repre elationship becomes still clearer in Book Two, where 4 ‘ea oh maces Sasa sh Sipe Ei geseieeste, te | te ee gs ws wpe nace sey en Saat (ones. hy ontenas ueeese king the emotions ae thos fee thts change oto teat sopra ad ee aes Fane Cayo nese ae neal cag and sien ecru ya tol cme hae ae et celine py eapeaien oo aah ea ot Mingecaeespreee hoes asopeung snore ange hee re an caer arn Shi clngy es chme perpetrate nuly pathy yt oe them Pactal knowledge is rot enough, for without meseing Fie pnts oe dl te oe ee eens CoD Hee esas beet sea Ee, (oN ates ae gare im mal Poe tetog eg hoes Set oreptoetery Seana Gienosereinorient nee ae i ctnt nontrophctpaal ayn olan fea aes BST Shel aes neck peated natn Renner less Bese ase a ee Greek socal and religious atitudes, these dscussions shoW Setpoint y ine orig a tla eo na ket Beta nse Bae awe he Sesatetace tee feet a The ene agence a Se the vaio op of bana cians ered a ee Se deni Meo Menten op asa aaa Gt met rs a atte Sigman iy ing ihn a saree trek omc Eee For nice eeeeerecaas oe ‘gues gen snot gu poendra rue acl, par cele ae See ae eee, di frees gota ep ag ANOUFLINEOF cLASHICALEHETORIC 25 erotins and moral quate, showing how they earespon to Str venous ages ane fortunee’ (98932 fan enqary tht fttipates developmental prychology yet adds the dimension a etc the dlocuson Of ages products bilan ja peslton of youth and age, one at any eveayist could be pond EE Noung men have tng possons, and tend to gratify them Incinatey’s ther desea are violent but quisiy over, “They ust thers realy, becuse they have no et fen been Geto. Ther ves seman pent not n memory Put frpeciaon. hey have exalted otons, because they have Sot yt toon umbled by ie or leant ts necessacy imitations, hey would aways rather do noble deeds than usefl ones! ‘ein tives are regulated more by moral feling than by essoning’ Old men, by canta, “haven Doe ake ina Shen auc ys. Theresa hat hey ae sare about Song and under everyting, They “think, but they never Known. They fend f0 put the worse consrocion on rerything” te having made them datos. They lve by fmenory nather than by hopes» They guide thelr Les 1 reasoning more than by tno feng, consberng uty Maher than goodness, and nat cring what people say about ‘emf they fel pity its ors dfeent reason young men fel fou of Kindness, Old ten out of weakness, maging that rytng that bell anyone ese might cay happen to them tggsigqras). Bat, modern reader might objec, what jus alte co do with etre? Everything! a fourtvcentry ‘Greak might anower sine the shetrian needs above all Seno aout fe Te ost be aware oo ofthe fet on uh ‘hare ofthe gift of fortune such eb good bith weal and power eopecaly thar compton. as when wealth becomes 8 Redord of valde for everything eae’ 305-139"). Ae [Restle remarks later, ‘Edueted men ly down Eroud general Pinipes(990%0) a the breadth of his dacusion shows ow wiet shetonc canbe conceived “Te final bok edeveed to style, nai he part which slong with the infaces of logeal proof (which Ishall not broach er) th modern ede aly fo Sn ast eveag, One Sle i that many of is remarkszler special to Bigeecompontion atch asthe eed to se Pure, correct Gresk Exgris a to avoiding compound words or fancy epithets26 ——_axourtime or erassicat amronte that belong io verse, not prose 34s835-405), The whole discussion of proseshythm and senfencestuctre (oP ‘i0) only fealy makes sense for Greek, Facer, the Bnezie of genetons of tar eading pa the lw sf sree Igri ths doce while sourcing for ober mates ‘at they found In bos tage were Sie and ches Aentions ofthe main shetol dane, the ve nds of ratory the ive stages of compostion (nent, depot teat, mer, pono an fhe scp ofa perch ok 3 of Ad Hc ens he tops drat a pide oratory, dconeo memory od geste wile Boag als ith cus of yl and ls vers handed figures Speccrfor entre the mote sen, itis in ger an imibteteboot, ronal organics, aay eopounad, {nd with ole’ iusuatons Butane sss tha ang.sls, over and above ity tappoined tksDe Treeline althoogh ot a cmmpuehensive: hs any of he same vues an ce, mide epening up 2 eighty wiley orton inthe prosmiin, wh wos pie pe linge an lauence. Bu bath ane cena ec, te ‘ed By the ancents in onder torn retrial sy and ene aia an Ftc Tey. ad So awouruiweorctassieatanszonic 29 ose popobty proves how well they satisfied thove neds. They ee books we tan fo forinformaton, bat oto sus, and afer Arote’s Ractore they cannot Dut stem Tar, [ning interest in wider human tes hn hs mojo etorichook, the De rea, whith i also his longest work, Ceo altemptad- a wider scope, indeed the frist, binging into the theorican's Ned of competence Urerything uncer the suns. work over which he laboured {ing and all who apprecate Cleo’s enormous importance fr ‘esi caltre fon Gassal tines fo the eal nineteen Century wl went fo study f= et two dete coniront ws at {he outer. One concern content he othe form. The Widest feope to catmed for thetore, but Wt calmed ony, not ‘Cer's moral work, ofcourse, such ae De Offcs (OF dui) {nd De Flue (OF the ends or goals of Numan action), but a eteribook tat set et to be ts comprehensive a ti one Sabecquenty Ins By making the papens ia hs daogue Eek Roman orton ofthe et Ceo expressed cont ene to ct Neon work ad career win the partheon of {Stn eloquence, and te hitoncal neni 10 crete fe Talula Cler was no Pato, mach though he waated 19 “ist hin, snd ne in seting morn charcterzation does {Ebial the Fats or Corgan Aone serous al 8 hat we «neem gage ore ni ‘slag ph hve aod ook = par 98 Sou Alain ch, fairs a ‘Greiner dng edict sues own 53