Alexandria University 2nd Year - Semester (1)

Faculty of Engineering Academic Year 2010/2011

Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering

Fluid Mechanics (MR 231)

Lecture Notes (16)
Cont.

The Irrotational Flow Approximation

There are regions of flow in which fluid particles have no net rotation; these regions are
called irrotational. One must keep in mind that the assumption of irrotationality is an
approximation, which may be appropriate in some regions of a flow field, but not in other
regions, Fig. (1). In general, inviscid regions of flow far away from solid walls and wakes
of bodies are also irrotational. Solutions obtained for the class of flow defined by
irrotationality are thus approximations of full Navier– Stokes solutions. Mathematically,
the approximation is that vorticity is negligibly small,

Irrotational approximation:

(1)

Fig. (1) The irrotational flow approximation is appropriate only in certain regions of the flow
where the vorticity is negligible

Continuity Equation

You will find a vector identity concerning the curl of the gradient of any scalar function

, and hence the curl of any vector V ,

Vector identity:

(2)

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This can easily be proven in Cartesian coordinates, Fig. (2), but applies to any orthogonal
coordinate system as long as  is a smooth function. In words, if the curl of a vector is
zero, the vector can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function , called the

potential function. In fluid mechanics, vector V is the velocity vector, the curl of which

is the vorticity vector  , and thus we call  the velocity potential function. We write

For irrotational regions of flow:

(3)
We state Eq. (3) in words as follows:

In an irrotational region of flow, the velocity vector can be expressed as the gradient of a
scalar function called the velocity potential function.

Fig. (2) The vector identity of Eq. (2) is easily proven by expanding the terms in Cartesian
coordinates.

Regions of irrotational flow are therefore also called regions of potential flow. Note that
we have not restricted ourselves to two-dimensional flows; Eq. (3) is valid for fully three
dimensional flow fields, as long as the approximation of irrotationality is appropriate in
the region of flow under study. In Cartesian coordinates,

(4)

and in cylindrical coordinates,

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The usefulness of Eq. (3) becomes apparent when it is substituted into Eq. (12) of Lecture
   
Notes (15), the incompressible continuity equation:  . V = 0   .   = 0, or

For irrotational regions of flow:

(5)
 
Where, the Laplacian operator 2 is a scalar operator defined as  .  , and Eq. (5) is
called the Laplace equation. We stress that Eq. (5) is valid only in regions where the
irrotational flow approximation is reasonable, Fig. (3). In Cartesian coordinates,

(6)

and in cylindrical coordinates,

Fig. (3) The Laplace equation for velocity potential function  is valid in both two and three
dimensions and in any coordinate system, but only in irrotational regions of flow (generally away
from walls and wakes)

The beauty of this approximation is that we have combined three unknown velocity
components (u, v, and w) into one unknown scalar variable , eliminating two of the
equations required for a solution. Once we obtain a solution of Eq. (5) for , we can
calculate all three components of the velocity field using Eq. (4).

The Laplace equation is well known since it shows up in several fields of physics, applied
mathematics, and engineering. Various solution techniques, both analytical and
numerical, are available in the literature. Solutions of the Laplace equation are dominated
by the geometry (i.e., boundary conditions). Although Eq. (5) comes from conservation
of mass, mass itself (or density, which is mass per unit volume) has dropped out of the
equation altogether. With a given set of boundary conditions surrounding the entire
irrotational region of the flow field, we can thus solve Eq. (5) for , regardless of the

fluid properties. Once we have calculated , we can then calculate V everywhere in that
region of the flow field (using Eq. (3)), without ever having to solve the Navier–Stokes

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equation. The solution is valid for any incompressible fluid, regardless of its density or its
viscosity, in regions of the flow in which the irrotational approximation is appropriate.
The solution is even valid instantaneously for an unsteady flow, since time does not
appear in the incompressible continuity equation. In other words, at any moment of time,
the incompressible flow field instantly adjusts itself so as to satisfy the Laplace equation
and the boundary conditions that exist at that moment of time.

Two-Dimensional Irrotational Regions of Flow

In irrotational regions of flow, Eqs. (3) and (5) apply for both two and three-dimensional
flow fields, and we solve for the velocity field in these regions by solving the Laplace
equation for velocity potential function . If the flow is also two-dimensional, we are able
to make use of the stream function as well, Fig (4). The two-dimensional approximation
is not limited to flow in the xy-plane, nor is it limited to Cartesian coordinates. In fact, we
can assume two-dimensionality in any region of the flow where only two directions of
motion are important and where there is no significant variation in the third direction.
The most common example is the planar flow (flow in a plane with negligible variation
in the direction normal to the plane).

Fig. (4) Two-dimensional flow is a subset of three-dimensional flow; in two-dimensional regions

of flow we can define a stream function, but we cannot do so in three-dimensional flow. The
velocity potential function, however, can be defined for any irrotational region of flow.

Planar Irrotational Regions of Flow

We consider planar flow first, since it is the simplest. For a steady, incompressible,
planar, irrotational region of flow in the xy-plane in Cartesian coordinates, the Laplace
equation for  is

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 (7)

For incompressible planar flow in the xy-plane, the stream function  is defined as:

Stream function:

(8)

Note that Eq. (8) holds whether the region of flow is rotational or irrotational. In fact, the
stream function is defined such that it always satisfies the continuity equation, regardless
of rotationality. If we restrict our approximation to irrotational regions of flow, Eq. (1)
must also hold; namely, the vorticity is zero or negligibly small. For general two-
dimensional flow in the xy-plane, the z-component of vorticity is the only nonzero
component. Thus, in an irrotational region of flow,

(9)

Substitution of Eq. (8) into Eq. (9) yields

(10)

We recognize the Laplacian operator in this latter equation. Thus,

(11)

We conclude that the Laplace equation is applicable, not only for , Eq. (7), but also for
, Eq. (11) in steady, incompressible, irrotational, planar regions of flow.

Curves of constant values of  define streamlines of the flow, while curves of constant
values of  define equipotential lines. In planar irrotational regions of flow, it turns out
that streamlines intersect equipotential lines at right angles, a condition known as mutual
orthogonality, Fig. (5). In addition, the potential functions  and  are intimately related
to each other—both satisfy the Laplace equation, and from either  or  we can
determine the velocity field. Mathematicians call solutions of  and  harmonic
functions, and  and  are called harmonic conjugates of each other. Although  and 
are related, their origins are somewhat opposite; it is perhaps best to say that  and  are
complementary to each other:

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• The stream function is defined by continuity; the Laplace equation for  results from
irrotationality.

• The velocity potential is defined by irrotationality; the Laplace equation for  results
from continuity.

Fig. (5) In planar irrotational regions of flow, curves of constant  (equipotential lines) and curves
of constant  (streamlines) are mutually orthogonal, meaning that they intersect at 90° angles
everywhere.

Planar flow in the xy-plane can also be described in cylindrical coordinates (r, u) and (u r,
u), as shown in Fig. (6). Again, there is no z-component of velocity, and velocity does
not vary in the z-direction. In cylindrical coordinates,

Laplace equation, planar flow in (r, ):

Fig. (6) Velocity components and unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates for planar flow in the r-
plane. There is no variation normal to this plane.

The stream function  for planar flow in Cartesian coordinates is defined by Eq. (8), and
the irrotationality condition causes  to also satisfy the Laplace equation. In cylindrical
coordinates we perform a similar analysis,

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Stream function:

Superposition in Irrotational Regions of Flow

Since the Laplace equation is a linear homogeneous differential equation, the linear
combination of two or more solutions of the equation must also be a solution. For
example, if 1 and 2 are each solutions of the Laplace equation, then A1, (A + 1), (1 +
2), and (A1 + B2) are also solutions, where A and B are arbitrary constants. By
extension, one may combine several solutions of the Laplace equation, and the
combination is guaranteed to also be a solution. If a region of irrotational flow is modeled
by the sum of two or more separate irrotational flow fields, e.g., a source located in a
free-stream flow, one can simply add the velocity potential functions for each individual
flow to describe the combined flow field. This process of adding two or more known
solutions to create a third, more complicated solution is known as superposition, Fig.(7).

Fig. (7) Superposition is the process of adding two or more irrotational flow solutions together to
generate a third (more complicated) solution.

For the case of two-dimensional irrotational flow regions, a similar analysis can be
performed using the stream function rather than the velocity potential function. We stress
that the concept of superposition is useful, but is valid only for irrotational flow fields for
which the equations for  and  are linear. You must be careful to ensure that the two
flow fields you wish to add vectorially are both irrotational.

It also turns out that since the potential function of the composite field is the sum of the
potential functions of the individual flow fields, the velocity at any point in the composite
field is the vector sum of the velocities of the individual flow fields. We prove this in
Cartesian coordinates by considering a planar irrotational flow field that is the
superposition of two independent planar irrotational flow fields denoted by subscripts 1
and 2. The composite velocity potential function is given by

Superposition of two irrotational flow fields:

(12)

Using the equations for planar irrotational flow in Cartesian coordinates, the x-component
of velocity of the composite flow is

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 (13)

Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows

Superposition enables us to add two or more simple irrotational flow solutions to create a
more complex (and hopefully more physically significant) flow field. It is therefore
useful to establish a collection of elementary building block irrotational flows, with
which we can construct a variety of more practical flows, Fig. (8). Elementary planar
irrotational flows are described in xy- and/or r-coordinates, depending on which pair is
more useful in a particular problem.

Fig. (8) With superposition we can build up a complicated irrotational flow field by adding
together elementary “building block” irrotational flow fields.

Building Block 1—Uniform Stream

The simplest building block flow we can think of is a uniform stream of flow moving at
constant velocity V in the x-direction (left to right). In terms of the velocity potential and
stream function,

Uniform stream:

(14)

By integrating the first of these with respect to x, and then differentiating the result with
respect to y, we generate an expression for the velocity potential function for a uniform
stream,

(15)

The constant is arbitrary since velocity components are always derivatives of . We set
the constant equal to zero, knowing that we can always add an arbitrary constant later on
if desired. Thus,

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Velocity potential function for a uniform stream:

(16)

In a similar manner we generate an expression for the stream function for this elementary
planar irrotational flow,

Stream function for a uniform stream:

(17)

Shown in Fig. (9) are several streamlines and equipotential lines for a uniform stream.
Notice the mutual orthogonality.

Fig. (9) Streamlines (solid) and equipotential lines (dashed) for a uniform stream in the x-
direction.

It is often convenient to express the stream function and velocity potential function in
cylindrical coordinates rather than rectangular coordinates, particularly when superposing
a uniform stream with some other planar irrotational flow(s). The conversion relations are
obtained from the geometry of Fig. (6),

(18)

From Eq. (18) and a bit of trigonometry, we derive relationships for u and v in terms of
cylindrical coordinates,

Transformation:

(19)

In cylindrical coordinates, Eqs. (16) and (17) for  and  become

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Uniform stream:
(20)

We may modify the uniform stream so that the fluid flows uniformly at speed V at an
angle of inclination  from the x-axis. For this situation, u = V cos  and v = V sin  as
shown in Fig. (10). The velocity potential function and stream function for a uniform
stream inclined at angle  are

Uniform stream inclined at angle :

(21)

Fig. (10) Streamlines (solid) and equipotential lines (dashed) for a uniform stream inclined at
angle 

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