The History of Solar Car Racing

Electric Vehicles

The harnessing of electrical energy is one of mankind's greatest achievements.

English chemist John F. Daniell was credited with developing the first "primary" cell,
even though his work was a continuation of the research carried out in the late
1700's by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.

Volta's battery (or galvanic cell), called the "Voltaic Pile," consisted of silver and zinc
discs separated with cardboard and soaked in salt water. Daniell's primary cell was
more efficient, but French physicist Gaston Plante took this discovery one step
further in 1859 with the invention of the lead-acid storage battery. The modern "dry
cell" battery was developed just a few years later by another Frenchman, Georges
Leclanche.

By 1900, 38% of pleasure cars sold in the U.S. were electrically powered, 22%
gasoline-driven, and 40% steam-driven. But steam had had its day, and the wealthy
showed an overwhelming admiration for the quietness and simplicity of the electric
cars.

The French BGS Electric Car held the world's distance record on a single charge -
290km in 1900. Electric-powered taxis plied the streets of New York, but country
trips were a constant problem. With no power source at their country estates to
recharge the batteries of their carriages, the wealthy found electric transport had its
limitations. The development of the automobile starter motor by Charles Kettering in
1911 ended the electric vehicle's hold on the market place.

The year 1912 was the high point for electric vehicles in the U.S. with almost 34,000
cars, trucks and buses registered for road use. This trend for electric vehicles went
downhill from here with only limited use in specialized commercial applications.

The 1967 GM Electrovan was one of the most famous examples of the fuel cell
electric vehicle. Using NASA technology, GM engineers developed a means of using a
non-liquid membrane and platinum electrodes which acted as a catalyst in the
presence of hydrogen and oxygen. It was effective, but costly.

Electric vehicles even made it to the moon with the Apollo 15, 16 and 17 missions.
Despite this success, the EV has continued to be plagued with problems that restrict its
use, namely cost, range, weight and recharging time. Solutions to these problems are
within our grasp, and are presently being implemented in the new electric vehicles rolling
off the assembly line.
Storing the Sun's Energy

Photovoltaic cells are constructed of semiconductor materials which can absorb light
and convert it to electricity. The term itself is derived from the Greek "photo"
meaning light, and "voltaic" from Alessandro Volta.

The most commonly used semiconductor is silicon (sand), one of the most abundant
materials on earth. The manufacture of an active silicon cell, at its simplest level,
involves growing a crystal of silicon from reservoirs of molten silicon. Silicon in its
pure form is somewhat poor in its ability to conduct electricity, therefore it is
necessary to add small amounts of impurities. The type of impurity used in this
"doping" operation is dependent on whether we want the semiconductor to conduct
positive or negative charges.

As a rule, phosphorous will be added to produce a silicon that will conduct negative
charge (electrons) and is referred to as an n-type silicon. The addition of boron to
the silicon will produce the opposite effect, conducting positive charges (hole), and is
referred to as a p-type silicon.

Once these two types of silicon have been produced and are layered into a single
cell, a junction is formed called a p-n junction. It is at this junction that a voltage
potential is developed, similar to that at the terminal of a storage battery.

When sunlight strikes the cell in the vicinity of the p-n junction, each photon
generates an electron and a hole. The electron and hole move apart; this movement
of charge constitutes and electric current which can be made to do some external
work.

Typically, the potential difference in a silicon solar cell is of the order of 0.5 volts,
while the current produced depends on the amount of sunlight, area of the cell, etc.
By connecting several cells, in series or parallel, the voltage or current output of the
array can be increased. The energy is then stored in batteries.

Today's batteries are rated by their ampere-hour capacity. Generally, 5, 10, or 20 hour
rates have been common measures. For example, if a battery is rated at 60 amp/hours at
the 20 hour rate, it means that the battery can be discharged at 3 amps for 20 hours
without the voltage falling below 1.75 volts per cell, or 10.5 volts in the case of a 12-volt
battery.

The History of Solar Car Racing

Hans Tholstrup and Larry Perkins pioneered solar car racing when they completed an
epic Solar Trek from Perth to Sydney (Australia) in 1983. What followed was a series
of solar car races designed to increase public awareness.
The 1987 Australian World Solar Challenge saw 23 participants inaugurate the first
such race, followed by the European Tour de Sol, the American Tour de Sol, and the
SUNRAYCE. Some spectacular corporate and college vehicles adorned these early
races and are pictured below.

Like the electric automobiles of the early 20th century, a solar car is powered by
electricity. Unlike its predecessor, a solar car uses only sunshine for fuel.
Photovoltaic cells on the car collect and convert the energy from sunlight directly into
electricity, making the vehicle completely self-sufficient. [See diagram]

The main objective of any solar car manufacturer is to build an efficient, "winning"
vehicle. Design considerations included hundreds of tradeoffs, but certain elements
are essential.

Reliability is an important design factor. A vehicle which performed well without any
major breakdowns would cover the race distance in less time.
The overall shape of a solar car is another important design factor. Teams had to
determine how and where they would mount the solar cells for maximum energy
grain. They also had to decide how to maintain low weight and minimize
aerodynamic drag.

A typical solar car generates 700-1500 watts of power, or about 1-2 horsepower. This
makes aerodynamic drag and rolling friction critical considerations.

The History of the Dell-Winston School Solar Car Challenge

In 1993, the Winston Solar Car Team launched an education program to provide
curriculum materials, on-site visits, and workshop opportunities for high schools
across the country. This program, a part of The Winston School (Dallas, TX), was
designed to motivate students in the sciences, engineering, and technology. The end
product of each two-year education cycle is the Winston Solar Challenge: a closed-
track event at the Texas Motor Speedway, or a cross country race designed to give
students an opportunity to display their work. The Winston Solar Education Program
has been shared with more than 900 schools in 20 countries.

The first Challenge in 1995 attracted ninety schools leading to nine schools actually
building cars for the 1995 race. Three cars qualified to run. The 1997 Challenge grew
to over three hundred fifty schools in five countries. Eight cars qualified to run the
1997 race, a 600-mile cross-country event from Dallas to San Antonio. The 1999
race, a 1600 mile event from Dallas to Los Angeles, saw eight teams enjoy the fun of
high school solar car racing. The 2001 race started in Round Rock, TX at Dell
Computers and traveled 1400 miles to Columbus, Indiana. In 2003, ten challengers
endeavored to race from Round Rock, TX to the Florida Solar Energy Center (Cocoa,
FL).

In 2002, Dell Computers accepted the role as "Title Sponsor" for the Winston Solar
Challenge. The Dell-Winston School Solar Car Challenge now hosts annual events based
on the support of Dell Computers, The Acclivus Corporation, Texas Motor Speedway,
and The Winston School.
 Introduction

A solar car is a light weight, low power vehicle designed and built with a single purpose
in mind - racing (or "raycing", a combination of "race" and "ray" from the sun). Similar
to an Indy or Formula One race cars, solar cars do not represent a practical means of
transportation. They have limited seating (usually one, sometimes two people), they have
very little cargo capacity, and they can only be driven during the day. They do, however,
offer an excellent opportunity to develop future technologies that can be applied to
practical applications.

Solar Car Tour - Driver Controls

Most solar cars are single seat rayce cars with very few amenities for the drivers. A few
cars also carry a passenger. Drivers and passengers can look forward to uncomfortable
seats, cramped positionings, and high cockpit temperatures, but they do get the glory of
driving a futuristic automobile.

Solar cars do have some of the standard features found in

conventional cars, such as turn signals (front & rear), brake
lights, accelerator (gas pedal), rear view mirrors, fresh air
ventilation, and usually cruise control. While most solar cars do
not have a conventional cup holder, teams use a variety of
systems to hold water for drivers/passengers. The only radio the
driver gets is a two way communication radio used to keep in
contact with the support vehicles.
 Drivers and passengers are protected with five point safety harnesses
and helmets. Besides driving the car, the driver's most important
function is to monitor the car's systems and watch for potential
problems. (In a few vehicles, the passenger assists with monitoring
the vehicle systems.) Solar cars are fitted with gauges similar to a
conventional car that display the information received from the vehicle systems.

The driver/passenger is accompanied by a full support team similar to a pit crew in an

IndyCar or NASCAR racing. The support crew works from the two support vehicles that
lead and chase the solar car. The support team is responsible for keeping the car running,
determining strategy, and providing route information to the driver.

Electrical System
The heart of a solar car is the electrical system which is made up of batteries and power
electronics. The electrical system controls and manages all the power that enters and exits
the system.

The battery pack is equivalent to a gas tank in a convential car. A solar car uses the
battery pack to store energy that will be used at some later time. Solar cars start the Rayce
with a fully charged battery pack, but after the Start, only energy generated by the solar
array can be used to recharge the batteries. The maximum amount of batteries that a team
can use is limited by a weight that is set for each battery type. The types of batteries used
by American Solar Challenge teams are:

 Lead-Acid
 Nickel-Metal Hydrid (NiMH)
 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
 Lithium Ion
 Lithium Polymer

The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio over the
more common Lead-Acid batteries, but they are less proven technologies that require
careful maintenance and are more costly.

The battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired together to generate the
required system voltage. Typically, teams use system voltages between 84 and 108 volts,
depending on their electrical system. Some teams do run lower voltage systems.

Some of the most sophisticated components in a solar car are the power electronics. They
include the peak power trackers, the motor controller, and the data acquisition system.
The primary function of the power electronics is to monitor and control the electricity
within the system. Most teams purchase their power electronic components off the shelf,
although some teams do either have custom components built or build their own custom
components for their cars.
 The peak power trackers condition the electricity coming from the
solar array to maximize the power and deliver it either to the
batteries for storage or to the motor controller for propulsion.
When the solar array is charging the batteries, the peak power
trackers help to protect the batteries from being damaged by
overcharging. The number of peak power trackers used in a solar
car varies with each team's design. Peak power trackers can be very lightweight and
commonly reach efficiencies above 95%.

The motor controller handles the electricity being sent to the motor based on signals
coming from the driver's accelerator. The processes used to manage the electricity within
the motor controller are beyond the scope of this discussion and would probably only
tend to confuse most of us. There are different types of motor controllers to work with
different types a motors. For the teams that purchase their motors, they can usually also
buy a controller that is designed to work with that motor. All teams use some type of
motor controller and the best ones are more than 90% efficient.

Many solar cars use sophisticated data acquisition systems that monitor the entire
electrical system including the solar array, batteries, motor controller and motor. At a
minimum though, a team needs to monitor the battery voltage and current. The data
received from the acquisition system is then used to plan rayce strategy and help
determine when problems develop in the car. The data is monitored by the driver and in
some instances monitored in one of the support vehicles using telemetry (wireless data
transmission).

Drive Train
The drive train in a solar car is very different from that of a conventional car. For this
discussion, the drive train will consist of the electric motor and the means by which the
motor's power is transmitted to the wheel causing the vehicle to move. Due to the low
amount of power generated (less than 5 hp) usually only one wheel in the rear of the car
is driven by the electric motor.

The drive train in a solar car is very different from that of a conventional car. For this
discussion, the drive train will consist of the electric motor and the means by which the
motor's power is transmitted to the wheel causing the vehicle to move. Due to the low
amount of power generated (less than 5 hp) usually only one wheel in the rear of the car
is driven by the electric motor.
There are no restrictions on the type of motor used in a solar car. They are generally rated
between 2 and 5 hp. The most common type of motor used in solar cars is the dual-
winding DC brushless. A DC brushless motor is fairly lightweight and can reach
efficiencies of 98% at their rated rpm, however they are quite a bit more expensive then a
typical brush type DC motor.

Since multi-geared transmissions are seldom used in solar cars, the dual-winding motor is
sometimes used as an electronic transmission. Switching between the dual windings
changes the speed rating of the motor. The low speed windings provide high torque for
starting and passing, while the high speed windings have higher efficiencies and are best
for cruising (normal running).

Similar to the power electronics, most teams purchase off the shelf motors, but there are
solar cars with custom built or self built motors.

There are several variations of three basic types of transmissions used in solar cars.

1. single reduction direct drive (shown above)

2. variable ratio belt drive
3. hub motor

In the past, the most common type was the direct drive transmission where the motor is
connected to the wheel through a chain or belt with a single gear reduction. This is a
reliable and easily maintained transmission if special care is taken when aligning the
components. Efficiencies above 75% can be achieved when designed properly.

A few teams have used variable ratio belt drives to transmit power to the wheel. The gear
ratio changes as the speed of the motor increases. This gives the motor more starting
torque at lower speeds, but still allows the car to run efficiently at higher speeds. Variable
belt drives require precise alignment and careful setup to work efficiently.

Since 1995 when a few teams implemented hub motor designs in their solar cars, the
popularity of the transmission-free drive has soared. A hub motor eliminates the need for
any external transmission because the motor shaft is connected directly to the wheel hub.
This greatly increases the efficiency of the drive train and reduces the number of moving
parts necessary to drive the wheel. A hub motor uses low rpm to account for the lack of
gear reduction, which tends to drop their efficiency slightly, but they still can achieve
efficiencies in excess of 95%.
 Mechanical Systems
The mechanical systems of a solar car are
generally simple in concept, but they are
designed to minimize friction and weight
while maintaining the strength needed to
handle the various road conditions.
Lightweight metals like titanium and
composites are commonly used to maximize the strength-to-weight ratio needed to build
efficient components. The mechanical systems include the suspension, brakes, steering,
wheels, and tires. The American Solar Challenge Regulations set minimum standards that
mechanical components must meet, but there are no standard designs used in solar cars.

Solar cars typically have three or four wheels (ASC Regulations require at least three).
The common three wheel configuration is two front wheels and one rear wheel (usually
the driven wheel). Four wheel vehicles are sometimes configured like a conventional
vehicle (with one of the rear wheels behing driven). Other four wheel vehicles have the
two rear wheels close together near the center (similar to the common three wheel
configuration).

A wide variety of suspensions are implemented on solar cars. This is partly due to the fact
that the body and chassis designs are so different between cars. The most common type
of front suspension used in solar cars is the double A-arm suspension, similar to those
used on conventional vehicles. Typically, trailing arm suspensions similar to those found
on motorcycles are utilized in the rear. Teams design their suspension components to
move freely and smoothly for maximum efficiency. The design must also be adjustable so
as to maintain proper alignment and functionality.

Safety is a top priority in the Rayce. For that reason, solar

cars must meet stringent braking performance standards and
every solar car is required to have two independent braking
systems. Disk brakes are most commonly used in solar cars
because of their adjustability and good braking power. Some
teams use mechanically actuated brakes while others use
hydraulic. Mechanical brakes tend to be smaller and lighter
than hydraulic, but don't offer as much brake force and
require constant tuning. To maximize efficiency, the brakes
are designed to move freely by eliminating brake drag, which is caused by brake pads
rubbing against the brake surface.

The steering systems within a solar car, much like suspensions, vary greatly. The teams
must meet turning radius and handling requirements, but are free to use any design. The
major design factors for steering are reliability and efficient performance. The steering
system is designed with precise steering alignment because even small misalignments can
cause significant losses and increase tire wear.
 In other rayces in the past, bicycle
wheels and tires were commonly
used because of their lightweight
and low rolling resistance (minimal
friction). These wheels and tires were generally overloaded when supporting the weight
of a solar car, which effected the performance and safety of the vehicle. The ASC
Regulations do not allow overloaded tires and wheels. Fortunately, the popularity of solar
car raycing has prompted some tire manufacturers to construct tires designed for solar
cars. The teams are taking advantage of these low rolling resistant, lightweight wheels
and tires that increase both safety and performance.

Solar Array
The solar array is the vehicle's only source of power during the cross-country Rayce. The
array is made up of many (often several hundred) photovoltaic solar cells that convert the
sun's energy into electricity. Teams use a variety of solar cell technologies to build their
arrays. The cell types and dimensions of the array are restricted by the Regulations,
depending on the vehicle size and class.

The cells are wired together to form strings. Several strings are often wired together to
form a section or panel that has a voltage close to the nominal battery voltage. There are
several methods used to string the cells together, but the primary goal is to get as many
solar cells possible in the space available. The solar cells are very fragile and can be
damaged easily. Teams protect the cells from both the weather and breakage by
encapsulating them. There are several methods used to encapsulate cells and the goal is to
protect the cells while adding the least amount of weight.

The power produced by the solar

array varies depending on the
weather, the sun's position in the
sky, and the solar array itself. On a
bright, sunny day at noon, a good
solar car solar array will produce
well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of
power. The power from the array is
used either to power the electric
motor or stored in the battery pack for later use.

Solar Array
The solar array is the vehicle's only source of power during the cross-country Rayce. The
array is made up of many (often several hundred) photovoltaic solar cells that convert the
sun's energy into electricity. Teams use a variety of solar cell technologies to build their
arrays. The cell types and dimensions of the array are restricted by the Regulations,
depending on the vehicle size and class.
 The cells are wired together to form strings.
Several strings are often wired together to
form a section or panel that has a voltage
close to the nominal battery voltage. There
are several methods used to string the cells
together, but the primary goal is to get as
many solar cells possible in the space
available. The solar cells are very fragile and
can be damaged easily. Teams protect the
cells from both the weather and breakage by
encapsulating them. There are several methods used to encapsulate cells and the goal is to
protect the cells while adding the least amount of weight.

The power produced by the solar array varies depending on the weather, the sun's
position in the sky, and the solar array itself. On a bright, sunny day at noon, a good solar
car solar array will produce well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of power. The power from the
array is used either to power the electric motor or stored in the battery pack for later use.

Body & Chassis

The most distinctive part of solar cars are the bodies. The sleek and exotic shapes are eye
catching. Solar cars are grouped into several body classes, but every car is unique
because there are no established standards, with the exception of dimensional constraints.
The main goals when designing the body are to minimize the aerodynamic drag,
maximize the exposure to solar insolation, minimize weight, and maximize safety. There
are many theories on what body shape and size is the most efficient and teams spend
countless hours running simulations and tests trying to find the optimal shape. A good
vehicle shape can save hundreds of watts of power and is essential to building a top solar
car.

The primary challenge in developing an effective solar car chassis is to maximize the
strength and safety, but minimize the weight. Every extra pound requires more energy to
move down the road. This means that teams must strive to minimize weight and a key
area is the chassis. However, safety is a primary concern and the chassis must meet
stringent strength and safety requirements. Generally, there are three types of chassis used
in solar cars:

1. space frame
2. semi-monocoque or carbon beam
3. monocoque

A space frame uses a welded or bonded tube structure to support the loads and the body.
The body is a lightweight, non-load bearing, composite shell that is attached to the
chassis separately. The semi-monocoque or carbon beam chassis uses composite beams
and bulkheads to support the loads and is integrated into a non-load bearing composite
belly pan. The top sections of the car are often separate body pieces that are attached to
the belly pan. A monocoque chassis uses the body structure to support the loads. All three
types of chassis can produce strong lightweight vehicles. Many solar cars use a
combination of the chassis categories mentioned above. The image above is an example
of a semi-monocoque chassis with an integrated space frame used to protect the driver.

It may be necessary to define composite materials since the use of composites is

extensive in solar cars. A composite material is the combination of a filler material
sandwiched between layers of a structural material. Carbon fiber, Kevlar and fiberglass
are common composite structural materials. Honeycomb and foam are common
composite filler materials. These materials are bonded together using epoxy resins and in
the cases of Kevlar and carbon fiber, can obtain impressive strengths (equal to steel) but
remain very lightweight.

A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on
the surface of the car. Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the sun's energy directly into
electrical energy. However, solar cars are not currently a practical form of transportation.
Although they can operate for limited distances without the sun, the solar cells are
generally very fragile. Also, development teams have focused their efforts toward
optimizing the functionality of the vehicle, with little concern for passenger comfort.
Most solar cars have only enough room for one or two people.

Solar cars compete in races (often called rayces) such as the World Solar Challenge and
the American Solar Challenge. These events are often sponsored by government
agencies, such as the United States Department of Energy, who are keen to promote the
development of alternative energy technology (such as solar cells). Such challenges are
often entered by universities to develop their students' engineering and technological
skills, but many professional teams have entered competitions as well, including teams
from GM and Honda.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Driver's cockpit
 2 Electrical system
 3 Drive train
 4 Mechanical systems
 5 Solar array
 6 Bodies and chassis
 7 Race Strategy
 8 Solar car races
 9 See also
 10 References

 11 External links

[edit] Driver's cockpit

The driver's cockpit usually only contains a single seat, although a few cars do contain
room for a second passenger. They contain some of the features available to drivers of
traditional vehicles such as brakes, accelerator, turn signals, rear view mirrors (or
camera), ventilation, and sometimes cruise control. A radio for communication with their
support crews is almost always included.

Solar cars are fitted with some gauges seen in conventional cars. Aside from keeping the
car on the road, the driver's main priority is to keep an eye on these gauges to spot
possible problems. Drivers also have a safety harness, and optionally (depending on the
race) a helmet similar to racing car drivers.

[edit] Electrical system

The electrical system is the most important part of the car's systems as it controls all of
the power that comes into and leaves the system. The battery pack plays the same role in
a solar car that a petrol tank plays in a normal car in storing power for future use. Solar
cars use a range of batteries including lead-acid batteries, nickel-metal hydride batteries
(NiMH), Nickel-Cadmium batteries (NiCd), Lithium ion batteries and Lithium polymer
batteries. Lead-acid batteries are less expensive and easier to work with but have less
power to weight ratio. Typically, solar cars use voltages between 84 and 170 volts.

Power electronics monitor and regulate the car's electricity. Components of the power
electronics include the peak power trackers, the motor controller and the data acquisition
system.

The peak power trackers manage the power coming from the solar array to maximize the
power and deliver it to be stored in the motor. They also protect the batteries from
overcharging. The motor controller manages the electricity flowing to the motor
according to signals flowing from the accelerator.

Many solar cars have complex data acquisition systems that monitor the whole electrical
system while even the most basic cars have systems that provide information on battery
voltage and current to the driver. One such system utilizes Controller Area Network
(CAN).

[edit] Drive train

The setup of the motor and transmission is unique in solar cars. The electric motor
normally drives only one wheel (usually at the back of the car) due to the low amount of
power it generates. Solar car motors are normally rated at between 2 and 5 hp (1 and
3 kW); the most common type of motor is a dual-winding DC brushless. The dual-
winding motor is sometimes also used as a transmission because multi-geared
transmissions are rarely used.

There are three basic types of transmissions used in solar cars:

  a single reduction direct drive
 a variable ratio drive belt
 a direct drive transmission (hub motor)

There are several varieties of each type. The most common is the direct drive
transmission.

[edit] Mechanical systems

The mechanical systems are designed to keep friction and weight to a minimum while
maintaining strength. Designers normally use titanium and composites to ensure a good
strength-to-weight ratio.

Solar cars usually have three wheels, but some have four. Three wheelers usually have
two front wheels and one rear wheel: the front wheels steer and the rear wheel follows.
Four wheel vehicles are set up like normal cars or similarly to three wheeled vehicles
with the two rear wheels close together.

Solar cars have a wide range of suspensions because of varying bodies and chassis. The
most common front suspension is the double-A-arm suspension found in traditional cars.
The rear suspension is often a trailer-arm suspension found in motor cycles.

Solar cars are required to meet rigorous standards for brakes. Disc brakes are the most
commonly used due to their good braking ability and ability to adjust. Mechanical and
hydraulic brakes are both widely used with the brakes designed to move freely by
minimise brake drag.

Steering systems for solar cars also vary. The major design factors for steering systems
are efficiency, reliability and precision alignment to minimise tire wear and power loss.
The popularity of solar car racing has led to some tire manufacturers designing tires for
solar vehicles. This has increased overall safety and performance.

[edit] Solar array

The solar array consists of hundreds of photovoltaic solar cells converting sunlight into
electricity. Cars can use a variety of solar cell technologies; most often polycrystalline
silicon, monocrystalline silicon, or gallium arsenide. The cells are wired together into
strings while strings are often wired together to form a panel. Panels normally have
voltages close to the nominal battery voltage. The main aim is to get as many cells in as
small a space as possible. Designers encapsulate the cells to protect them from the
weather and breakage.

Designing a solar array isn't as easy as just stringing bunch of cells together. A solar array
acts like a lot of very small batteries all hooked together in series. The total voltage
produced is the sum of all cell voltages. The problem is that if a single cell is in shadow it
acts like a diode, blocking the flow of current for the entire string of cells. To correct
against this, array designers use by-pass diodes in parallel with smaller segments of the
string of cells, allowing current to flow around the non-functioning cell(s). Another
consideration is that the battery itself can force current backwards through the array
unless there are blocking diodes put at the end of each panel.

The power produced by the solar array depends on the weather conditions, the position of
the sun and the capacity of the array. At noon on a bright day, a good array can produce
over 2 kilowatts (2.6 hp).

[edit] Bodies and chassis

Solar cars have very distinctive shapes as there are no established standards for design.
Designers aim to minimise drag, maximise exposure to the sun, minimise weight and
make vehicles as safe as possible.

In chassis design the aim is to maximise strength and safety while keeping the weight as
high as possible. There are three main types of chassis:

 space frame
 semi-monocoque or carbon stream
 monocoque

The space frame uses a welded or tubed structure to support the body which is a
lightweight composite shell attached to the body separately and the loads. The semi-
monocoque chassis uses composite beams and bulkheads to support the weight and is
integrated into the belly with the top sections often being attached to the body. A
monocoque structure uses the body of the car to remove the weight.

Composite materials are widely used in solar cars. Carbon fibre, Kevlar and fibreglass are
common composite structural materials while foam and honeycomb are commonly used
filler materials. Epoxy resins are used to bond these materials together. Carbon fibre and
kevlar structures can be as strong as steel but with a much lighter weight.

[edit] Race Strategy

Optimizing energy consumption is of prime importance in a solar car race. Therefore it is
very important to be able to closely monitor the speed, energy consumption, energy
intake from solar panel, among other things in real time. Some teams employ
sophisticated telemetry that automatically keeps a follow vehicle continuously up to date
on the state of the car.

The strategy employed depends upon the race rules and conditions. Most solar car races
have set starting and stopping points where the objective is to reach the final point in the
least amount of total time. Since aerodynamic drag rises exponentially with speed, the
energy the car consumes also rises exponentially. This simple fact means that the
optimum strategy is to travel at a single steady speed during all phases of the race. Given
the varied conditions in all races and the limited (and constantly changing) supply of
energy, most teams have race speed optimization programs that continuously update the
team on how fast the vehicle should be traveling.

[edit] Solar car races

University of Michigan and University of Minnesota heading west toward the finish line
in the North American Solar Challenge 2005

The two most notable solar car races are the World Solar Challenge and the North
American Solar Challenge. They are contested by a variety of university and corporate
teams. Corporate teams contest the race to give its design teams experience in working
with both alternative energy sources and advanced materials (although some may view
their participation as mere PR exercises). GM and Honda are among the companies who
have sponsored solar teams. University teams enter the races because it gives their
students experience in designing high technology cars and working with environmental
and advanced materials technology. These races are often sponsored by agencies such as
the US Department of Energy keen to promote renewable energy sources.

The cars require intensive support teams similar in size to professional motor racing
teams. This is especially the case with the World Solar Challenge where sections of the
race run through very remote country.

There are other races, such as Suzuka, Phaethon, and the World Solar Rally. Suzuka is a
yearly track race in Japan and Phaethon was part of the Cultural Olympiad in Greece
right before the 2004 Olympics.

The 2005 North American Solar Challenge, which ran from Austin, Texas, to Calgary,
Canada, was the successor of the American Solar Challenge. The ASC ran in 2001 and
2003 from Chicago, Illinois, to Claremont, California along old Route 66. The ASC was
in turn the successor to the old GM Sunrayce, which was run across the country in 1990,
1993, and then every two years through 1999.

The 2005 North American Solar Challenge had two classes:

 Open: where teams are allowed to use space-grade solar cells - won by the
University of Michigan.
  Stock: limits the type of cells that can be used on solar arrays - won by Stanford
University.

The North American Solar Challenge was sponsored in part by the US Department of
Energy. However, funding was cut near the end of 2005, and the 2007 NASC will not
happen. Recently, however, prospects of a NASC-like race in 2008 are looking up. 18
teams from around North America attended a conference in Topeka, KS on October 20-
21 to decide upon rules for a 2008 race. Assuming that funding is found, this race is fairly
sure to occur.

The 20th Anniversary race of the World Solar Challenge will be run in October of 2007,
and is already shaping up to be a race to remember. Major regulation changes were
released in June 2006 for this race, intended to slow down cars in the main event, which
had been approaching the speed limit in previous years.

[edit] See also

 List of solar car teams
 Solar bicycle

WHAT IS A SOLAR CELL

A solar cell converts solar energy to electrical energy. Photons in

sunlight provide the energy that moves electrons from one layer of
a semi-conducting metallic wafer to another. The movement of the
electrons creates a current.

Solar cells are devices which convert solar energy directly into
electricity. The most common solar cells function by the
photovoltaic effect. Photo- means light and -voltaic means
electrical current or electricity. (light-electricity) A solar cell
supplies direct current (DC) electricity that can be used to power
DC motors and light bulbs among other things. Solar cells can
even be used to charge rechargeable batteries so that electricity
can be stored or transported for later use when the sun is not
available.
There are primarily two types of cells used today, silicon and
gallium arsenide, which come in several different grades and
varying efficiencies. The satellites that orbit the earth typically use
gallium arsenide, while silicon is more commonly used for Earth
based (terrestrial) applications.
 Photovoltaic cell semiconductor layers

Stock class solar cars use commerically available terrestrial grade

silicon cells. Numerous individual cells (approaching 1000) are
combined to form the "solar array". Depending on the electric
motor used to drive the car, these arrays generally work between
50 and 200 volts, and can provide up to around 1000 watts of
power. The intensity of the sun, cloud cover, and temperature
affect the array's output.

Open class solar cars can use any type of solar cell and many
teams use the space grade cells. These cells are generally smaller
and much more expensive than the conventional silicon cells. They
also are more efficient. Photovoltaic cells are a relatively
technology. Their development and use has come about as part of
the technology developed for space travel and satellite
communication systems.

The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for

Light and the name of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies
the direct conversion of sunlight into energy by means of solar
cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric effect
discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric effect
describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a
solid state when light strikes its surface.

HOW DOES A SOLAR CELL WORK

Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials.

Semiconductors are materials, which become electrically
conductive when supplied with light or heat, but which operate as
insulators at low temperatures.
Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed
of the semiconductor material Silicon (Si). As the second most
abundant element in earth`s crust, silicon has the advantage, of
being available in sufficient quantities, and additionally processing
the material does not burden the environment. To produce a solar
cell, the semiconductor is contaminated or "doped". "Doping" is the
intentional introduction of chemical elements, with which one can
obtain a surplus of either positive charge carriers (p-conducting
semiconductor layer) or negative charge carriers (n-conducting
semiconductor layer) from the semiconductor material. If two
differently contaminated semiconductor layers are combined, then
a so-called p-n-junction results on the boundary of the layers.

At this junction, an interior electric field is built up which leads to

the separation of the charge carriers that are released by light.
Through metal contacts, an electric charge can be tapped. If the
outer circuit is closed, meaning a consumer is connected, then
direct current flows. Silicon cells are approximately 10 cm by 10
cm large (recently also 15 cm by 15 cm). A transparent anti-
reflection film protects the cell and decreases reflective loss on the
cell surface.

Photovoltaics: Solar Electricity and Solar Cells in Theory and

Practice

The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for

Light and the name of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies
the direct conversion of sunlight into energy by means of solar
cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric effect
discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric effect
describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a
solid state when light strikes its surface.

Photovoltaic cell construction

Characteristics of a Solar Cell

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor

material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal
voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the
current intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm²
silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum current intensity of
approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m².

The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is

temperature dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower
output, and hence to lower efficiency. The level of efficiency
indicates how much of the radiated quantity of light is converted
into useable electrical energy.

Different Cell Types

One can distinguish three cell types according to the type of

crystal: monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous. To
produce a monocrystalline silicon cell, absolutely pure
semiconducting material is necessary. Monocrystalline rods are
extracted from melted silicon and then sawed into thin plates. This
production process guarantees a relatively high level of efficiency.

The production of polycrystalline cells is more cost-efficient. In this

process, liquid silicon is poured into blocks that are subsequently
sawed into plates. During solidification of the material, crystal