Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1554–1559

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine using

isobutanol–diesel fuel blends
Murat Karabektas a, Murat Hosoz b, *
a
Department of Mechanical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Education, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe, 41380 Kocaeli, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study is to investigate the suitability of isobutanol–diesel fuel blends as an alternative fuel
Received 30 April 2008 for the diesel engine, and experimentally determine their effects on the engine performance and exhaust
Accepted 9 November 2008 emissions, namely break power, break specific fuel consumption (BSFC), break thermal efficiency (BTE)
Available online 6 December 2008
and emissions of CO, HC and NOx. For this purpose, four different isobutanol–diesel fuel blends con-
taining 5, 10, 15 and 20% isobutanol were prepared in volume basis and tested in a naturally aspirated
Keywords:
four stroke direct injection diesel engine at full -load conditions at the speeds between 1200 and
Alcohol
2800 rpm with intervals of 200 rpm. The results obtained with the blends were compared to those with
Isobutanol
Diesel engine the diesel fuel as baseline. The test results indicate that the break power slightly decreases with the
Blend blends containing up to 10% isobutanol, whereas it significantly decreases with the blends containing 15
Exhaust emissions and 20% isobutanol. There is an increase in the BSFC in proportional to the isobutanol content in the
Performance blends. Although diesel fuel yields the highest BTE, the blend containing 10% isobutanol results in a slight
improvement in BTE at high engine speeds. The results also reveal that, compared to diesel fuel, CO and
NOx emissions decrease with the use of the blends, while HC emissions increase considerably.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The interest of using alternative and renewable fuels in diesel
engines has been accelerated recently due to a rapid decrease in
world petroleum reserves, increase in the prices of the conven-
tional petroleum fuels and restrictions on exhaust emissions from
internal combustion (IC) engines triggered by environmental
concerns. Nowadays, many countries are replacing their conven-
tional energy sources with renewable and sustainable ones in some
extent [1]. Among these fuels, alcohols, which can be used as either
blends with the conventional fuels in the existing engines or an
additive in biodiesel production [2], have received increasing
attention. Because of their higher octane number and oxygen
content, combustion of alcohols in spark ignition (SI) engines show
better results compared to gasoline [3]. However, it has been
reported as a significant matter that there have been some diffi-
culties in the ignition of the air–fuel mixture with the use of alco-
hols in compression ignition (CI) engines owing to mainly their low
cetane number, high latent heat of vaporization and long ignition
delay [3]. In order to overcome these problems and use alcohol in CI
engines, different methods, namely alcohol fumigation, dual
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 262 303 2279; fax: þ90 262 303 2203.
E-mail address: mhosoz@kocaeli.edu.tr (M. Hosoz).
injection, alcohol–diesel fuel blend and alcohol diesel fuel emul-
sion, can be employed [4,5].
It was reported that the use of alcohol–diesel fuel blends in
diesel engines extend ignition delay period of the combustion
process [6,7]. This period depends on the kind of alcohol blended
and becomes longer as the content of the alcohol in the blends is
increased. However, the use of alcohol as blend with diesel fuel
provides significant improvement in the exhaust emissions [7–12].
Ajav et al. tested different proportions of ethanol–diesel fuel
blends in a constant speed diesel engine [13]. They observed that
9% increase was occurred in the break specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) with the blends up to 20% as compared to diesel fuel, while
the emissions of CO and NOx were lower with the use of blends.
Abu-Quadis et al. experimentally compared the effects of ethanol
fumigation and blends with the diesel fuel on the performance and
emissions of a diesel engine [5]. They found that the fumigation and
blends cause comparable results in terms of engine performance
and emissions. On the other hand, there was an increase in the
break thermal efficiency (BTE), CO and HC emissions, but decrease
in soot concentration with the use of ethanol blends. He et al. tested
ethanol–diesel fuel blends with a solvent additive, which was used
for avoiding phase separation and enhancing cetane number of the
blends, thus improving ignition characteristics [14]. They deter-
mined that there were reductions in smoke, NOx and CO2 emissions
with the increase of ethanol content in the blend for most of the

0960-1481/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.11.003
 M. Karabektas, M. Hosoz / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1554–1559
engine operating conditions. However, CO, acetaldehyde and
unburned ethanol emissions showed increasing trends.
Alcohols have different physical and chemical properties
compared to conventional petroleum fuels for IC engines. There-
fore, some modifications in the engine and fuel system may be
necessary in order to use alcohols in IC engines. However, it was
reported that the use of blends up to 20% does not usually require
any important modification [15].
As seen in the literature survey outlined above, there have been
numerous studies on alcohols of ethanol and methanol as the fuel
blends in the IC engines. However, isobutanol has not been studied
intensively yet from the standpoint of exhaust emissions and
performance of a diesel engine. This can be attributed to some
features of isobutanol such as higher production cost, its use as
a chemical compound in food industry and its limited production
from non-petroleum resources [16]. On the other hand, taking the
advantage of its high octane number, isobutanol was used as blends
with gasoline in the SI engine in some investigations [17–19].
Furthermore, it was employed as a fuel additive to provide the
stability of the ethanol blends with diesel fuel [20].
Although an extensive experimental investigation has not been
performed yet, some properties of isobutanol make it a suitable
alternative fuel for CI engines. One of the important properties of
isobutanol is its production capability from petroleum or non-
petroleum resources. Because it can be produced from agricultural
crops, it is classified as a renewable and biomass fuel. Furthermore,
it is well known that if the alcohol contains some water, phase
separation may occur as an important problem when alcohol and
diesel fuel are mixed. In comparison to ethanol and methanol,
water affinity characteristic of isobutanol is very low, which allows
it to easily mix with gasoline and diesel fuel. Moreover, the blends
of isobutanol with diesel fuel maintain their stability for a long
period with no phase separation. As shown in Table 1, the latent
heat of vaporization and specific gravity of isobutanol are very close
to the properties of diesel fuel. Although the net heating value of
isobutanol is higher than that of ethanol and methanol, it is about
23% lower than that of diesel fuel. Higher net heating value of
isobutanol is an important advantage for the engine performance
and fuel consumption. In comparison to ethanol and methanol,
stochiometric air/fuel ratio of isobutanol is higher and closer to the
diesel fuel. Isobutanol is an oxygenated fuel like other alcohols and
has an oxygen content of about 21.5%, which may significantly
promote the combustion process. One of the main reasons of higher
ignition delay with ethanol and methanol is their higher latent heat
of vaporization. However, a significant advantage of isobutanol as
an alternative fuel in CI engines is its heat of vaporization very close
to diesel fuel. The main obstacle of isobutanol for a direct
replacement of diesel fuel is its low cetane number, which may
deteriorate autoignition capability of the fuel injected. However,
the use of isobutanol as blends with diesel fuel up to 20% may be
Table 1
Properties of the alcohols and diesel fuel [16,21]
Properties Diesel fuel Isobutanol
Chemical formula C14.09H24.78 C4H9OH
Specific gravity 0.85 0.81
Boiling point ( C) 190–280 108.1
Net heating value (MJ/kg) 42.6 33
Heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 600 578.4
Octane number Not applicable 94
Cetane number 42.6 Below 15
Stochiometric air/fuel ratio 14.6 11.1
Molecular weight 193.9 74
% Carbon (wt) 86.7 64.9
% Hydrogen (wt) 12.7 13.5
% Oxygen (wt) – 21.5
C/H ratio 6.8 4.8
1555
regarded as a possible solution when earlier studies performed
with ethanol and methanol are taken into consideration [13,15]
since the cetane number of isobutanol is very close to the numbers
of ethanol and methanol.
The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of various
isobutanol–diesel fuel blends on the diesel engine performance
and exhaust emissions. For this aim, four blends containing 5, 10, 15
and 20% isobutanol were prepared and tested in a diesel engine.
Then, the test results of blends were compared with the results of
diesel fuel.
2. Experimental setup and test procedure
Tests were performed using a single cylinder, direct injection
(DI) diesel engine shown in Fig. 1. The main specifications of the test
engine are given in Table 2. In order to determine the engine torque,
the shaft of the test engine was coupled to an electric dynamom-
eter, which was loaded by an electric resistance. A strain load sensor
was employed to determine the load on the dynamometer. The
engine speed was measured by an electromagnetic speed sensor
installed on the dynamometer. The fuel consumption rate of the
engine was determined with a weighing scale having a sensitivity of
0.1 g and an electronic chronometer having a sensitivity of 0.1 s. The
engine was equipped with an orifice meter connected to an inclined
manometer to measure mass flow rate of the intake air. An air-
damping tank was used for damping out the pulsations produced
by the engine, thus obtaining a steady air flow. The HC and CO
emissions were measured using a MRU Optrans 1600 exhaust gas
analyzer in ppm and %, respectively, and the of NOx emission was
measured using a MRU gas analyzer in ppm. The temperatures of air
inlet, cooling water engine inlet, cooling water engine outlet, water
exchanger inlet, water exchanger outlet, exhaust gas engine outlet
and exhaust gas exchanger outlet were measured by K type ther-
mocouples. The intake air relative humidity was monitored
continuously and maintained at 40  5% during the experiments.
Four blending fuels were prepared in volume and employed in
the experiments along with pure diesel fuel. The blends were 95%
diesel fuel and 5% isobutanol (ISB5), 90% diesel fuel and 10% iso-
butanol (ISB10), 85% diesel fuel and 15% isobutanol (ISB15) and 80%
diesel fuel and 20% isobutanol (ISB20). Just before each experiment,
the blend was stirred well with an electric mixer until a homoge-
neous mixture was obtained. It was observed that isobutanol
blends easily with diesel fuel and the blend maintains its homo-
geneity for a long time. No. 2 diesel fuel was obtained commercially
from a local petroleum company and employed in the experiments
as base fuel. The physical and chemical properties of the diesel fuel
and isobutanol are listed in Table 1.
All tests were performed under steady state conditions. Tests
were first conducted with diesel fuel to obtain the base data of the
engine. Each test was repeated three times and the results of the
three repetitions were averaged. All tests were performed at full-load
conditions and the engine speed was changed between 1200 and
2800 rpm with intervals of 200 rpm. After each fuel test, the engine
was operated for at least 30 min to consume the fuel which was left
Ethanol
in the fuel system from the previous test. All tests with blends and
C2H5OH diesel fuel were performed at the standard injection pressure of
0.79
78.3
171 bar. The ratio of experimental values of the engine performance
27 parameters and exhaust emissions obtained with the blends to those
900 with diesel fuel were determined and compared in graphics.
92
Below 15
3. Results and discussion
9
46
52.1 3.1. Power
13.1
34.7 The percent variation in the engine break power with iso-
4.0
butanol–diesel fuel blends as reference to diesel fuel is shown in
1556 M. Karabektas, M. Hosoz / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1554–1559

Fig. 1. Schematic outline of the experimental setup.

Fig. 2. As shown in Table 1, isobutanol has about 23% lower net significant increases in BSFC especially when the engine is fuelled
heating value compared to diesel fuel. Mainly, due to the lower with blends having high isobutanol content because of higher fuel
energy content of the isobutanol–diesel fuel blends, their break consumption rates and reductions in the break power. The average
power is lower than the power of pure diesel fuel. Other reasons for increases in BSFC compared to diesel fuel are between 2.06 and
the decrease in break power with isobutanol–diesel fuel blends are 8.55% with ISB5 and ISB20, respectively.
the low density and viscosity of isobutanol as well as its low cetane
number, which is below 15. The low fuel viscosity causes a high fuel
3.3. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
leakage from the fuel system, thus yielding a lower brake power. On
the other hand, when the cetane number of the fuel supplied to the
The variation in the BTE of the engine with isobutanol–diesel
diesel engine decreases, the ignition delay increases. Consequently,
fuel blends as reference to pure diesel fuel is shown in Fig. 4. There
the mean effective pressure and engine brake power become lower.
are very slight decreases in BTE with the use of ISB5 and ISB10 as
The break power decreases at low speeds and slightly increases
compared to diesel fuel. In the test operations with blends, the
at high speeds with ISB5 and ISB10 as compared to diesel fuel. This
engine yields relatively high BTE values for the blends up to 10%,
can be attributed to relatively shorter ignition delay due to higher
which can be attributed to the promoted combustion due to the
temperatures occurred in cylinder at high speeds as compared to
oxygen content of the blends. Furthermore, blends up to 10% do not
low speeds. ISB15 yields slightly lower break power for all engine
cause a significant decrease in the energy content and cetane
speeds, while there is a considerable decrease with ISB20. The
number of the fuel. Besides that, with the use of the blends of ISB5
average decreases in the break power are between 1.47 and 6.04%
and especially ISB10, the BTE slightly improves at high engine
with ISB10 and ISB20, respectively. Previous studies also reported
speeds. This may be attributed to the compensation of the lower
that the engine power decreases when alcohol–diesel fuel blends
were employed due to the lower energy content of the fuel [4,13].
Table 2
The main specifications of the test engine
3.2. Break specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
Make Superstar
The percent variation in the BSFC with isobutanol–diesel fuel Cylinder number 1
blends as reference to pure diesel fuel is shown in Fig. 3. The BSFC is Type Four stroke, direct injection, water cooled
Bore 108 mm
defined as the ratio of mass fuel consumption to the break power
Stroke 100 mm
[22]. Due to the reduction effect of isobutanol on the energy Compression ratio 17:1
content of the blends, there is usually an increasing trend in BSFC Rated power 14 kW at 3000 rpm
with increasing isobutanol content compared to diesel fuel. Among Charge of the air Naturally aspirated
the fuels tested the lowest BSFC values are obtained with diesel fuel Injection pressure 171 bar
Injection timing 28 BTDC
due to low fuel consumption rate and high break power. There are
 M. Karabektas, M. Hosoz / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1554–1559 1557

ISB5 ISB10 ISB15 ISB20 ISB5 ISB10 ISB15 ISB20

2 2
Change in Engine Power

1
0
0

Change in BTE
-2
-1

-4 -2

-6 -3

-4
-8
-5
-10
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 -6
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Engine Speed (rpm) Engine Speed (rpm)
Fig. 2. Changes in the break power with the blends compared to diesel fuel as baseline.
Fig. 4. Changes in the BTE with the blends compared to diesel fuel as baseline.

cetane number of isobutanol blends up to 10% via high cylinder
temperatures occurred at high engine speeds. High cylinder
temperatures improve vaporization and mixing process of fuel and
air, thus leading to a shortened ignition delay. A noticeable decrease
in BTE with ISB15 and ISB20 are observed, which results from
combined effects of considerable decrease in break power and
increase in fuel consumption ratio.
3.4. Exhaust temperature
The differences in the exhaust gas temperature of the engine
with isobutanol–diesel fuel blends as reference to pure diesel fuel
are shown in Fig. 5. The exhaust gas temperatures with the blends
are usually lower than that with diesel fuel. This may be attributed
to the lower energy content of the blends as a result of the oxygen
content and their lower cetane number.
Having oxygen and a low energy content, oxygenated fuels
usually cause lower combustion temperatures. The highest
decrease in the exhaust temperature was observed with the blend
of ISB20 which has lowest energy content among the fuels tested.
Similar findings were also reported by various investigators con-
ducting engine tests with oxygenated fuels [13,14].
3.5. CO emission
The variation in the CO emission of the engine with isobutanol–
diesel fuel blends as reference to pure diesel fuel is shown in Fig. 6.
In the operations with the blends, CO emissions usually increase
very slightly at low engine speeds, while they favorably decrease at
medium and high speeds as compared to diesel fuel. One of the
reasons for the reduction in CO emission with the blends may be
significantly lower C/H ratio of isobutanol, as can be seen from
Table 1. Moreover, as stated previously, ISB10 yields the highest
engine power and BTE values among the blends tested, while
increasing the isobutanol content over 10% causes a decrease in
both engine power and BTE. This can be attributed to the fact that
the decreasing cetane number of the blends containing isobutanol
over 10% deteriorates the combustion process relatively. Conse-
quently, ISB5 and ISB10 cause lower CO emissions compared to the
blends with higher isobutanol content. Additionally, the oxygen
content of the blends enhanced the fuel air mixing process espe-
cially in the fuel rich region of the cylinder by providing more
oxygen, and mixing isobutanol with diesel fuel causes a leaning
effect on the blends due to lower stochiometric air/fuel ratio of the
isobutanol, thus lowering CO emissions. The average reductions in
CO emissions compared to diesel fuel are between 3.2 and 11.3%
with the use of blends.
3.6. NOx emission
The variation in the NOx emission of the engine with iso-
butanol–diesel fuel blends as reference to pure diesel fuel is shown
in Fig. 7. It is seen that there is a decreasing tendency in NOx
emissions with the use of the blends as compared to diesel fuel. The
decrease in NOx emissions is usually proportional to the isobutanol
content in the blends. NOx emissions from the diesel engine depend
on various reasons such as fuel properties and engine operating

ISB5 ISB10 ISB15 ISB20

ISB5 ISB10 ISB15 ISB20
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
12 0
Difference in Exh. Temp. (°C)

10 -5
Change in BSFC

-10
8
-15
6
-20
4
-25
2
-30

0 -35
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 Engine Speed (rpm)
Engine Speed (rpm)
Fig. 5. Differences in the exhaust temperature with the blends compared to diesel fuel
Fig. 3. Changes in the BSFC with the blends compared to diesel fuel as baseline. as baseline.
1558 M. Karabektas, M. Hosoz / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1554–1559

ISB5 ISB10 ISB15 ISB20 ISB5 ISB10 ISB15 ISB20

10 60
Change in CO Emissions

Change in HC Emissions
50
0

-5 40

-10
30
-15
20
-20

-25 10

-30
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 0
Engine Speed (rpm) 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Engine Speed (rpm)
Fig. 6. Changes in the CO emissions with the blends compared to diesel fuel as
baseline. Fig. 8. Changes in the HC emissions with the blends compared to diesel fuel as
baseline.

conditions. It is known that NOx emissions are caused by higher

combustion temperature and higher oxygen concentration in the
cylinder. Alcohols usually produce lower combustion temperature
due to their lower heating value and oxygen content. As shown in
Fig. 5, a slight decreasing trend in the exhaust temperature was
determined with the use of isobutanol–diesel fuel blends. Both the
lowering combustion temperature and extending ignition delay as
well as low heating value constitute a combined effect for dimin-
ishing the NOx emissions with the use of isobutanol blends. The
average decrease in NOx emissions compared to diesel fuel is
between 4.9 and 13.9% with the use of blends.
3.7. HC emission
The variation in the HC emission of the engine with isobutanol–
diesel fuel blends as reference to pure diesel fuel is shown in Fig. 8.
There is usually a significant increasing trend in HC emissions with
all of the blends tested as compared to diesel fuel. The average
increase in HC emissions compared to diesel fuel is between 12.9
and 32.9% with the use of blends. The low cetane number of iso-
butanol is the main reason for the higher HC emissions with blends.
The low cetane number deteriorates self-ignition characteristics of
the blends and promotes quenching effect in the leaner mixture
zone of the cylinder. Therefore, the HC emission increases on
increasing isobutanol content in the blends, and reaches its
maximum value with the use of ISB20. Moreover, another reason
for the increase in HC emissions can be attributed to the lower
ISB5 ISB10
0 and NOx emissions. However, HC emissions increased with the
Change in NOx Emissions
density and viscosity of isobutanol–diesel fuel blends, which causes
the formation of fuel droplets with a lower size. These droplets
reach to the closer section of the cylinder walls and lead to
quenching effect due to leaner mixture and also cause further
unburned fuels.
4. Conclusions
The variations in the engine performance and exhaust emissions
of a diesel engine using isobutanol–diesel fuel blends were inves-
tigated and compared to those with baseline diesel fuel. The blends
containing 5, 10, 15 and 20% isobutanol were prepared and tested in
a direct injection diesel engine. Considering the experimental
results, it is possible to draw following conclusions.
* Isobutanol was mixed with diesel fuel easily and homogenous
blends were achieved. Moreover, no phase separation was
observed with all of the blends.
* The break power with all of the isobutanol–diesel fuel blends
decreased mainly due to the lower energy content of isobutanol.
The decreases in the break power with the blends of ISB15 and
ISB20 were higher than those with ISB5 and ISB10.
* Compared to the diesel fuel, all blends yielded an increase in
BSFC which was roughly inversely proportional to the energy
content of the blends. This increase was moderate with ISB5 and
ISB10, while highest with ISB20. All blends yielded a decreased
BTE in proportional to the isobutanol content. Among the blends
tested, the highest BTE was obtained with ISB10.
ISB15 ISB20 * The use of isobutanol–diesel fuel blends caused a decrease in CO
use blends. The formation of exhaust emissions was heavily

affected by the isobutanol content of the blend.

-5
* The test results revealed that isobutanol can be used as blend
with diesel fuel in CI engine with no modification. Although the
-10 blends containing as much as 20% isobutanol can be employed,
10% isobutanol was found to be an optimum blend in terms of
-15 performance and exhaust emissions.

-20
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