INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

Feedback Systems
A feedback system is one in which the output signal is sampled and then fed back to the input to form an error
signal that drives the system.

Feedback Control
In a feedback control loop, the variable to be manipulated is measured. This measured process value (PV) is then
compared with a set point (SP) to generate an error signal (e = PV - SP). If a difference or error exists between
the actual value and the desired value of the process, a process controller will take the necessary corrective action
to return the process to the desired value.

dd
Process Controllers
 most dynamic device in a feedback control loop
 They compare the process variable with the set point and generate an output signal that manipulates the
process to make the process variable equal to its set point.

Types of controllers

Pneumatic - Automatic controller that uses variable air pressure as input and output signals
Electronic - Also called digital controllers
Multiloop - Contain a variety of function blocks that can be soft-wired together to form complex control strategies
Programmable logic - Was first used in automotive industry and offers a limited number of math functions
Single Loop - Process controller that produces a single output

Advanced Control Loops

Cascade Control Loops

The general concept of cascade control is to place one feedback loop inside another. In effect, one takes
the process being controlled and finds some intermediate variable within the process to use as the set point for
the main loop.

Ratio Control Loops

Ratio control is often associated with process operations in which two or more streams must be mixed
together continuously to maintain a steady composition in the resulting mixture.
Feedforward Control Loops
In feedforward control, a sensor is used to detect process load changes or disturbances as they enter the
system. Feedforward control poses some significant problems.Therefore, feedforward control is more
complicated and more expensive, and it requires the operator to have a better understanding of the process than
does a standard feedback control loop. So, feedforward control is generally reserved for well-understood and
critical applications.

Components of a Control System

The system shown in Fig. 9.1 may be divided into the following components:
1. Process (stirred-tank heater).
2. Measuring element (thermometer).
3. Controller.
4. Final control element (variable transformer or control valve

Block Diagram
Closed-Loop System or a Feedback System
 the measured value of the controlled variable is returned or “fed back” to a device called the
comparator

Comparator
 the controlled variable is compared with the desired value or set point. If there is any difference between
the measured variable and the set point, an error is generated. This error enters a controller, which in
turn adjusts the final control element in order to return the controlled variable to the set point.

Set point
 a synonym for the desired value of the controlled variable

Load
 refers to a change in any variable that may cause the controlled variable of the process to change. In this
example, the inlet temperature T’i is a load variable.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK VERSUS POSITIVE FEEDBACK

The feedback principle involves the use of the controlled variable T to maintain itself at a desired value
TR. The arrangement of the apparatus of Fig. 9.2 is often described as negative feedback to contrast with
another arrangement called positive feedback.

Negative Feedback
 ensures that the difference between TR and T, is used to adjust the control element so that the tendency
is to reduce the error.

Positive Feedback System

 If the signal to the comparator were obtained by adding TR and Tm we would have a positive feedback
system, which is inherently unstable. To see that this is true, again assume that the system is at steady
state and that T = Tm = TR. If Ti were to increase, T and Tm would increase, which would cause the
signal of the comparator (E in Fig. 9.2) to increase, with the result that the heat to the system would
increase. However, this action, which is just the opposite of that needed, would cause T to increase
further. It should be clear that this situation would cause T to “run away” and control would not be
achieved. For this reason, positive feedback would never be used intentionally in the system of Fig. 9.2.

SERVO PROBLEM VERSUS REGULATOR PROBLEM

Servomechanism-Type (Or Servo) Problem

 In the first situation, which is called the servomechanism-type (or servo) problem, we assume that
there is no change in load Ti and that we are interested in changing the bath temperature according to
some prescribed function of time. For this problem, the set point TR would be changed in accordance
with the desired variation in bath temperature. If the variation is sufficiently slow, the bath temperature
may be expected to follow the variation in TR very closely.
 The tracking of missiles and aircraft and the automatic machining of intricate parts from a master
pattern are well-known examples of the servo-type problem.

Regulator Problem
 In this case, the desired value TR is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is to maintain
the controlled variable at TR in spite of changes in load Ti.

DEVELOPMENT OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block-Diagram
  In block-diagram representations of control systems, the variables selected are deviation variables, and
inside each block is placed the transfer function relating the input-output pair of variables. Finally, the
blocks are combined to give the overall block diagram. This is the procedure to be followed in
developing Fig. 9.2.

Process
A block diagram that is equivalent to Fig. 9.3~ is shown in Fig. 9.3b. That this diagram is correct can be
seen by equation 9.13,

In Fig. 9.3b, the input variables Q(S) and wCT/(s) are summed before being operated on by the transfer
function 1/wC/(𝜏s + 1).
The physical situation that exists for the control system (Fig. 9.1) if steam heating is used requires more
careful analysis to show that Fig. 9.3 is an equivalent block diagram. Assume that a supply of steam at constant
conditions is available for heating the tank. One method for introducing heat to the system is to let the steam
flow through a control valve and discharge directly into the water in the tank, where it will condense completely
and become part of the stream leaving the tank (see Fig. 9.5).
If the flow of steam, f (pounds/time), is small compared with the inlet flow w, the total outlet flow is

approximately equal to w. When the system is at steady state, the heat balance may be written:

Measuring Element
The temperature-measuring element, which senses the bath temperature T and transmits a signal Tm to
the controller, may exhibit some dynamic lag. From the discussion of the mercury thermometer in Chap. 5, we
observed this lag to be first-order. In this example, we shall assume that the temperature-measuring element is a
first-order system, for which the transfer function is

Note that, when the control system is at steady state, T, = Tm, which means that the temperature-
measuring element reads the true bath temperature. The transfer function for the measuring element may be
represented by the block diagram shown in Fig. 9.6.
Controllers and Final Control Element

Process controller
 the most dynamic device in a feedback control loop
 They compare the process variable with the set point and generate an output signal that manipulates the
process to make the process variable equal to its set point.

The controller consists of an input transmission system, a comparator, controller functions, and an output
transmission system. The comparator measures the difference between the set point and the process variable.
The purpose of the input transmission system is to convert the sensor signal into the correct units. The function
of the output transmission system is to convert the signal from the feedback circuit into the form required by
the final control device.

Controller functions (P – Proportional; I – Integral; D – Derivative)

P controller is mostly used in first order processes with single energy storage to stabilize the unstable process.
The main usage of the P controller is to decrease the steady state error of the system. As the proportional gain
factor K increases, the steady state error of the system decreases. However, despite the reduction, P control can
never manage to eliminate the steady state error of the system.

P-I controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from P controller. However, in terms of
the speed of the response and overall stability of the system, it has a negative impact. This controller is mostly
used in areas where speed of the system is not an issue.

The aim of using P-D controller is to increase the stability of the system by improving control
since it has an ability to predict the future error of the system response. In order to avoid
effects of the sudden change in the value of the error signal, the derivative is taken from the
output response of the system variable instead of the error signal.

P-I-D controller has the optimum control dynamics including zero steady state error, fast
response (short rise time), no oscillations and higher stability. The necessity of using a
derivative gain component in addition to the PI controller is to eliminate the overshoot and the
oscillations occurring in the output response of the system.

Functional Block Diagram of Feedback Loop

Final control element

- is a device which adjusts the value of the manipulated variable by controlling flow of the control agent.

Types of Final Control Elements

1.) Control Valve
 is simply a variable orifice that is used to regulate the flow of a process fluid according to the requirements
of the process.
 Valves are classified into two general types based on the movement of the valve’s closure part: linear
and rotary.
 Typical globe-type control valve

Types of Control Valves

a.) Globe valve
- a linear movement type, most common type of valve In a globe valve, the plug is attached to a stem,
which is moved linearly in a cavity with a somewhat globular shape to regulate flow.
b.) Diaphragm valves
- are linear-motion valves with flexible diaphragms that serve as flow closure members. Diaphragm valves
are mainly used with difficult fluids such as corrosive liquids or slurries.
c.) Butterfly
- by far the most common rotary-motion control valve. Butterfly valves range in size from one-half inch
to over two hundred inches.
d.) Ball valve
- also a rotary-motion valve. The part that closes the flow is a sphere with an internal passageway. The
ball valve is the most widely used control valve after the globe valve.

Control Valve Characteristics

 The valve’s flow characteristic is the relationship of the change in the valve’s opening to the change in
flow through the valve. The most frequently used characteristics are quick opening, linear, and equal
percentage.

Quick opening - A relatively small movement of the valve stem causes the maximum possible flow rate through
the valve. For example, a quick-opening valve may allow 85 percent of the maximum flow rate with only 25
percent stem travel.

Linear - has a flow rate that varies linearly with the position of the stem. This relationship can be expressed as
follows:

Where: Q = flow rate,

Qmax = maximum flow rate
X = stem position,
Xmax = maximum stem position

Equal percentage - The equal percentage valve is manufactured so that a given percentage changes in the stem
position produces the same percentage change in flow.

Example:

Control Valve Actuators

 Control valve actuators translate a control signal into the large force or torque that is needed to manipulate
a valve.
 There are two common types:
  Electric motor actuators are used to control the opening and closing of smaller rotary-type valves
such as butterfly valves.
 Pneumatic actuators are used more widely because they can effectively translate a small control
signal into a large force or torque. The force generated by the pneumatic valve actuator is based
on the definition of pressure as force per unit area:

2.) AC and DC Motors

 An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In many chemical
processes, an electric motor imparts rotary or linear motion to a mechanical load. For example, motor-
driven stirrers are used to mix chemicals.

DC (direct current) motor

 used extensively in low- and high-power control system applications. The motor consists of a field magnet
and an armature and operates on the principle that a force is exerted on a current carrying conductor in a
magnetic field.
The torque a DC motor develops is proportional to both the magnetic flux and the armature current. The magnetic
flux may be produced by permanent magnets in smaller motors or electromagnetically from windings on the field
magnet. The current that produces the magnetic field is called the field current.

AC Motors
 The properties that make an AC (alternating current) motor the choice for most constant-speed industrial
drives are not necessarily those needed for control system applications. The main advantage the AC motor
has over the DC motor is that it is compatible with the AC signals from AC drive and control devices.

3.) Pumps
Pumps are used extensively in liquid flow control system applications because they are simple to operate,
are energy efficient, and can provide both flow and pressure control in a single piece of equipment. The types of
pumps most commonly used in process control systems are centrifugal, positive displacement, and reciprocating.

Centrifugal Pumps
 The centrifugal pump is the most widely used process fluid-handling device. It is generally operated at a
fixed speed to re-circulate or transfer process fluids.
 A centrifugal pump imparts velocity to a process fluid. This velocity energy is then transformed mainly
into pressure energy as the fluid leaves the pump. The pressure head (H) that is developed is approximately
equal to the velocity at the discharge of the pump. The relationship is given by the following:

where H = pressure head (ft) V = velocity (ft/s) g = 32.2 ft/s

Positive-Displacement Pumps
 Positive-displacement pumps can be divided into two main types; rotary and reciprocating:
 Rotary Pumps
 function by continuously producing reduced-pressure cavities on the suction side, which fills with
fluid
Reciprocating Pumps
 Reciprocating pumps are commonly used to control the rate at which a volume of fluid is injected into a
process stream or vessel. These pumps are also called metering pumps in some applications because they
are highly accurate and consistent in the volume of fluid discharge per cycle.

Digital Hardware for Process Control

 Digital control technology was first applied to process control in 1959, using a single central computer
(and analog backup for reliability). In the mid-1970s, a microcomputer-based process control architecture
 referred to as a distributed control system (DCS) was introduced and rapidly became a commercial
success.

 A DCS consists of some number of microprocessor-based nodes that are interconnected by a digital
communications network, often called a data highway.

The single-loop controller (SLC) is the digital equivalent of analog single-loop controllers. It is a self-contained
microprocessor-based unit that can be rack-mounted.

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are simple digital devices that are widely used to control sequential
and batch processes, although they now have additional functions that implement PID control and other
mathematical operations.

Personal Computer Controllers In comparison with PLCs, PCs have the advantages of lower purchase cost,
graphics output, large memory, large selection of software products (including databases and development tools),
more programming options (use of C or Java versus ladder logic), richer operating systems, and open networking.

Distributed Control System

The DCS consists of many commonly used components, including multiplexers (MUXs), single-loop and
multiple-loop controllers, PLCs, and smart devices. A system includes some of or all the following components:

1. Control network. The control network is the communication link between the individual components of
a network.
2. Workstations. Workstations are the most powerful computers in the system, capable of performing
functions not normally available in other units.
3. Remote control units (RCUs). These components are used to implement basic control functions such as
PID control.
4. Application stations. These separate computers run application software such as databases, spreadsheets,
financial software, and simulation software.
5. Field buses and smart devices. These devices have greater functionality, resulting in reduced setup time,
improved control, combined functionality of separate devices, and control valve diagnostic capabilities.

Temperature Control Instruments

Measurement of the hotness or coldness of a body or fluid is commonplace in the process industries. The three
dominant measurement devices used in automatic control are thermocouples, resistance thermometers, and
pyrometers.

Thermocouples
Temperature measurements using thermocouples are based on the discovery by Seebeck in 1821 that an electric
current flows in a continuous circuit of two different metallic wires if the two junctions are at different
temperatures.

Resistance Thermometers
Basically, a resistance thermometer is an instrument for measuring electrical resistance that is calibrated in units
of temperature instead of in units of resistance (typically ohms).

Thermistors
Thermistors are nonlinear temperature-dependent resistors, and normally only the materials with negative
temperature coefficient of resistance are used. Compared with resistance thermometers, thermistors are
advantageous in that the detector dimension can be made small, resistance value is higher and it has higher
temperature sensitivity and low thermal inertia of the sensor.

Filled-System Thermometers
The filled-system thermometer is designed to provide an indication of temperature some distance removed from
the point of measurement. The measuring element (bulb) contains a gas or liquid that changes in volume, pressure,
or vapor pressure with temperature.

Bimetal Thermometers
Thermostatic bimetal can be defined as a composite material made up of strips of two or more metals fastened
together. Bimetal thermometers are used at temperatures ranging from 580 down to −180°C and lower.

Pyrometers
It is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a surface. Various forms
of pyrometershave historically existed.

Types of Pyrometers
1. Total Radiation Pyrometers
In total radiation pyrometers, the thermal radiation is detected over a large range of wavelengths from the
object at high temperature. The detector is normally a thermopile, which is built by connecting several
thermocouples in series to increase the temperature measurement range.

2. Ratio Pyrometers
The ratio pyrometer is also called the twocolor pyrometer. Two different wavelengths are utilized for
detecting the radiated signal.

3. Photoelectric Pyrometers
Photoelectric pyrometers belong to the class of band radiation pyrometers. The thermal inertia of thermal
radiation detectors does not permit the measurement of rapidly changing temperatures.

4. Disappearing Filament Pyrometers

Disappearing filament pyrometers can be classified as spectral pyrometers. The brightness of a lamp
filament is changed by adjusting the lamp current until the filament disappears against the background of the
target, at which point the temperature is measured.

Pressure Control Instruments

Process pressure measuring devices may be divided into three groups based on: (1) measurement of the height of
a liquid column, (2) measurement of the distortion of an elastic pressure chamber, and (3) electrical sensing
devices.

1. Liquid-Column Methods
Liquid-column pressure-measuring devices are those in which the pressure being measured is balanced against
the pressure exerted by a column of liquid. If the density of the liquid is known, the height of the liquid column
is a measure of the pressure. Most forms of liquid-column pressure-measuring devices are commonly called
manometers.

2. Elastic Element Methods

Elastic element pressure-measuring devices are those in which the measured pressure deforms some elastic
material (usually metallic) within its elastic limit, the magnitude of the deformation being approximately
proportional to the applied pressure. These devices may be loosely classified into three types:

a. Bourdon Tube Elements

Probably the most frequently used process pressure-indicating device is the C-spring Bourdon tube pressure
gauge. Gauges of this general type are available in a wide variety of pressure ranges and materials of construction.

b. Bellows Element
The bellows element is an axially elastic cylinder with deep folds or convolutions. The bellows may be used
unopposed, or it may be restrained by an opposing spring. The pressure to be measured may be applied either to
the inside or to the space outside the bellows, with the other side exposed to atmospheric pressure.

c. Diaphragm Elements
Diaphragm elements may be classified into two principal types:
1. Utilize elastic characteristics - consists of one or more capsules, each composed of two
diaphragms bonded together by soldering, brazing, or welding.
2. Opposed by a spring or other separate elastic element - used for containing the pressure and
exerting a force on the opposing elastic element.

3. Electrical Methods
Electrical methods for pressure measurement include strain gauges, piezo-resistive transducers, and piezoelectric
transducers.

a. Strain Gauges
Devices utilizing resistance wire grids for measuring small distortions in elastically stressed materials are
commonly called strain gauges. There are two basic strain gauge forms:
 1. Bonded strain gauges - are bonded directly to the surface of the elastic element whose strain
is to be measured

2. Unbonded strain gauge - consists of a fixed frame and an armature that moves with respect to
the frame in response to the measured pressure.

b. Piezo-resistive Transducers
It is a variation of the conventional strain gauge pressure transducer uses bonded single-crystal
semiconductor wafers, usually silicon, whose resistance varies with strain or distortion. The principal advantages
of piezo-resistive transducers are a much higher bridge voltage output and smaller size.

c. Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric pressure transducers generate a potential difference proportional to a pressure-generated
stress. Because of the extremely high electrical impedance of piezoelectric crystals at low frequency, these
transducers are usually not suitable for measurement of static process pressures.

LEVEL MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

Sight-type Instruments
1. Glass Gauges
 Tubular Sight Glass Gauges
The tubular type works in the same way as a manometer, that is, as the liquid level in a vessel rises or falls
the liquid in the glass tube will also rise or fall. The gauges are made of glass, plastic, or a combination of the two
materials. The material from which the transparent tubes are made must be able to withstand the pressure in the
vessel, and they are generally limited to 450 psig at 400°F.
 Flat Glass Sight Gauges
The bodies of flat sight gauges are either made of metal castings or forgings and a heavy glass or plastic
front for viewing the level.

2 Basic Types of Flat sight Gauges

1. Reflex-type gauge-produces a dark area where liquid is present and a light area where vapor is present.
2. Transparent- used when the liquid is colored, viscous, and corrosive

2. Displacers
Displacer level gauges operate on Archimedes’ principle: they use the change in buoyant force acting on a
partially submerged displacer. Archimedes' principle states that a body fully or partiallyimmersed in a fluid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

3. Tape Float
A tape is connected to a float on one end and to a counterweight on the other to keep the tape under constant
tension. The float motion makes the counterweight ride up and down a direct reading gauge board. The gauge
board is calibrated to indicate the liquid level in the tank.

Pressure-type Instruments

1. Level Measurement by Differential Pressure

There is a direct relationship between the hydrostatic pressure caused by a column of liquid, the specific gravity
of the liquid, and the height of the vertical column of liquid.
2. Bubblers
When you use bubbler systems to measure liquid level, you install a dip tube in a tank with its open end a few
inches from the bottom. A fluid is forced through the tube; when the fluid bubbles escape from the open end, the
pressure in the tube equals the hydrostatic head of the liquid. As liquid level varies, the pressure in the dip tube
changes correspondingly.
3. Diaphragm
Diaphragm detectors operate by the simple principle of detecting the pressure that the process material exerts
against the diaphragm.

Electrical-type Instruments
1. Capacitance Probes
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. The conductors are called plates, and the
insulator is referred to as the dielectric. The basic nature of a capacitor is its ability to accept and store an electric
charge.
2. Resistance Tapes
Another electrical-type level instrument is the resistance tape. In these devices, resistive material is spirally wound
around a steel tape This type of probe is mounted vertically from top to bottom on a process tank. The pressure
of the fluid in the tank causes the resistive tape to be short-circuited, thus changing the total resistance of the
measuring tape. This resistance is measured by an electronic circuit and is directly related to the liquid level in
the tank.
3. Conductivity Probes
Conductivity probes operate on the principle that most liquids conduct electricity.

Sonic-type Instruments

1. Ultrasonic Level Measurement

Ultrasonic level sensors measure the time it takes sound waves to travel through material. Ultrasonic instruments
operate at frequencies inaudible to the human ear and at extremely low power levels, normally a few thousandths
of a watt. The velocity of a sound wave is a function of the type of wave being transmitted and the density of the
medium in which it travels.
When a sound wave strikes a solid medium, such as a wall or a liquid surface, only a small amount of the
sound energy penetrates thebarrier; a large percentage of the wave is reflected. The reflected sound wave is called
an echo.

Radiation-type Instruments

1. Nuclear Level Measurement

Nuclear radiation systems have the ability to “see” through tank walls, and thus they can be mounted on the
outside of process equipment. This reduces installation and repair costs.
2. Microwave Level Measurement
Microwave level measurement systems are another type of radiation detector commonly used in level-
measurement applications. This system consists of a transmitter and receiver as well as associated electronics
equipment. The transmitter is a microwave oscillator and directional antenna. The receiver consists of an antenna,
a high gain, a pulse-decoding circuit, and an output circuit.
3. Radar Level Instrument
Radar level instruments are the final type of radiation detector we will discuss. Radar instruments operate
by transmitting a high-frequency (GHz) electromagnetic radiation and timing the transit time to the level surface
and back. In this sense, they are similar to ultrasonic level instruments. However, radar has an advantage over
ultrasonic because of the inherent limitations of sound.

Two types of radar level instruments:

 Noncontact
The output electromagnetic energy of the radar antenna is very weak, typically about 1 mW.
 Guided
It is based on Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) technology, which uses pulses of electromagnetic
energy that are transmitted down the probe tube.

Level Switches
1. Inductive Switch
Inductive level switches are used on conductive liquids and solids. They are also used on the interface between
conductive and nonconductive liquids. The inductive transducers are excited by an electrical source, causing them
to radiate an alternating magnetic field. These switches are generally used in harsh environments because the
probe is completely sealed and has no moving parts.

2. Thermal Switch
In a thermal-based level switch, a heated thermal resistor (thermistor) is used to detect the surface of a liquid. The
level measurement a thermistor provides is based on the difference in thermal conductivity of air and liquid.
Because the thermistor reacts to heat dispersion, it can be used with water- or oil-based liquids.

3. Float Switch
Float switches are an inexpensive way to detect liquid level at a specific point. When you use float switches on
process tanks, you must generally create a seal between the process and the switch.

4. Rotating Paddle Switches

The rotating paddle level switches are used to detect the presence or absence of solids in a process tank.
A low-power synchronous motor keeps the paddle in motion at very low speed when no solids are present.
Under suchconditions, there is very low torque on the motor drive. When the level in the tank rises to the
paddle, torque is applied to the motor drive and the paddle stops. The level instrument detects the torque and
actuates a switch or set of switches. These switches can then be used to sound an alarm or to control the
filling or emptying of the process tank or silo.

5. Ultrasonic Level Switches

You can use ultrasonic level instruments for both continuous and point measurement. The point detectors or
level switches can be grouped into damped sensors or on/off transmitter types.

Process Instrumentation Diagram

The P&ID is a specialized document that is shown on a side view. P&IDs are a side view representation of a side
view of all equipment. P&IDs normally do not attempt to provide any form of scale on their drawings because
this is handled on the piping, electrical, mechanical, etc. plan drawings. It should be noted that P&IDs sometimes
distinguish between equipment located in different portions of the plant.The P&ID will depict the following items:
a) Material flow.
b) Unit process operations- when the project has been given further definition, the plant is normally broken down
into several portions. Some typical portions of a plant may include the influent/intake section, initial treatment
(sometimes called pre-treatment), chemical additions, settling, filtration, flocculation, agitation, mixing, waste
treatment/recycle, storage, etc.
c) Piping between the various sections of the plant and process equipment.
d) Piping on a P&ID may include instrument connections or heat tracing depending upon the size of the project.
e) Major pieces of mechanical equipment (pumps, vendor packages, filters, clarification equipment, tanks, etc.).
Some designers will also show installed spare equipment on the P&ID.
f) Valves and directions of process flow
g) Field Mounted Instruments- Different designers show different levels of detail on their P&IDs. The reader
should review the discussion below for more information
h) Electrical equipment- The P&ID often shows major pieces of equipment that require either signal or power
wiring. The reader should see the discussion below for more information.
i) Communications links- The P&ID sometimes shows communications links (software or hard-wired) to the
distributed control system depending upon the level of detail and space available on the

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM

What’s P&ID?

A piping and instrumentation diagram, or P&ID, shows the piping and related components of a physical
process flow. It’s most commonly used in the engineering field.

Function and purpose of P&IDs

P&IDS are foundational to the maintenance and modification of the process that it graphically represents.
At the design stage, the diagram also provides the basis for the development of system control schemes,
like Hazard and Operability Study(HAZOP).

For processing facilities, it’s a graphic representation of:

 Key piping and instrument details
 Control and shutdown schemes
 Safety and regulatory requirements
 Basic start up and operational information

When To Use P&Ids And Who Uses Them

P&IDs are a schematic illustration of the functional relationship of piping, instrumentation and system
equipment components used in the field of instrumentation and control or automation. They are typically created
by engineers who are designing a manufacturing process for a physical plant.
P&IDs are used by field techs, engineers, and operators to better understand the process and how the
instrumentation is interconnected. They can also be useful in training workers and contractor

What’s the difference between a process flow diagram (PFD) and a piping & instrumentation diagram
(P&ID)?

Instrumentation detail varies with the degree of design complexity. Simplified or conceptual designs are
called process flow diagrams (PFDs). A PFD shows fewer details than a P&ID and is usually the first step in
the design process–more of a bird’s eye view. More fully developed piping and instrumentation diagrams
(P&IDs) are shown in a P&ID.

What Are The Limitations Of P&ID?

 They can’t be relied on as real models, because they aren’t necessarily drawn to scale or geometrically
accurate.
 There’s also no generally accepted universal standard for them so they may look different from company to
company—or even within the same company—based on internal standards, the type of software system being
used, and the preferences of the creator.

What Should a P&ID Include?

1. Process piping, sizes and identification, including:

- Pipe classes or piping line numbers
- Flow directions
- Interconnections references
- Permanent start-up, flush and bypass lines
2. Mechanical equipment/ Process control instrumentation and designation (names, numbers, unique tag
identifiers), including:
- Valves and their identifications (e.g. isolation, shutoff, relief and safety valves)
- Control inputs and outputs (sensors and final elements, interlocks)
- Miscellanea - vents, drains, flanges, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers and increasers
3. Interfaces for class changes
4. Computer control system

Group8

Block Diagram and the Closed-Loop Response

 For each of its four components (process, measuring device, controller mechanism, and final control
element) we can write the corresponding transfer function relating its output to its inputs. In particular, if we
neglect the dynamics of the transmission lines, we have:
Process:
(Equation 1)
Measuring device:
(Equation 2)
Controller mechanism:
comparator (Equation 3a)
control action (Equation 3b)

Final control element:

(Equation 4)
where Gp Gd, Gm, Gc, and Gf are the transfer functions between the corresponding inputs
and outputs.

Figure 1. Block diagram of generalized closed – loop system

Figure 1. shows the block diagram for the generalized closed-loop system and it is nothing more than a
pictorial representation of equations 1, 2, 3a, 3b and 4.

Figure 2. Simplified block diagrams

The series of blocks between the comparator and the controlled output (i.e., Gc, Gf and Gp) constitutes the
forward path, while the block Gm is on the feedback path between the controlled output and the comparator. If
G = GcGfGp, then Figure 2 shows a simplified but equivalent version of the block diagram.
Algebraic manipulation of the equations above yields
Using equation 3b
Using equation 3a
Using equation 2
Put the last equation in equation 1.

and after readjustment take

(Equation 5)

Equation 5 gives the closed – loop response of the process. We

notice that it is composed of two terms. The first term shows the effect on the output of a change in the set point,
while the second constitutes the effect on the output of a change in the load (disturbance). The corresponding
transfer functions are known as closed – loop transfer functions. In particular,

(Equation 6)
is the closed – loop transfer function for a change in the set point and

(Equation 7)

is the closed – loop transfer function for a change in the load. Figure 2b shows a block diagram equivalent to that
of Figure 2a but further simplified.
For every feedback control system, we can distinguish two types of control problems: the servo and the
regulator problem.
Servo problem: The disturbance does not change while the set point undergoes a change. The feedback controller
acts in such way as to keep y close to the changing ySP. In such a case,
(Equation 8)
Regulator problem: The set point remains the same while the load changes.
Then
(Equation 9)
and the feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load changes and keep y at the desired set point.
From the equations 6 and 7, it can be easily seen that the closed – loop overall transfer functions GSP and
Gload depend not only on the process dynamics but also on the dynamics of the measuring sensor, controller and
final control element.

Effect of Proportional Control

Effect of Proportional control on the response of a controlled process
First order system
𝑑𝑦
𝜏𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑚 + 𝐾𝑑 𝑑 with y(0) = m(0) = d(0) = 0
Which gives
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑑
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝑚(𝑠) = 𝑑(𝑠)
𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1
Thus for uncontrolled system:
Time constant 𝜏𝑝
Static gains 𝐾𝑝 for the manipulation and 𝐾𝑑 for the load
Put
 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑝
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = 𝜏 and 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠) = 𝜏
𝑝 𝑠+1 𝑝 𝑠+1

in
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑆𝑃 + 𝑑
1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝑠
And take the closed-loop response:
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑
𝑦(𝑠) 𝑦𝑆𝑃 (𝑠) + 𝑑(𝑠)
𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐

rearrange the last equation and take

𝐾′ 𝑝 𝐾′ 𝑑
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝜏′ 𝑦 (𝑠) + 𝜏′ 𝑑(𝑠)
𝑝 𝑠+1 𝑆𝑃 𝑝 𝑠+1

where
𝜏𝑝
𝜏′𝑝 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾′𝑝 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
and
𝐾𝑑
𝐾 ′𝑑 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐

The parameters 𝐾′𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 ′ 𝑑 are known as closed-loop static gains.

Closed-loop response of a first order system has the following characteristics:
1. It remains first-order with respect to load and set point changes.
2. The time constant has been reduced which means that the closed-loop response has become faster, than
the open-loop response, to changes in set point or load.
3. The static gains have been decreased.
Remarks
1. Although the offset tends to zero as Kc → ∞, we will never use extremely large values of Kc for
proportional control. The reason will become very clear in the next chapter.
2. If Gm = Km and Gf = Kf, it is easy to show that the offsets become:
For set point unit step changes,
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑓
Offset =1- 1+𝐾
𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑚

For load unit step changes,

𝐾𝑑
Offset =1- 1+𝐾
𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑚

3. In subsequent sections we will examineonly the response for the servo problem assuming that the reader
has gained the facility to repeat a similar analysis for the regulator problem.
 4. Processes having the term 1/s in their transfer function, when they are controlled with proportional
controoler, do not exhibit offset point changes but they do for sustained load changes. Let us demonstrate
this important feature for the liquid-level control system shown in the figure.

The output Fo is constant and the level by manipulating the inlet flow rate Fi. The load (disturbance) is
the flowrate Fd. In terms of deviation variables, tha mass balance around the tank yields
𝑑ℎ′
𝐴 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑖 + 𝐹 ′ 𝑑(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡
Therefore
1
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) =
𝐴𝑠

Second order system

The transfer function for a second-order process is

𝑦(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = = 2 2
𝑚(𝑠) 𝜏 𝑠 + 2𝜏𝑠 + 1
Put this equation in
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑆𝑃 + 𝑑
1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝑠
where
𝜏
𝜏′ =
√1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝜍
𝜍′ =
√1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾′𝑝 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
For the above we notice that the closed loop response of a second-order system with proportional control has the
following characteristics:
It remains second-order.
The static gain decreases.
Both the natural period and damping factor decrease. This implies that an overdamped process, with
proportional control and appropriate value of Kc, may become underdamped. (oscillatory).

Remarks
 1. Depending on the value of the damping factor 𝜍 for the uncontrolled second-order system shows that 𝜍 ≷
1. If 𝜍 < 1, the overdamped response of the closed-loop system is very sluggish. Therefore, we prefer to
increase the value of Kc and make 𝜍 < 1. Then closed-loop response reacts faster but it becomes
oscillatory. Also, by increasing Kc, the offset decreases.
2. The increase in the speed of system’s response and the decrease in the offset, both very desirable features,
come at the expense of higher overshoots (maximum errors) and longer oscillating responses. Thus, as Kc
increases, causing 𝜍 to decrease.

Effect of Integral Control Action

The analysis makes use of integral controller.
Recall the servo problem đ(s) = 0; 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐺𝑓 = 1;
𝐺𝑝 𝐺𝑓 𝐺𝑐
ȳ(𝑠) = 𝐺 ȳ𝑆𝑃 (𝑠) Equation (25)
𝑝 𝑓 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚 +1
𝐺
𝐾𝑝
For 1st-order process: 𝐺𝑝 = 𝜏 Equation (26)
𝑝 𝑆+1
𝐾𝑐
For a simple integral control action: 𝐺𝑐 = Equation (27)
𝜏𝐼 𝑆
1
Equation (2) and (3) in (1) yields: ȳ(𝑠) = 𝜏2 𝑠2 +2Ϛ𝜏𝑆+1 ȳ𝑆𝑃 (𝑠) Equation (28)
𝜏𝐼 𝜏𝑝
Where: 𝜏 = √𝐾 Equation (29)
𝑝 𝐾𝑐

1 𝜏𝐼
Ϛ = 2 √𝜏 Equation (30)
𝑝 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐

Equation (4) indicates an important effect of the integral control action, It increases the order of dynamics for the
closed-loop response.
For a 1st order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed-loop becomes 2nd order and may have different
dynamic characteristics. Integral control action alone is expected to make the response of the closed-loop
system more sluggish.
Integral control action produces 2nd order closed-loop response and leads to zero offset.
Equation (6) means that the form of the closed-loop response depends on the controller gain value Kc and reset
time τI.
As Kc increases, damping factor Ϛ decreases.
Consequences of decreasingϚ:
 Response moves in general from sluggish overdamped to faster but oscillatory underdamped behavior.
 Overshoot and decay ratio increases.

We can improve the speed of the

closed-loop response at the expense of higher deviations and longer oscillations.

Increasing the integral control action (increasing Kc, decreasing τI) makes the response of the closed-loop system
more sensitive.

Effect of derivative Control Action

For derivative control action alone, we have

Assuming again for simplicity that Gm=Gf=1, the closed-loop response of a first-order
system with derivative control action is given by
 The above equation leads to the following
observations on the effects that the derivative
control action has on the closed-loop response of a
system:
1. The derivative control does not change the order of the response.
2. It is clear that the effective time constant of the closed-loop response is larger
than the ԏp. This means that the response of the controlled process is slower than that of
the original first-order process. Furthermore, as Kc increases, the effective time constant increases and
the response becomes progressively slower.
Effect of Composite control Actions
Although proportional can be used alone, this is almost never the case for integral or derivative
control actions. Instead, proportional-integral (PI) and proportional-integral-derivative modes of control.
Effect of PI Control
Combination of proportional and interal control modes leads to the following effects on the
response of a closed-loop system;
1. The order of the purpose increases (effect of integral mode)
2. The offset is eliminated (effect of integral mode).
3. As Kc increases, the response becomes faster [effect of proportional and integral modes] and
more oscillatory to set point changes. Large values of Kc create a very sensitive response and may
lead to instability.
4. As ԏI decreases, for constant Kc, the response becomes faster but more oscillatory with higher
overshoots and decay rates (effect of integral mode).
Effect of PID Control

The figure summarizes the effect of PID controller on the response of a controlled process. Notice that
although increasing Kc leads to faster responses, the overshoot remains almost the same and the setting time is
shorter. Both are results of the derivative control action.

Group 9
STABILITY OF FEEDBACK CONRTOL SYSTEM
Introduction
In vernacular English, the term "unstable" has a negative connotation. Certainly, no one would want to be
described as unstable! This undesirable meaning extends to products of engineering design; we generally want
our plants and control systems to be stable. To ensure consistency, we will use a clear and precise definition of
stability, termed bounded input-bounded output stability, which can be employed in the design and analysis of
process control systems.
Stable system
A system is stable if all output variables are bounded when all input variables are bounded.
Unstable system
A system that is not stable is unstable.
Bounded Variable
A variable is bounded when it does not increase in magnitude to ±00 as time increases. Typical bounded inputs
are step changes and sine waves; an example of an unbounded input is a ramp function. Naturally, process output
variables do not approach ±00 in a chemical plant, but serious consequences occur when these variables tend
toward ±00 and reach large deviations from their normal values. For example, liquids overflow their vessels;
closed vessels burst from high pressures; products degrade; and equipment is damaged by excessive temperatures.
Thus, substantial incentives exist for maintaining plant variables, with and without control, at stable operating
conditions.
As a further clarification, a chemical reactor would be stable according to our definition if a step increase
of 1°C in its inlet temperature led to a new steady-state outlet temperature that was 100°C higher. Thus, systems
that are very sensitive can be stable as long as they attain a steady state after a step change.
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS: PRINCIPLES

Again, the local stability of a system will be evaluated by analyzing the linearized model. The analysis
method for linear systems can be tailored to feedback control systems by considering the models in transfer
function form. The resulting methods will be useful in (1) determining the stability of control designs, (2) selecting
tuning constant values, and (3) gaining insight into how process characteristics influence tuning constants and
control performance. We begin by considering a general transfer function for a linear control system in Figure
10.4.

For the present, we will consider only the disturbance transfer function and will assume that the transfer
function can be expressed as a polynomial in s as follows:

The right-hand side (the numerator of the original transfer function) represents the forcing function, which
is always bounded because physical input variables cannot take unbounded values, and we assume that the
disturbance transfer function, Gd(s), is stable.
The essential information on stability is in the left-hand side of equation (10.17), called the characteristic
polynomial, which is the denominator of the closed-loop transfer function. In the system being considered, Figure
10.4, the characteristic polynomial is . Setting the characteristic polynomial to zero
produces the characteristic equation.
Before continuing, it is important to note that either transfer function in equation (10.16) could be
considered, because the characteristic equations of both are identical. Thus, the stability analyses for set point
changes and for disturbances yield the same results. Examination of the characteristic equation demonstrates that
the equation contains all elements in the feedback control loop: process, sensors, transmission, final elements,
and controller. As we would expect, these terms affect stability. The disturbances and set point changes are not
in the characteristic equation, because they affect the input forcing; therefore, they do not affect stability.
Naturally, the numerator terms affect the dynamic responses and control performance and must be considered in
the control performance analysis, although not in this part, which establishes stability. Continuing the stability
analysis, the solution to the homogeneous solution is evaluated to determine stability. For the transfer function,
the exponents can be determined by the solution of the following equation resulting from equation (10.17):

As before, if any solution of equation (10.18) has a real part greater than or equal to zero, the linearized system
is unstable, because the controlled variable increases without limit as time increases. The stability test is
summarized as follows:
Locally stable linearized closed control system- if all roots of the characteristic equation have negative real
parts at the steady-state point.
Locally unstable linearized closed control system- If one or more roots with positive or zero real parts exist.
Recall that the roots of the characteristic equation are also referred to as the poles of the closed-loop transfer
function, e.g., . This approach to determining stability is applied to two
examples to demonstrate typical results.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The stability of the series chemical reactors shown in Figure 10.5 is to be determined. The reactors are
well mixed and isothermal, and the reaction is first-order in component A. The outlet concentration of reactant
from the second reactor is controlled with a PI feedback algorithm that manipulates the flow of the reactant,
which is very much smaller than the flow of the solvent. The sensor and final element are assumed fast, and
process data is as follows.

Process: V = 5m3 Fs =5m3/min >> Fa

 Since all roots have negative real parts, this system is stable. Remember, we still do not know how well
the closed-loop control system performs, although the complex poles indicate that the system is underdamped
and the integral mode indicates that the controlled variable will return to its set point for a step like disturbance.

ROUTH’S STABILITY CRITERION

Consider a closed-loop transfer function

where the ai’s and bi’s are real constants and m ≤ n. An alternative to factoring the denominator polynomial,
Routh’s stability criterion, determines the number of closed loop poles in the right-half s plane.
Algorithm for applying Routh’s stability criterion
The algorithm described below, like the stability criterion, requires the order of A(s) to be finite.
1. Factor out any roots at the origin to obtain the polynomial, and multiply by −1 if necessary, to obtain
 where a0 6= 0 and an > 0.
2. If the order of the resulting polynomial is at least two and any coefficient ai is zero or negative, the polynomial
has at least one root with nonnegative real part. To obtain the precise number of roots with nonnegative real part,
proceed as follows. Arrange the coefficients of the polynomial, and values subsequently calculated from them as
shown below:

where the coefficients bi are

generated until all subsequent coefficients are zero. Similarly, cross multiply the coefficients of the two
previous rows to obtain the ci, di, etc.

until the nth row of the array has been completed1 Missing coefficients are replaced by zeros. The resulting
array is called the Routh array. The powers of s are not considered to be part of the array. We can think of
them as labels. The column beginning with a0 is considered to be the first column of the array.
The Routh array is seen to be triangular. It can be shown that multiplying a row by a positive
number to simplify the calculation of the next row does not affect the outcome of the application of the
Routh criterion.
3. Count the number of sign changes in the first column of the array. It can be shown that a necessary and sufficient
condition for all roots of (2) to be located in the left-half plane is that all the ai are positive and all of the coefficients
in the first column be positive.

Example: Generic Quadratic Polynomial

Consider the quadratic polynomial:
where all the ai are positive. The array of coefficients becomes

where the coefficient a1 is the result of multiplying a1 by a2 and subtracting a0(0) then dividing the result by
a2. In the case of a second order polynomial, we see that Routh’s stability criterion reduces to the condition that
all ai be positive.
where the last element of the first column is equal 2 = (ϵ2 − 0)/ ϵ. In counting changes of sign, the row
beginning with ϵ is not counted. If the elements above and below the ϵ in the first column have the same sign, a
pair of imaginary roots is indicated. Here, for example, (22) has two roots at s = ±j. On the other hand, if the
elements above and below the ϵ have opposite signs, this counts as a sign change. For example,

with two sign changes in the first column.

Special Case: Zero Row. If all the coefficients in a row are zero, a pair of roots of equal magnitude and
opposite sign is indicated. These could be two real roots with equal magnitudes and opposite signs or two
conjugate imaginary roots. The zero row is replaced by taking the coefficients of dP(s)/ds, where P(s), called the
auxiliary polynomial, is obtained from the values in the row above the zero row. The pair of roots can be found
by solving dP(s)/ds = 0.
Note that the auxiliary polynomial always has even degree. It can be shown that an auxiliary polynomial of
degree 2n has n pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
ROOT-LOCUS CRITERION
The root locus is a graphical procedure for determining the poles of a closed-loop system given the poles
and zeros of a forward-loop system. Graphically, the locus is the set of paths in the complex plane traced by the
closed-loop poles as the root locus gain is varied from zero to infinity.
In mathematical terms, given a forward-loop transfer function,
KG(s)
where K is the root locus gain, and the corresponding closed-loop transfer function

the root locus is the set of paths traced by the roots of

as K varies from zero to infinity. As K changes, the solution to this equation changes. This equation is called the
characteristic equation. The roots to the equation are the poles of the forward-loop transfer function. The equation
defines where the poles will be located for any value of the root locus gain, K. In other words, it defines the
characteristics of the system behavior for various values of controller gain.

The characteristic equation of a system is based upon the the transfer function that models the system. It
contains information needed to determine the response of a dynamic system. There is only one characteristic
equation for a given system.
The root locus gain, typically denoted as K, is a gain of the forward-loop system. While determining the
root locus, this gain is varied from 0 to infinity. Note that the corresponding variations in the poles of the closed-
loop system determine the root locus. As the gain moves from 0 to infinity, the poles move from the forward-loop
poles along the locus toward forward-loop zeros or infinity.
In block diagram form, the root locus gain is located in the forward loop, before the system, as shown
below.