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Limnology: Originated from Greek word limne (meaning-lake) and logos (meaning-study).
According to Oxford Dictionary, limnology is the study of the biological, chemical, and physical
features of lakes and other bodies of fresh water.
Limnology may study- water flow, oxygen in the water, food web dynamics, animal movement
patterns, minerals and other water chemicals, pollution, ecosystem structure, the economics of
water, light influences, nutrient cycles, plants that live on, in, or near inland waters, sediments,
bacteria, human influences, ecosystems, animal communities etc.
Cryology: Originated from Greek word cryo (meaning-ice) and logos (meaning-study). According
to Oxford Dictionary, the study of ice, snow, and the parts of the natural environment below
freezing point. According to Seligman (1947), cryology is the scientific study of ice. Seligman also
mentioned the scope of cryology. Those are-
1. Standardization of maps of snow-cover and ice-cover for the world.
2. Uniform classification of different types of snow and snow-cover, and uniform
nomenclature for the same.
3. A system of classification for the international bibliography of snow and ice.
4. Standardization of methods of snow-surveying and forecasting run-off from snow.
Venturimeter: A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe.
Construction:
a) Short converging part: It is a tapered portion whose radius decreases.
b) Throat: It is middle portion of the venturi. Here the velocity of the fluid increases and
pressure decreases. It possesses the least cross section area.
c) Diverging part: In this portion the fluid diverges.
Principals: The principle of venturimeter is that when a fluid flows through the
venturimeter, it accelerates in the convergent section and decelerates in the divergent
section, resulting in a drop in the static pressure followed by a pressure recovery in the
flow direction. By measuring the difference in the pressures at an axial station upstream of
the convergent section and at the throat, the volumetric flow rate can be estimated.
Measurement:
where,
𝐴1 𝐴2 √(2𝑔ℎ) Qactual = Actual discharge in m3 /s
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣
√(𝐴12 −𝐴22 ) Cv=Discharge co-efficient of a
venturimeter
A1=area at the inlet side in m2
A =area at the throat side in m2
h =Differential pressure head of liquid in m
g =Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Capillary rise: A rise in a liquid above the level of zero pressure due to a net upward force
produced by the attraction of the water molecules to a solid surface, e.g. glass, soil (for those cases
where the adhesion of the liquid to the solid is greater than the cohesion of the liquid to itself).
GROUND WATER
Groundwater: Ground water is the water found in the surface of the ground containing minerals
and is not connected with underground stream channels (Oxf. D. Geo.).
Groundwater quality: Groundwater quality refers to the state of water that is located beneath
Earth's surface. Normally it has following components-
Primary (1-1000 mg/L) cations: sodium, calcium, magnesium
Primary anions: bicarbonate, sulfate, silica, chloride
Secondary (0.01-10 mg/L) cations: potassium, iron, strontium
Secondary anions: carbonate, nitrate, boron, fluoride.
Trace elements (less than that): others (Br, As, Al etc.)
Deterioration of the above quality considered as ground water pollution.
Causes of ground water pollution: Naturally-occurring (geogenic), On-site sanitation systems,
Sewage (treated and untreated), Fertilizers and pesticides, Commercial and industrial leaks,
Hydraulic fracturing, Landfill leachate, other.
Safe yield of ground water: amount of ground water, which can be drawn annually without
producing an undesired result.
Factors:
a) Water supply (should not yield more than long time mean water)
b) Water quality (should not mix up with external contents)
c) Water right (law should be established before yielding)
d) Economics (yield cost should not be extreme)
INTERCEPTION:
Interception: The proportion of precipitation that does not reach the ground and considered as
precipitation loss.
Factors: Season, density of precipitation, age of the plants.
Interception Controlling Phenomena:
1. Vegetation characteristics
a) Group form of plants
b) Plant communities structure
2. Meteorological factor
a) Precipitation density
b) Precipitation intensity
c) Wind speed
d) Precipitation type
e) Precipitation frequency
Significance:
1. Reduces basin quantity.
2. Lowers the infiltration
3. Washes away solid particle from leaves.
SOIL MOISTURE
Soil moisture: Water stored in or at the land surface and available for evapotranspiration (IPCC,
2012). It is measured with Tensiometers.
Importance: Soil moisture is a key variable in controlling the exchange of water and heat energy
between the land surface and the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration. As a
result, soil moisture plays an important role in the development of weather patterns and the
production of precipitation.
Soil Moisture Movement: Movement of soil moisture content towards the inner portion of the
surface and to take place infiltration. It has 3 types-
i) Saturated Flow
ii) Unsaturated Flow
iii) Water Vapor Movement
o Saturated flow: This occurs when the soil pores are completely filled with water.
Saturated flow is water flow caused by gravity’s pull. It begins with infiltration,
which is water movement into soil when rain or irrigation water is on the soil
surface.
Factors: 1. Texture 2.Structure 3.Amount of organic matter 4.Depth of soil
to hard pan 5.Amount of water in the soil 6.temperature and 7. Pressure
o Unsaturated flow: It is flow of water held with water potentials lower than-1/3 bar.
Water will move toward the region of lower potential (towards the greater “pulling”
force). In a uniform soil this means that water moves from wetter to drier areas.
The water movement may be in any direction.
Factors: Unsaturated flow is also affected in a similar way to that of
saturated flow. Amount of moisture in the soil affects the unsaturated flow.
The higher the percentage of water in the moist soil, the greater is the
suction gradient and the more rapid is the delivery.
o Water Vapor Movement: The movement of water vapor from soils takes place in
two ways: (a) Internal movement—the change from the liquid to the vapor state
takes place within the soil, that is, in the soil pores and (b) External movement—
the phenomenon occurs at the land surface and the resulting vapor is lost to the
atmosphere by diffusion and convection.
Factor: The movement of water vapor through the diffusion mechanism
taken place from one area to other soil area depending on the vapor pressure
gradient (moving force).
Climate Change effect in Bangladesh: Flash flood, cyclone, salinity intrusion, sea level rise,
biodiversity loss, extreme temperature etc.
Responses: Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, Bangladesh Climate
Change Strategy (BCCS) etc.
Water resource management and climate change:
For irrigation as courses and precipitation behaviour change.
Saline water intrusion observation and remedies.
Water storage system and artificially enhancing recharge technology.
Water resource saving strategy and planning for saving from salinization.
Preparation for droughts occurred due to climate change.
Crop diversification and irrigation planning considering climate change.
Answer:
80
70
60
Intesity (mm/hr)
50
40
30
20
10
0
15 30 45 60 90 120 180
Time in minute