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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The potential for hydrogen and fuel cell energy systems to make a substantial
contribution to clean, sustainable energy systems has long been identified. Hydrogen
powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) received much exposure during the
2000s, but a lack of commercial models contributed some disillusion and a switch of
attention to battery electric vehicles. Nevertheless, hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles
may now be approaching commercial maturity as major manufacturers including
Honda, Toyota and Hyundai launch the first mass-produced FCEV passenger
vehicles. FCEVs are also becoming dominant in niche markets such as forklift trucks.
After ten years of commercialization, fuel cells are also taking off for residential
combined heat and power (CHP), with over 180,000 systems now sold in Japan, and
large field trials featuring a British manufacturer (Ceres Power) continuing in Europe.
In the UK, the potential for hydrogen to decarbonizes heat is gaining traction.
Hydrogen is also used to support the integration of renewable in Germany, through
power-to-gas plants hat convert excess electricity into hydrogen injected into the gas
networks.
Hydrogen has been used in the UK energy system since the 1800s, as the largest
constituent of town gas, which was produced by coal gasification. Since the
switchover from town gas to natural gas in the 1970s, hydrogen has primarily been
used in industry, for ammonia production, in oil refineries, and elsewhere. There are
2,400 km of high-pressure hydrogen pipelines worldwide, principally in Europe and
North America, with the oldest operating since 1938. The UK has only a few short
pipe lines that connect merchant hydrogen plants to customers at present. Hydrogen
can be produced from coal, natural gas, biomass or electricity, and transported by pipe
line or by road to the point of consumption, or produced locally in a decentralized
system.
Hydrogen and fuel cells are already taking a strong role in several markets. In
Transport purpose fuel cell forklift trucks are taking an increasing market share in
warehouses in preference to battery forklifts due to their longer lifetime, zero
emissions, smaller space requirements and fast refueling.
In heat provision, Fuel cell CHP has been deployed in commercial buildings
and district heat networks for several decades. Fuel cell micro-CHP is supported by
both governments and industry, and is now being deployed in Japan, South Korea and
Europe, with over 180,000 houses using a fuel cell in Japan alone.
In electricity, fuel cells are widely used to provide emergency backup power
(e.g. for telecommunications during natural disasters), and primary power in computer
data centers. Electrolysers are being used in Europe and the US in power-to-gas
applications to help integrate high levels of renewable into electricity systems.
Road transport has long been seen as the most promising market for hydrogen
and fuel cells. Numerous companies have active development programmers for
FCEVs, and Hyundai and Toyota have recently launched mass-produced FCEVs for
the first time. The industry has sponsored research to examine the case for FCEVs
Department of ME, VAST-TC, Kilimanoor Page 2
HY- WIRE CONCEPT CAR
Automobiles as we know today are very complicated machines even though their
basic purpose is transportation. The fundamental processes that a car performs are
acceleration of wheel speed, their control through braking, the turning of the wheels
with the help of the steering mechanism & so on. Given that the overall function of a
car is so basic it seems a little strange that almost all cars have the same collection of
complex devices crammed under the hood and the same general mass of mechanical
and hydraulic linkages running throughout. So considering these facts, automotive
engineers for many years, pondered over the question as to why do cars need all these
complicated machinery at all. And funnily they found that cars actually don’t need all
these gizmos and in the future they won’t need these.
1.5 OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this work is to introduce a car with following features
Fuel efficient - a fuel cell vehicle could provide twice the fuel efficiency of a
comparably sized conventional vehicle.
Environment friendly - the only bi-product formed is water, which is a non-
pollutant.
3. High stability - a low center of gravity, gives the architecture both a high
stability and superior handling.
1.6 APPROACH
This seminar deals with such a futuristic vision which the automotive
engineers at GM (General Motors) have realized. The HY-WIRE concept car the
name symbolizes the combination of hydrogen as fuel for the fuel cell propulsion
system, and the replacement of conventional mechanical and hydraulic control
linkages for steering, braking and other control systems by a drive-by-wire system.
"By combining fuel cell and by-wire technology, we've packaged this vehicle in a
new way, opening up a new world of chassis architectures and customized bodies for
individualized expressions and . It is a significant step towards a new kind of
automobile that is substantially friendlier to the environment and provides consumers
positive benefits in driving dynamics, safety and freedom of individual expression”.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This journal says about vehicle steer by wire technology. There is much
advancement in steering control technology with time. Steering –by-wire (SBW)
system is the most modern and efficient technique, the steer-by-wire is replacing the
traditional steering device of the vehicle in which the conventional steering system is
replaced by electronic system. This paper focus to introduce steer-by-wire technology
and methodology and angle sensor is preferred to have the good accuracy. Finally
steer-by-wire technology is better than conventional system with respect to their
advantage over conventional system.
This journal gives details about fuel cell vehicle. A fuel cell is similar to a
battery in that it generates electricity from an electrochemical reaction. Both batteries
and fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and also, as a by-product
of this process, into heat. However, a battery holds a closed store of energy within it
and once this is depleted the battery must be discarded, or recharged by using an
external supply of electricity to drive the electrochemical reaction in the reverse
direction.
A fuel cell, on the other hand, can run indefinitely as long as it is supplied with
a source of hydrogen fuel (hence the name) and is similar to an ICE in that it oxidizes
fuel to create energy; but rather than using combustion, a fuel cell oxidizes hydrogen
electrochemically in a very efficient way. During the reaction, hydrogen ions react
with oxygen atoms to form water; in the process electrons are released and flow
through an external circuit as an electric current. The only exhaust is water vapor
The fuel cell type used in the automotive industry is the proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), a low-temperature, hydrogen-fuelled cell containing a
platinum catalyst; it is the most common type of fuel cell and allows for variable
electrical output, ideal for vehicle use.
2.2.3 The role of hydrogen and fuel cells in future energy systems by Paul Ekins
This White Paper has been commissioned by the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
(H2FC) supergen Hub to examine the roles and potential benefits of hydrogen and
fuel cell technologies within each sector of future energy systems, and the transition
infrastructure that is required to achieve these roles. The H2FC SUPERGEN Hub is
an inclusive network encompassing the entire UK hydrogen and fuel cells research
community, with around 100 UK-based academics supported by key stakeholders
from industry and government. It is funded by the UK EPSRC research council as
part of the RCUK Energy Programme. This paper is the third of four that were
published over the lifetime of the Hub
Several alternative vehicle and fuel options are under consideration to alleviate
the triple threats of climate change, urban air pollution and foreign oil dependence
caused by motor vehicles. This paper evaluates the primary transportation alternatives
and determines which hold the greatest potential for averting societal threats. We
developed a dynamic computer simulation model that compares the societal benefits
of replacing conventional gasoline cars with vehicles that are partially electrified,
including hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids fueled by gasoline, cellulosic
ethanol and hydrogen, and all-electric vehicles powered exclusively by batteries or by
hydrogen and fuel cells. These simulations compare the year-by-year societal benefits
over a 100-year time horizon of each vehicle/fuel combination compared to
conventional cars. We conclude that all-electric vehicles will be required in
combination with hybrids, plug-in hybrids and bio fuels to achieve an 80% reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels, while simultaneously cutting
dependence on imported oil and eliminating nearly all controllable urban air pollution
from the light duty vehicle fleet. Hybrids and plug-ins that continue to use an internal
combustion engine will not be adequate by themselves to achieve our societal
objectives, even if they are powered with bio fuels. There are two primary options for
all-electric vehicles: batteries or fuel cells. We show that for any vehicle range greater
than 160 km (100 miles) fuel cells are superior to batteries in terms of mass, volume,
cost, initial greenhouse gas reductions, refueling time, well-to-wheels energy
efficiency using natural gas or biomass as the source and life cycle costs.
and fuel processing), electric drive control and system integration, hydrogen storage,
and affordability.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The defining characteristic of the Hy-wire (and its conceptual predecessor, the
autonomy) is that it doesn't have either of these two things. Instead of an engine, it has
a fuel cell stack, which powers an electric motor connected to the wheels. Instead of
mechanical and hydraulic linkages, it has a drive by wire system -- a computer
actually operates the components that move the wheels, activate the brakes and so on,
and based on input from an electronic controller. This is the same control system
employed in modern fighter jets as well as many commercial planes. The result of
these two substitutions is a very different type of car -- and a very different driving
experience. There is no steering wheel, there are no pedals and there is no engine
compartment. In fact, every piece of equipment that actually moves the car along the
road is housed in an 11-inch-thick (28 cm) aluminum chassis -- also known as the
skateboard -- at the base of the car. Everything above the chassis is dedicated solely to
driver control and passenger comfort.
This means the driver and passengers don't have to sit behind a mass of
machinery. Instead, the Hy-wire has a huge front windshield, which gives everybody
a clear view of the road. The floor of the fiberglass-and-steel passenger compartment
can be totally flat, and it's easy to give every seat lots of leg room. Concentrating the
bulk of the vehicle in the bottom section of the car also improves safety because it
makes the car much less likely to tip over.
But the coolest thing about this design is that it lets you remove the entire
passenger compartment and replace it with a different one. If you want to switch from
a van to a sports car, you don't need an entirely new car; you just need a new body
(which is a lot cheaper).
` Before we get to the further features of the car, we will discuss about the 2
most defining technologies that make up the HY WIRE car i.e. the drive by wire
system & Hydrogen fuel cell technology
GM originally dubbed its working concept for a drive-by-wire fuel-cell car the
autonomy, to highlight the flexibility of the computer control and switch able car
bodies. When it came time to name the actual drivable version, the design team
recruited a group of kids, ranging from six to 15 years old, to come up with interesting
b. The greater accuracy not only improves the driving experience (increased
responsiveness and consistent pedal feel regardless of outside temperature or
pedal position), but it allows the throttle position to be tied closely into ECM
information like fuel pressure, engine temperature and exhaust gas re-circulation.
This means improved fuel economy and power delivery as well as lower exhaust
emissions.
c. With the pedal inputs reduced to a series of electronic signals, it becomes a simple
matter to integrate a vehicle's throttle with non-engine specific items like ABS,
gear selection and traction control. This increases the effectiveness of these
systems while further reducing the amount of moving parts, service requirements
and vehicle weight.
For the driver, the most striking aspects of the interior design of the vehicle are the
absence of pedals and steering column. This creates considerably more space inside
the car. Drive-by-wire technology eliminates heavy, space-consuming hydraulic and
mechanical components, and it has positive environmental implications through the
elimination of brake fluids, as well as significant safety benefits.
In this concept vehicle, the driver’s control system combines all the controls
that the driver needs in a single unit. Throttle, braking and steering are presented as
hand controls. Gear selection is made by a button system that is familiar from the
world of motor racing. Lights, windscreen wipers, audio, heating and air conditioning
are all located within the driver’s immediate reach. The right and left steering control
yokes, which are linked, have a travel of +/- 20 degrees. The amount of “feel”
experienced by the driver is fully programmable, as is the relationship between the
movement of the yokes and the movement of the front wheels. For the Filo, the
steering actuator fits into the original platform’s sub-frame assembly.
motors, lights or any number of electrical appliances. There are several different types
of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are usually classified by the
type of electrolyte they use. Some types of fuel cells show promise for use in power
generation plants. Others may be useful for small portable applications or for
powering cars. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most
promising technologies. This is the type of fuel cell that will end up powering cars,
buses and maybe even your house. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell. It is the type of fuel cell
used in the Hy-Wire car.
First, let's take a look at what's in a PEM fuel cell. We can see there are four
basic elements of a PEMFC:
The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the
electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an
external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally
over the surface of the catalyst. The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has
channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also
conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can
recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. The electrolyte is the
proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which looks something
like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged ions. The
membrane blocks electrons. The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the
reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly
coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the
maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen.
The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.
3.3.1 Working
The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters the fuel cell on the anode side. This
gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in
contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons
(e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way
through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to
the cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being
forced through the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms
has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two H + ions through
the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons
from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).
This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts. To get this
voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a
fuel-cell stack.
Anode side
2𝐻2 → 4𝐻 + +4𝑒 −
Cathode side
𝑂2+ +4𝐻 + +4𝑒 − → 2𝐻2 o
Net reaction
2𝐻2 +𝑂2 → 2𝐻2o
We learned in the last section that a fuel cell uses oxygen and hydrogen to
produce electricity. The oxygen required for a fuel cell comes from the air. In fact, in
the PEM fuel cell, ordinary air is pumped into the cathode. The hydrogen is not so
readily available, however. Hydrogen has some limitations that make it impractical
for use in most applications. For instance, you don't have a hydrogen pipeline coming
to your house, and you can't pull up to a hydrogen pump at your local gas station.
Some of the more promising fuels are natural gas, propane and methanol.
Many people have natural-gas lines or propane tanks at their house already, so these
fuels are the most likely to be used for home fuel cells. Methanol is a liquid fuel that
has similar properties to gasoline. It is just as easy to transport and distribute, so
methanol may be a likely candidate to power fuel-cell cars.
3.4.1 Automobiles
Fuel cells also make sense for portable electronics like laptop computers,
cellular phones or even hearing aids. In these applications, the fuel cell will provide
much longer life than a battery would, and you should be able to” recharge" it quickly
with a liquid or gaseous fuel.
3.4.3 Buses
Fuel-cell-powered buses are already running in several cities. The bus was one
of the first applications of the fuel cell because initially, fuel cells needed to be quite
large to produce enough power to drive a vehicle. In the first fuel-cell bus, about one-
third of the vehicle was filled with fuel cells and fuel-cell equipment. Now the power
density has increased to the point that a bus can run on a much smaller fuel cell.
This is a promising application that you may be able to order as soon as 2002.
General Electric is going to offer a fuel-cell generator system made by Plug Power.
This system will use a natural gas or propane reformer and produce up to seven
kilowatts of power (which is enough for most houses). A system like this produces
electricity and significant amounts of heat, so it is possible that the system could heat
your water and help to heat your house without using any additional energy.
The components which comprise the power transmission mechanism are the
Hydrogen fuel cell stack & the 3-phase ac motor. We have discussed the working of
the fuel cell just before. Now the reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7
volts. To get this voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be
combined to form a fuel-cell stack. The fuel-cell stack in the Hy-wire is made up of
200 individual cells connected in series, which collectively provide 94 kW (125 bhp)
of continuous power and 129 kW (173 bhp) at peak power. This system delivers DC
voltage ranging from 125 to 200 volts, depending on the load in the circuit. Three
cylindrical storage tanks made by Quantum Fuel Systems Technologies Worldwide,
Irvine, CA, rated at 5,000 psi (350 bar) so far provide a range of about 100 km (60
miles), with refueling in five minutes. But judging from earlier comments by GM's
vice president of research and development, Larry Burns, higher-pressure tanks of
10,000 psi are
Under consideration” The motor controller boosts this up to 250 to 380 volts
and converts it to AC current to drive the three-phase electric motor that rotates the
wheels (this is similar to the system used in conventional electric cars).
The electric motor's job is to apply torque to the front wheel axle to spin the
two front wheels. The control unit varies the speed of the car by increasing or
decreasing the power applied to the motor. When the controller applies maximum
power from the fuel-cell stack, the motor's rotor spins at 12,000 revolutions per
minute, delivering a torque of 159 pound-feet. A single-stage planetary gear, with a
ratio of 8.67:1, steps up the torque to apply a maximum of 1,375 pound-feet to each
wheel. That's enough torque to move the 4,200-pound (1,905-kg) car 100 miles per
hour (161 kph) on a level road. Smaller electric motors maneuver the wheels to steer
the car, and electrically controlled brake calipers bring the car to a stop.
3.5.2 Control
At the chassis level, the computer controls all aspects of driving and power
use. But it takes its orders from a higher power -- namely, the driver in the car body.
The computer connects to the body's electronics through a single universal docking
port. This central port works the same basic way as a USB port on a personal
computer: It transmits a constant stream of electronic command signals from the car
controller to the central computer, as well as feedback signals from the computer to
the controller. Additionally, it provides the electric power needed to operate all of the
body's onboard electronics. Ten physical linkages lock the body to the chassis
structure. The driver's control unit, dubbed the X-drive, is a lot closer to a video game
controller than a conventional steering wheel and pedal arrangement. The controller
has two ergonomic grips, positioned to the left and right of a small LCD monitor. To
steer the car, you glide the grips up and down lightly -- you don't have to keep
rotating a wheel to turn, you just have to hold the grip in the turning position. To
accelerate, you turn either grip, in the same way you would turn the throttle on a
motorcycle; and to brake, you squeeze either grip.
Since it doesn't directly drive any part of the car, the X-drive could really go
anywhere in the passenger compartment. In the current Hy-wire sedan model, the X-
drive swings around to either of the front two seats, so you can switch drivers without
even getting up. It's also easy to adjust the X-drive up or down to improve driver
comfort, or to move it out of the way completely when you're not driving.
One of the coolest things about the drive-by-wire system is that you can fine
tune vehicle handling without changing anything in the car's mechanical components,
all it takes to adjust the steering, accelerator or brake sensitivity is some new
computer software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles, you will most likely be able to
configure the controls exactly to your liking by pressing a few buttons, just like you
might adjust the seat position in a car today. It would also be possible in this sort of
system to store distinct control preferences for each driver in the family.
Weight : 1,898 kg
Chassis thickness : 28 cm
reason why drive-by-wire cars would be any more dangerous than conventional cars.
In fact, a lot of
Designers think they'll be much safer, because the central computer will be
able to monitor driver input. Another problem is adding adequate crash protection to
the car. The other major hurdle for this type of car is figuring out energy-efficient
methods for producing, transporting and storing hydrogen for the onboard fuel-cell
stacks. With the current state of technology, actually producing the hydrogen fuel can
generate about as much pollution as using gasoline engines, and storage and
distribution systems still have a long way to go. For that and other reasons, GM is still
exploring other storage techniques such as metal hydrides. To make fuel cell cars
attractive, they must match current life time expectations of 150,000 miles or more
and GM is pretty optimistic about that aspect. Says Larry Burns “….other than the
flow of electrons and protons, the only moving parts will be the wheels, the
suspension and the compressor, so it should have a pretty good life." In terms of
production volumes, Burns said some 55 million cars are added each year to the
global car park, minus "the old ones that are being retired. By 2010 we estimate the
industry will be producing about 70 million a year." And how many of these might be
fuel cell vehicles? "We see affordable and compelling vehicles as possible by 2010,"
said Burns. A decade after that he expects "we will move to high penetration,
"probably hundreds of thousands of units in the 2020 time frame." Not all stacks will
go to transportation because there may be other, stationary applications, but that order
of magnitude, says Burns, "makes a lot of sense." Hy-wire is likely to spawn changes
in other vehicles, and the first commercial one may not necessarily look like Hy-wire,
according to Burns: "we might find fuel cells in conventional vehicles," for example,
as well as by-wire technology. Big economies of scales are likely to be derived from
the skateboard chassis concept: Today, says Burns, GM has to design and build 12-14
different "platforms" to cover the entire market. But with the skateboard, "there will
be fewer platforms" - maybe only two or three. And fuel cell stacks can be "snapped
together" - from 10 kW for a house to 1,000 kW for a locomotive.
So will we ever get the chance to buy a Hy-wire? General Motors says it fully
intends to release a production version of the car in 2010, assuming it can resolve the
major fuel and safety issues. But even if the Hy-wire team doesn't meet this goal, GM
and other automakers are definitely planning to move beyond the conventional car
sometime soon, toward a computerized, environmentally friendly alternative. In all
likelihood, life on the highway will see some major changes within the next few
decades.
CHAPTER 4
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 4.1: Projected greenhouse gases for different alternative vehicle scenarios over
the 21st century for the US light duty vehicle fleet, assuming that both the electrical
grid and hydrogen production reduce their carbon footprints over time (BEV= battery
electric vehicle; H2 ICE HEV = hydrogen internal combustion engine hybrid electric
vehicle)
Similarly, Figure 4.2 shows that HEV’s and PHEV’s powered by bio fuels could not
reduce oil consumption in the US to levels that would allow us to produce most of our
petroleum from American sources if needed in a crisis. To achieve oil “quasi-
independence” and to cut GHGs to 80% below 1990 levels, we will have to eliminate
the internal combustion engine from most light duty vehicles. We will have to
transition to all electric vehicles over the next few decades to meet our societal goals.
Figure 4.2: Oil consumption from US light duty vehicles over the 21st century for
different alternative vehicle scenarios
We have but two choices to power all electric vehicles: fuel cells or batteries.
Both produce electricity to drive electric motors, eliminating the pollution and
inefficiencies of the venerable internal combustion engine. Fuel cells derive their
power from hydrogen stored on the vehicle, and batteries obtain their energy from the
electrical grid. Both hydrogen and electricity can be made from low or zero carbon
sources including renewable energy and nuclear energy.
Figure 4.3 compares the specific energy (energy per unit weight) of current
deep discharge lead acid (Pb-A) batteries, nickel metal hydride (NiMH), Lithium-Ion
and the US ABC (Advanced Battery Consortium) goal with the specific energy of a
PEM fuel cell plus compressed hydrogen storage tanks. Two hydrogen pressures are
shown: 5,000 psi and 10,000 psi with fiber-wrapped composite tanks. The 10,000 psi
tanks weigh more than the 5,000 psi tanks due to the requirement for extra fiber wrap
to provide the needed strength.
Figure 4.3: The specific energy of hydrogen and fuel cell systems compared to the
specific energy of various battery systems
Figure 4.4: Calculated weight of fuel cell electric vehicles and battery electric
vehicles as a function of the vehicle range
As shown here, the extra weight to increase the range of the fuel cell EV is
negligible, while the battery EV weight escalates dramatically for ranges greater than
100 to 150 miles due to weight compounding. Each extra kg of battery weight to
increase range requires extra structural weight, heavier brakes, a larger traction motor,
and in turn more batteries to carry around this extra mass, etc.
Some analysts are concerned about the volume required for compressed gas
hydrogen tanks. They do indeed take up more space than a gasoline tank, but
compressed hydrogen tanks take up much less space (including the fuel cell system)
than batteries for a given range. The basic energy density of the hydrogen fuel cell
system in watt-hours per liter is compared with that of batteries in Figure 4.5.
The hydrogen system has an inherent advantage in basic energy density. But
this advantage is amplified on a vehicle as a result of weight compounding. Thus the
battery EV requires more stored energy per mile than the FCEV as a result of the
heavier batteries and resulting heavier components. The net effect on the volume
required for the energy supply on the car is shown in Figure 4.6, again as a function of
range. The space to store lead acid batteries would preclude a full five passenger
vehicle with a range of more than 150 miles, while the NiMH would be limited in
practice to less than 200 to 250 miles range.
Figure 4.5: Energy density of hydrogen tanks and fuel cell systems compared to the
energy density of batteries
Figure 4.6: Calculated volume of hydrogen storage plus the fuel cell system compared
to the space required for batteries as a function of vehicle range
The greenhouse gas (GHG) implications of charging battery EVs with today’s
power grid are serious. Since on average 52% of our electricity in the US comes from
coal, and since the grid efficiency is on the order of only 35%, GHGs would be much
greater for EVs than for hydrogen-powered FCEVs, assuming that most hydrogen was
made by reforming natural gas for the next decade or so.
4.1.6 Conclusions
The fuel cell EV is superior to the advanced Li-ion battery full function EV on six
major counts; the fuel cell EV:
Weighs less.
Takes up less space on the vehicle.
Generates less greenhouse gases.
Costs less.
Requires less well-to-wheels energy.
Takes less time to refuel.
Figure 4.8: Net energy losses to Wells to wheels. For fuel cell vehicles
For example, the equivalent fuel economy of a compressed natural gas, spark
ignited, hybrid electric vehicle (CNG SI/HEV) is 48.6 mpg, whereas a fuel cell
vehicle powered by hydrogen derived from methane is projected to get 82.0 mpg, a
substantial improvement. However, if viewed from the standpoint of well-to-wheels
energy consumed per unit of distance traveled, the difference is more modest: 2867
versus 2368 BTU/mi. If CO2 is sequestered in the forming of hydrogen, the amount
emitted into the atmosphere is only 25 g/mi for the fuel cell vehicle compared to 196
g/mi for the CNG vehicle. This additional benefit favors the fuel cell vehicle. Clearly
hydrogen fuel cells do not entirely eliminate CO2 emissions unless the hydrogen is
generated without combusting or reforming hydrocarbon fuels, e.g. by electrolysis of
water using nuclear, solar or wind power. The emission of CO, NOx and
hydrocarbons associated with the ICE are removed, but may be emitted to some
extent in a different location by the chemical plant generating H2.
Even if production losses are taken into account, the fuel cell vehicle surpasses
the conventional internal combustion engine in efficiency, although the overall
efficiency is only about 30% in the best case, less than the 60% x 70% = 42% well-to-
wheels efficiency objective of Fuel cell car (Fig 5.10), where 60% is the energy-to-
wheels goal and 70% is the well-to-pump efficiency.
Further comparison of internal combustion engine and fuel cells for fuel
economy and CO2 emissions is shown in Table I.
Ogden pointed out major obstacles that must be overcome before automotive
fuel cell technology can be considered viable. First, today’s cost of $1500 to $10 000
per kilowatt of power must come down to the range of $50-100 per kilowatt to be
competitive. According to Ogden, the most expensive component is the membrane
electrolyte, typically made of the polymer Nafion. Also, A.D. Little has indicated that
the current platinum requirement for a 50-kW system would cost $57/kW, which is
higher than the Fuel cell car cost target for the entire fuel cell system. Second, a
breakthrough in on-board hydrogen storage is required. The currently preferred
method is to use a carbon-fiber wrapped compressed-gas cylinder (at a pressure of 34
MPA or 5000 psi, with mass of 32.5 kg, and volume of 186 L for a 500-km range).
An infrastructure to produce and distribute hydrogen economically is the third major
problem to be solved. Presently most hydrogen is produced thermo chemically (500-
1700 C) in oil refineries and chemical plants by reforming natural gas and other
hydrocarbons with steam or oxygen. Unlike petroleum, natural gas supplies are
abundant and come mostly from within the United States or are imported from
Canada. Production facilities operate at approximately 70% of capacity and the
distribution infrastructure has excess capacity. Thus, at least initially, natural gas
production and distribution does not appear to be a limiting factor in the availability
of hydrogen
A different approach that does not rely on hydrocarbons has been analyzed by
C. W. Forsberg and K. L. Peddicord. They discussed the economics of H2 production
using nuclear energy to provide the energy for electrolysis of water and concluded
.The technology has the potential for economic production of H2.. Likewise,
hydrogen production from renewable sources such as wind power could be
interesting, but has not been analyzed here. Fortunately, the distribution of H2 may
not be as daunting as one might think. Fosberg, in a private communication, noted the
existence of several hydrogen pipelines in Europe, the United States and Japan.
However, natural gas lines would have to be retrofitted with new valves and
compressors before hydrogen could be transported through them.
Initially the auto industry felt that sufficient hydrogen fuel would not be
available quickly enough, so engineers pursued a path that required on-board
reforming of gasoline or methanol. DaimlerChrysler demonstrated an example in
October 2000. The Jeep Commander 2 (similar to the Jeep Grand Cherokee sport
utility vehicle) reformed pure, electronic-grade methanol to power two Ballard fuel
stacks. Although DaimlerChrysler demonstrated 23.5 mpg fuel efficiency (almost
twice that of a comparable gasoline vehicle) with acceptable performance and
acceleration, they found that fuel reforming must be improved because the cold-start
time was unacceptable.
Department of ME, VAST-TC, Kilimanoor Page 33
HY- WIRE CONCEPT CAR
FUEL ECONOMY
Mpg equiv - LHV basis Well-to-Wheel Well-to-
(from GREET model; Energy Wheel 𝐶𝑂2
except fuel cell vehicles consumption Emission
and 𝐻2 ICE HEVs from (BTU mi) (g/mile)
DTI)
Ic engine vehicle
Conventional
22.4 6492 514
Gasoline SI Engine
CNC SI Engine 20.3 6702 459
Avd. Diesel CI
37.0 4565 378
Engine
ICE/hybrid
vewhicles
Gasoline SIDI/HEV 46.9 3092 252
CNG SI/HEV 48.6 2867 196
Ethenol SIDI/HEV 46.9 4921 67
3466 w/o
234 w/o 𝐶𝑂2 seq
𝐻2 SI/HEV 50.0 𝐶𝑂2 seq
41 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
3580 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
Disel CIDI/HEV 56.8 2487 208
FUEL CELL
VEHICLE
Gasoline (probable) 38.0 3819 304
(best) 49.4 2938 234
Methanol
56.0 3212 199
(probable)
64.2 2802 174
(best)
Hydrogen (from
natural gas with
stem reforming. 2368 w/o 𝐶𝑂2
143 w/o 𝐶𝑂2 seq
Pipe line delivery 82.0 seq
25 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
and compression to 2446 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
5000 psi for on
board storage)
Table 1: Fuel Economy, Energy Use and CO2 Emissions for Alternative Fueled
Automobiles
Fuel Year To
Current
Vehicle Economy Criteria Mass
Incremental Other Issues
System Improvement Emission Market
Cost
Potential Introduction
High
Consumer
Continued Very near
Enhanced Moderate Minimal acceptance,
Through Term
Conventional (50%) (5%) Continued
reduced (0-5y)
Petroleum
dependence
Grade
Some
climbing
zero
Substantial Near term Substantial ability or
Hybrid emission
(100-200%) (2-7 y) (10-20%) towing
Range
capacity may
possible
be reduced
Low to
zero Potential
Very high Mid term Very high
Fuel cell tailpipe petroleum
(150-300%) (7-12 y) (>20%
and independence
total
Energy
storage,
Battery- Very high Zero Near term Very high
range
electric (300%) tailpipe (2-7 y) (>20%)
concerns, low
petroleum use
Ron Sims, Ford Motor Co. research engineer (retired) and consultant to
ORNL, feels that gasoline reformers (and presumably methanol as well) on-board the
vehicle are no longer viable because they are too costly and too complex. Obviously,
the reformer adds another chemical plant to the vehicle. an undesirable feature.
However, stationary reformers at gas stations might make sense.
Sims thinks it will take 10-15 y for commercialization of fuel cell vehicles, 20
y before internal combustion engine sales will notice the impact of fuel cells. On the
other hand, Larry Burns and other GM executives have publicly stated, .By the end of
this decade, you can expect to see affordable, profitable fuel cell vehicles on the
road."
By 2000, Ford had built a hydrogen refueling station at the Engineering and
Research Center in Dearborn, Michigan and had developed a hydrogen (no reforming)
fuel cell vehicle with on-board storage of compressed gas.
In the May 2002 press release Larry Burns, while still maintaining that GM
will produce affordable, customer-friendly fuel cell vehicles by 2010, believes GM
will only .sell them profitably and in large numbers by 2020.. Clearly the timetable is
rather long, consistent with the opinion of Ron Sims. For more information on
prototype fuel cell vehicles,
5 CONCLUSION
The GM concept provides much more value than just zero emissions and twice
the fuel economy .It would provide very affordable all-wheel drive, unprecedented
safety and comfort, and no oil changes, maintenance worries or trips to the gas
station.
Looking in to the future, Burns says he thinks fuel cells offer a promising
alternative, but he recognizes that they need to be compelling, affordable, and
profitable. One area GM is tackling is hydrogen storage. GM partnered with Quantum
Technologies to develop a prototype tank that will give you a driving range of up to 300
miles before you have to refuel.
Burns says GM is looking into other ways it can store compressed hydrogen,
“There’s liquid for hydrogen and there’s also metal hydride when you’re storing
hydrogen in a solid state,” he said. Keebler says another solution could be to build a
hydrogen reformer into the car, which would enable it to turn other fuels into hydrogen.
You could also house these reforms at gas stations, he says. Burns says you could
distribute the gasoline the same way you do today, but it would go through a reformer at
the pump, creating hydrogen from the gas. Burns sees a world where GM overcomes
those obstacles and your car becomes part of your energy solution and not the problem.
“Let’s imagine a world in which you could come home at night and pull your
hydrogen fuel cell vehicle into your garage. The first thing you do is connect it to some
compressed hydrogen tanks that are also in your garage and you put hydrogen into your
vehicle. You are refueling at home,” he said. At the end of the day, if you have some
leftover hydrogen in your tank, you could also use it to power your home. He says he
also envisions you being able to plug your car into your city’s electric grid and selling
back fuel you don’t use. Keebler says he likes what he has seen from the Hy-wire
overall. He hasn’t been able to test-drive it yet. But he said, “If they can pull that off,
they will have indeed leaped over the completion.”
General Motors has the longest fuel cell history of any automaker, with the
Electro Van demonstrating the potential for fuel cell technology nearly 50 years ago.
The company has had a succession of fuel cell test and demonstration vehicles,
including the world’s first publicly drivable FCEV in 1998. 2007 saw the launch of
the HydroGen4 (marketed in the USA as the Chevrolet Equinox, above), representing
the fourth generation of GM’s stack technology. More than 120 test vehicles have
been deployed since 2007 under Project Driveway, which put the vehicles into the
hands of customers and has been the world’s largest FCEV end user acceptance
demonstration: the vehicles have accumulated more than two million miles on the
road
A fifth-generation fuel cell stack, half the size and with significantly less
platinum than its predecessor, was integrated into a fuel cell concept of the now
popular Chevrolet Volt/Vauxhall Ampere but has yet to reach test vehicles.
Shortly after Project Driveway launched, the automotive industry crisis hit
America. In June 2009 General Motors Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy
reorganization in a pre-packaged solution that saw all original investment lost and the
company’s remaining profitable assets sold to a new government-backed entity,
General Motors Company, which issued an IPO in 2010, the largest in US history at
$20.1 billion. GM subsequently returned to profit last year.
Despite these severe changes in the business, including recent cuts to R&D
staff, the fuel cell development division has remained; this is a positive reminder of
GM’s belief in the technology. It is understandable that the company has neither
released further demonstration vehicles since the HydroGen4, nor affirmed any
substantial details of fuel cell commercialization. With successful trials completed in
California and Germany, and with the promise of further infrastructure in these areas,
it seems likely that this is where GM will commercialize first; one would hope still
within the 2015 timeframe.
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