SIMULATION OF TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

Abstract

ABSTRACT

Transformer less AC power supplies accept wall-outlet AC voltage (such as 120VAC) input and
produce a low voltage DC (such as 3VDC) output. The low voltage DC is typically low current
output, on the order of tens of milliamps. This Design note explains how Transformer less power
supply work and examines tradeoffs to consider when designing them. The options described
herein can be implemented with the Proto Power Switch, a circuit for prototyping products that
control AC voltage and are powered by AC voltage.
The Proto Power Switch can be ordered pre-populated or as a bare board. Beyond the
prototyping stage, Designer Circuits, LLC can support transition to production by designing and
sourcing custom circuit boards specific to your application.
Transformer less AC power supply theory is not generally taught at the university level, yet the
use of such power supplies is prevalent in consumer goods. Online whitepapers and websites
provide example circuits and equations to aid the design process, yet these sources emphasize the
math without explaining the fundamental principles of operation. The aim of this DesignNote is
familiarize the reader with the basic concepts, such that the equations can be derived,
constructed, and manipulated intuitively.
The scope of this document addresses circuits which accept single phase AC voltage (e.g.
120VAC, 240VAC) and output low, fixed DC voltage.
Described simply, Voltage division ensures that only a small fraction of the input voltage shows
up across the output capacitor. The AC voltage is rectified to ensure that the capacitor is only
charged and not discharged by the mains. The AC input voltage charges up an output filter
capacitor. Lastly, a Zener diode in parallel with the output capacitor performs basic voltage
regulation. Thus finally desired DC output voltage is obtained.

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CHAPTER I

1.1 INTRODUCTION

There are several ways to convert an AC voltage at all into the DC voltage required by a
microcontroller. Traditionally, this has been done with a transformer and rectifier circuit. There
are also switching power supply solutions, however, in applications that involve providing a
DC voltage to only the microcontroller and a few other low-current devices, transformer based or
switcher based power supplies may not be cost effective. The reason is that the transformers in
transformer-based solutions, and the inductor/MOSFET/controller in switch-based solutions, are
expensive and take up a considerable amount of space. This is especially true in the appliance
market, where the cost and size of the components surrounding the power supply may be
significantly less than the cost of the power supply alone. Transformer less power supplies
provide a low-cost alternative to transformer-based and switcher based power supplies. The two
basic types of Transformer less power supplies are
 Resistive Transformer less power supply and
 Capacitive Transformer less power supply.

1.2 RESISTIVE TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

The lowest-cost, physically-smallest component we can use for input impedance Z1 is a
resistor, which we will refer to as R1 or Rin. All load and Zener diode current flows through R1.
Large peak voltages (as high as Vin,peak - Vout) will exist across R1, so it must be rated to
handle high voltage. The combination of high voltage and current flow (equal to the total load +
Zener current) results in significant power lost as heat in resistor R1. A resistive Transformer less
is typically sized to deliver relatively small amounts of current (a few mA) so as to limit the heat
generated by resistor R1. The power dissipated by resistor R1 for a full-wave rectifier is the
RMS voltage across R1 squared, divided by the resistance R1. We can approximate the RMS
voltage across R1 from the RMS of the input voltage minus the DC output voltage.

For a half-wave rectifier with the blocking diode pre-zener, the effective input RMS voltage is
reduced

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All current that flows through R1 has the potential to become output current. It is only
when the Zener diode conducts current that the current is lost as heat in the Zener. Otherwise, the
output capacitor effectively stores R1 current, allowing loads to draw current from the output
capacitor as needed. Based on capacitor charge (amp-second) balance principles, we know that
the output capacitor will provide as many amp-seconds to the load as it receives from R1. Thus,
the average current through R1 represents the maximum average output current that the resistive
Transformer less power supply can generate. The word “maximum” is used here because less
current can always be delivered to the output (down to 0A), in which case the Zener consumes
the unused current.

R1 will pass an average current based on the average voltage applied across it. For a full
wave rectified AC input, this means the output current will be based on the average of the
absolute value of the AC waveform. Looking back at Figure 1 for the full wave output, we see
that simply calculating the average AC voltage for the positive ½ of one sine wave period will
provide the average AC voltage for the entire waveform.

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For a half wave rectified AC input instead, this means the output current will be based
half of the average of the positive part of the AC waveform (because the other half of the
waveform will be 0V). This effectively reduces the average output current by half compared to
the full wave rectified configuration.

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1.3 CAPACITIVE TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

Introduction
This 5 Volts transformer less power supply take advantage of the fact that a Zener diode is also a
normal diode that conducts current in the forward direction. During one half wave, the current
flows via 𝐷1 through the load and back via 𝐷4 , while during the other half wave it flows via 𝐷3
and 𝐷2 . Bear in mind that with this circuit (and with the bridge rectifier version), the zero voltage
reference of the DC voltage is not directly connected to the neutral line of the 230V circuit.

Figure: Transformer less Supply Circuit Schematic

This means that it is usually not possible to use this sort of supply to drive a TRIAC, which
normally needs such a connection. However, circuits that employ relays can benefit from full-
wave rectification. The value of the supply voltage depends on the specifications of the Zener
diodes that are used, which can be freely chosen. 𝐶2 must be able to handle at least this voltage.
The amount of current that can be delivered depends on the capacitance of 𝐶1 . With the given
value of 220nF, the current is approximately 15mA. A final warning: this sort of circuit is
directly connected to mains voltage, which can be lethal. You must never come in contact with
this circuit! It is essential to house this circuit safely in a suitable enclosure.

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CHAPTER II

LIST OF COMPONENTS

List of components to be used are:

 Resistors
 Capacitor
 Diode
 Zener diode

2.1 RESISTORS

2.1.1 Introduction
There is always some resistance in every circuit.
• A circuit is always made up of some wire, so there will be some resistance there.
• Even the battery has parts that offer resistance to the flow of electrons.
• The only circuits that come near to zero resistance are superconductors.
• This resistance that is from the parts of the circuit itself (especially the battery) is called internal
resistance.
• This internal resistance is usually drawn into a circuit diagram (schematic) as shown in
Figure:1.

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Figure 2.1: A schematic diagram showing internal resistance and a battery

• Notice the squiggly line just before the positive terminal of the battery? That’s to show the
internal resistance of the circuit.
• That symbol, drawn any other place in the circuit, represents an actual resistor placed in the
circuit.
• A resistor is a device found in circuits that has a certain amount of resistance.
Why would you ever want to add resistance to a circuit by using a resistor?
• The most common reason is that we need to be able to adjust the current flowing through a
particular part of the circuit.
• If voltage is constant, then we can change the resistor to change the current.
I=V R If “V” is constant and we change “R”, “I” will be different.

2.1.2 Actual Resistors

The resistors that you would most likely see if you opened up a CD player, VCR, or other
electronic device would look like the ones in Figure 2.

Figure 2.2: Three resistors used in electronic devices.

• They basically look like little cylinders with color lines painted on them.

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• The colour lines tell you the resistance and error range (tolerance) for a resistor according to the
following rules and table of numbers. You do NOT have to memorize this table it will be given
to you if you need it.
To use the table you need to remember the following rules:
1. The first line is the first digit
2. The second line is the second digit
3. The third line is the multiplier
4. The last line (if any) is the tolerance
• Some resistors may have additional colored bands, but we will ignore them here.
• They usually have something to do with measuring things like failure rates or
temperature coefficients.

2.1.3 Color Coding of Resistors

Color Number Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101 ±1%
Red 2 102 ±2%
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 ±5%
Silver 10−2 ±10%
Nocolor ±50%
Table 2.1: color coding of resistors

2.1.4 Methods of Making Resistors

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There are two main methods that are used to make resistors.
• The most common is to just have a bunch of wire wound up inside that little cylinder.
• Known as wire-wound resistors, they depend on the fact that a certain length of a certain piece
of wire will have a certain resistance.
• These resistors tend to be very reliable (with low tolerances), but cost more because of the price
of metals used in them and the machinery needed to carefully cut and wind the wire.
• The other type of resistor is made of a piece of carbon.
• Known as a composition resistor, they depend on the size of the piece of carbon, and the fact
that carbon is a metalloid (has some metal-like properties) that does conduct electricity.
• Because they are made from cheap carbon, composition resistors can cost much less than
similar wire-wound resistors. The drawback is that the carbon can be cracked while making
them, or become cracked in use. They have higher tolerances because of the uncertainty in
cutting the carbon.
In some cases it is necessary to have a circuit with resistors that you can adjust.
• These resistors are known as potentiometers or variable resistors.
• Often they are just a modified version of a wire-wound resistor, although newer versions use
advanced electronics instead.
• You have used one if you have ever used a dimmer switch for lights in a room, or played with
in electric race car set.
• Most variable resistors are designed so that by turning a dial or sliding a switch, you change the
amount of conducting material the current has to go through.
• The more conducting material the current has to go through, the higher the resistance less
material and the resistance is less.

2.1.5 Role of Bleeder Resistors in Power Electronics Circuit

 In high voltage DC power supply, capacitors are used to smooth out the fluctuations in the
output side. In AC to DC rectifiers, the DC link capacitors are used to maintain the smooth
DC waveform.
 These capacitors store an electric charge for a while. In some power supplies, these filter
capacitors hold the full output voltage of the supply, like 600V even after the supply has been
turned off.

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 We should not touch the DC link capacitors or Output filter capacitors immediately after
turned off the supply.
 The Bleeder resistors are connected across the filter capacitors to drain their stored charge so
that servicing the supply is not dangerous.
The Bleeder resistor is also known as Power Supply Drain Resistor.
 The bleeder resistor R should have a value high enough so that it does not interfere with the
operation of power supply, but low enough so it will discharge the capacitor C, in a short
time after the power supply has been shut down.
 In the figure, the Capacitor C is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. During the process of
rectification, it stores charge during the positive half-cycles of secondary voltage and releases
it during the negative half-cycles.
 Thus the power supply circuit is able to maintain a reasonably constant output voltage across
load. But due to parasitic effects C1 will discharge by a small amount during the negative
half-cycle periods from the transformer secondary.
 This gives rise to a small variation in the d.c. output voltage (known as ripple voltage).
 Since ripple is undesirable we must take additional precautions to reduce it. One method of
reducing the ripple voltage is increasing the discharge time constant. This can be achieved by
increasing the value of C.
 Thus for normal operation, the high value of C is important. At the same time, when the
power supply is turned off, this charge has to be removed.
 It is good idea to short out all filter capacitors, using screwdriver with an insulated handle
and wearing heavy, insulated gloves, before working on a dc power supply.
 Even if the supply has bleeder resistors, they might take a while to get rid of the residual
charge.

2.2 CAPACITOR

2.2.1 Introduction

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Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a simple passive
device that is used to “store electricity”. The capacitor is a component which has the ability or
“capacity” to store energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference
(Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery. There are many
different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor beads used in resonance circuits
to large power factor correction capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store charge. In
its basic form, a Capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates which are
not connected or touching each other, but are electrically separated either by air or by some form
of a good insulating material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a
liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is
commonly called the Dielectric. Due to this insulating layer, DC current cannot flow through the
capacitor as it blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of
an electrical charge. The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular or
rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general shape, size and
construction of parallel plate capacitor depending on its application and voltage rating.
When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a capacitor charges up to its supply voltage but
blocks the flow of current through it because the dielectric of a capacitor is non-conductive and
basically an insulator. However, when a capacitor is connected to an alternating current or AC
circuit, the flow of the current appears to pass straight through the capacitor with little or no
resistance. There are two types of electrical charge, positive charge in the form of Protons and
negative charge in the form of Electrons. When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor, the
positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one plate while a corresponding negative (-ve)
charge accumulates on the other plate. For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one plate a
charge of the same sign will depart from the -ve plate.
Then the plates remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to this charge is established
between the two plates. Once the capacitor reaches its steady state condition an electrical current
is unable to flow through the capacitor itself and around the circuit due to the insulating
properties of the dielectric used to separate the plates. The flow of electrons onto the plates is
known as the capacitors Charging Current which continues to flow until the voltage across both
plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is
said to be “fully charged” with electrons. The strength or rate of this charging current is at its

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maximum value when the plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly reduces in
value to zero as the plates charge up to a potential difference across the capacitors plates equal to
the source voltage. The amount of potential difference present across the capacitor depends upon
how much charge was deposited onto the plates by the work being done by the source voltage
and also by how much capacitance the capacitor has and this is illustrated below.

2.2.2 Capacitor Construction

The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be constructed using two
metal or metalized foil plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its capacitance value in
Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance of separation
between them. Altering any two of these values alters the value of its capacitance and this forms
the basis of operation of the variable capacitors.
Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form of an electrical charge on
the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller their separation the greater will be the charge that
the capacitor holds for any given voltage across its plates. In other words, larger plates, smaller
distance, more capacitance. By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the
plates, the ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor
and is therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be rearranged to give the more familiar
formula for the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C*V Although we have said that the
charge is stored on the plates of a capacitor, it is more correct to say that the energy within the
charge is stored in an “electrostatic field” between the two plates. When an electric current flows
into the capacitor, charging it up, the electrostatic field becomes more stronger as it stores more
energy. Likewise, as the current flows out of the capacitor, discharging it, the potential difference
between the two plates decreases and the electrostatic field decreases as the energy moves out of
the plates. The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of an electrostatic
field is called the Capacitance of the capacitor. Not only that, but capacitance is also the property
of a capacitor which resists the change of voltage across it.

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2.2.3 Capacitance of a Capacitor

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors ability to
store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of capacitance being the Farad
(abbreviated to F) named after the British physicist Michael Faraday.
Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when a charge
of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt. Capacitance, C is always
positive and has no negative units.

2.2.4 Smoothing Capacitor

A Smoothing Capacitor is used to generate ripple free DC. Smoothing capacitor is also
called Filter capacitor and its function is to convert half wave / full wave output of the rectifier
into smooth DC. The power rating and the capacitance are two important aspects to be
considered while selecting the smoothing capacitor. The power rating must be greater than the
off load output voltage of the power supply. The capacitance value determines the amount of
ripples that appear in the DC output when the load takes current. For example, a full wave
rectified DC output obtained from 50Hz AC mains operating a circuit that is drawing 100 mA
current will have a ripple of 700 mV peak-to peak in the filter capacitor rated 1000 uF. The
ripple that appears in the capacitor is directly proportional to the load current and is inversely
proportional to the capacitance value. It is better to keep the ripple below 1.5 V peak-to-peaks
under full load condition.
So a high value capacitor (1000 uF or 2200 uF) rated 25 volts or more must be used to get a
ripple free DC output. If ripple is excess it will affect the functioning of the circuit especially RF
and IR circuits.

2.3 DIODE

Diodes used for rectification should have sufficient Peak inverse voltage (PIV). The peak
inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand when it is reverse biased. 1N4007
diode can withstand up to 50 Volts and 1N4007 has a toleration of 1000 Volts. The important
characteristics of general purpose rectifier diodes are given in the table.

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Figure 2.3 : Diode symbol and structure

Types of diodes:
Types of Diode Repetitive Peak Average Forward Forward Voltage Reverse Current
Reverse 𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑚 Current 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑓 𝐼𝑅
IN 4001 50V 1A 1.1V 10µA
IN 4002 100V 1A 1.1V 10µ𝐴
IN 4003 200V 1A 1.1V 10µA
IN 4004 400V 1A 1.1V 10µA
IN 4005 600V 1A 1.1V 10µA
IN 4007 1000V 1A 1.1V 10µA

Table 2.2: Types of diodes

So a suitable option is a rectifier diode 1N4007. Usually a silicon diode has a Forward voltage
drop of 0.6 V. The current rating (Forward current) of rectifier diodes also vary. Most of the
general purpose rectifier diodes in the 1N series have 1 ampere current rating. Here for
rectification of power we are using Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

2.4 ZENER DIODE

Zener Diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a reverse bias, we have already stated
that. A diode connected in reverse bias positive in a circuit is shown below,

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Figure2.4: Zener Diode Circuit

The circuit symbol of Zener diode is also shown below. For convenience and understanding, it is
used normally

Figure2.5: symbol of Zener diode

Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical representation of
the operation of the zener diode. Normally it is called the V-I characteristics of a general p-n
junction diode.

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Figure2.6: Characteristics of a Zener Diode

The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the zener diode. When the diode is
connected in forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias voltage is
greater than a predetermined voltage zener breakdown voltage takes place. To make the
breakdown voltage sharp and distinct, the doping is controlled and the surface imperfections are
avoided. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage, we can say. It is also the knee
voltage because at this point the current is the current is very rapid.

CHAPTER III

WORKING

It is clearly explained in various following steps:

 Voltage Reduction
 Rectification
 Smoothing ripples
 Regulation

3.1 VOLTAGE REDUCTION

Typically a capacitive Transformer less supply is used to delivery larger amounts of
current (tens of milliamps) than resistive Transformer less supplies, specifically because the
improved efficiency enables it without additional cooling concerns. If we use a capacitor (𝐶1 or
𝐶𝑖𝑛 ) for input impedance 𝑍1 , the efficiency improves because we are no longer “losing to heat”
the current that was flowing through it as 𝑅1 .Voltage reduction is varied by employing a variable
resistor. Capacitor drops the voltage and variable resistor controls voltage drop, through this
speed control is done efficiently. In this heat dissipation is neglected as current magnitude is very
low. Mainly in this controlled voltage reduction is done by employing both capacitor and
variable resistor. Rather, the amp-seconds are stored in the capacitance of 𝐶1 without loss, and

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𝑉𝑝𝑘
then 𝐶1 is discharged without loss. Instead of the output current being related to is related
𝑅1

to 𝐶(𝑑𝑣⁄𝑑𝑡).

3.1.1 Input Resistance for Inrush Limiting

Despite the naturally reduced losses for the capacitive Transformer less supply, resistive
loss is still added back in intentionally. If a capacitor is connected directly to the mains at an
instant when the AC voltage is at a peak value, the large voltage will rapidly charge up the
capacitor, which appears to be a short circuit. The high current that charges up the capacitance
can potentially exceed upstream circuit breaker current limits, causing them to trip and generate
localized power outages. Additionally, the high inrush current can cause undesirable arcing at the
moment the device is plugged in. To prevent high inrush currents, a small resistance is usually
placed in series with 𝐶1 .

The resistance should be small enough that it does not generate much heat, but should be
large enough that it limits short circuit currents to acceptable levels. Common 120 𝑉𝐴𝐶 household
circuit breakers in the US are typically rated for 15A. If 5A is an acceptable maximum short
circuit current, then the resistance should be not less than

𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑅1 =
𝑖𝑠𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥

170
=
5

= 34Ω

For the inrush current to remain less than 0.4A, then 𝑅1 = 470Ω will do nicely.

𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅1

The steady state power loss (as heat) incurred by this additional resistance will based on
be the maximum output current of the supply

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2
𝑃𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅1

For capacitive Transformer less power supplies, there is a tradeoff between reducing
inrush current and reducing power consumed by the resistor.

If the Transformer less power supply is designed for a maximum output current of 30mA,
then 𝑅1 = 34Ω (for 5A max inrush current) will generate 0.03W of heat, while inrush current will
be limited to . Likewise, 𝑅1 = 470Ω (for 0.4A max inrush current) will generate just under 0.5W
of heat.

3.1.2 Sizing the Input Capacitor

The input capacitor size determines how much output current available will be available
from the capacitive Transformer less power supply. The capacitor must be capable of handling
positive and negative voltage (so no aluminum electrolytic). To meet UL safety requirements,
the capacitor must be rated for use in series with the mains, which is typically a X-rated
capacitor.

The larger the input capacitor, the greater the output current, according to the well-known
relationship:

𝑖 = 𝐶(𝑑𝑣⁄𝑑𝑡).

or for this application:

𝑑𝑉𝑐1 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑐1 = 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡

However, the inrush-limiting input resistance 𝑅1 also provides some impedance which
effectively reduces the voltage presented to the capacitor. To calculate the maximum output
current, a method very similar to the resistive power supply is used, but 𝑅1 is replaced by with

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the combined impedance of the resistor and capacitor, 𝑍1 . The equation to calculate output
current for a full wave-rectified capacitive Transformer less power supply is:

(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637
𝑧1

(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637
1
√(𝑅1 )2 + (2𝜋𝑓𝐶1 )2

As before, feel free to use the more comprehensive version of the equation with more
accurate integration limits and including the voltage drop of blocking diodes. Be aware that
designs which require too much accuracy likely has too little design margin to operate robustly
in a real world full of device tolerances, temperature variability, and line voltage sags.

𝑉
𝜋−𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑝𝑘 )
∫ (𝑉𝑝𝑘 −𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
−1 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑉 )
𝑝𝑘
( )
𝜋−0
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
1
√(𝑅1 )2 + (2𝜋𝑓𝐶1)2

3.1.3 Sizing the Input Resistance

The input resistance will limit inrush current, but will also consume power.
Unfortunately, the added impedance also reduces the available output current. The “Input
Resistor Tradeoff” worksheet in the spreadsheet that accompanies this document helps to
compare these competing objectives

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Their application note is incorrect not once, but twice in the very first equation. The
average voltage should be used (as in 0.637*Vpeak) instead of RMS voltage. Also, their method
to sum the impedances ignores that R and C impedances are orthogonal to each other, which
requires use of the Pythagorean Theorem. of resistor power consumption, output current, and
worst case inrush current. As a general rule of thumb, most applications achieve a reasonable
balance when the percentage of resistive impedance is around 10% of the input capacitor
impedance:

1 1
(𝑅1 )2 ≅ (2𝜋𝑓𝐶 )2
10 1

3.1.4 Input Capacitor Safe Discharge

When a capacitive Transformer less power supply is disconnected from the AC mains,
there is no guarantee that the capacitor will be in a discharged state. This creates a high voltage
safety hazard on a circuit that would normally be presumed as safe when disconnected. To
mitigate this concern, a high value resistor is usually places in parallel with the capacitor. A
1MΩ will typically sufficient. The resistor needs to be rated to handle at least the peak voltage of
the circuit.

Other considerations one may make when designing Transformer less power supplies
include output voltage ripple, support for multiple output voltages, power loss in the Zener
diodes, and when to use full wave or half wave rectification

3.2 RECTIFICATION

3.2.1 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier

There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely, full-wave rectifiers with center-
tapped transformer and bridge rectifier. A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer
each diode, together with the associated half of the transformer, acts as a half-wave rectifier. The
outputs of the two half-wave rectifier are combined to produce full-wave rectification in the load.

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As far as the transformer is concerned, the dc currents of the two half-wave rectifiers are equal
and opposite, such that there is no dc current for creating a transformer core saturation problem.

3.2.2 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Working & Operation

The working & operation of a full wave bridge rectifier is pretty simple. The circuit diagrams
and wave forms we have given below will help you understand the operation of a bridge rectifier
perfectly. In the circuit diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the form of a bridge. The transformer
secondary is connected to two diametrically opposite points of the bridge at points A & C. The
load resistance RL is connected to bridge through points B and D.

Figure 3.1: Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Circuit Diagram with Input and Output
Wave Forms

3.2.2.1 During the first half cycle

During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes D1 and
D3 are forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance RL, and
returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4
are reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is
indicated by solid arrows in the figure above. We have developed another diagram below to help

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you understand the current flow quickly. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate
beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red
arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the
circuit.

Figure 3.2: Flow of current in Bridge Rectifier

3.2.2.2 During the second half cycle

During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2 and D4 become forward
biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back to the
source flowing through arm DA. Flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure.
Thus the direction of flow of current through the load resistance RL remains the same during
both half cycles of the input supply voltage. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate
beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red
arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the
circuit.

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Figure 3.3: Path of current in second Half Cycle

3.2.2.3 Peak Inverse Voltage of a Full wave bridge rectifier

Lets analyze peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a full wave bridge rectifier using the circuit
diagram. At any instant when the transformer secondary voltage attains positive peak value
Vmax, diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷3 will be forward biased (conducting) and the diodes𝐷2 and 𝐷4 will be
reverse biased (non conducting). If we consider ideal diodes in bridge, the forward biased diodes
𝐷1 and 𝐷3 will have zero resistance. This means voltage drop across the conducting diodes will
be zero. This will result in the entire transformer secondary voltage being developed across load
resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
Thus PIV of a bridge rectifier = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (max of secondary voltage)

3.2.3 Bridge Rectifier Circuit Analysis

The only difference in the analysis between full wave and centre tap rectifier is that

 In a bridge rectifier circuit two diodes conduct during each half cycle and the forward
resistance becomes double (2RF).

 In a bridge rectifier circuit Vs,max is the maximum voltage across the transformer
secondary winding whereas in a centre tap rectifier Vs,max represents that maximum
voltage across each half of the secondary winding.

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3.3 SMOOTHING RIPPLES

DC Smoothing Capacitor
A Smoothing Capacitor is used to generate ripple free DC. Smoothing capacitor is also
called Filter capacitor and its function is to convert half wave / full wave output of the rectifier
into smooth DC. The power rating and the capacitance are two important aspects to be
considered while selecting the smoothing capacitor. The power rating must be greater than the
off load output voltage of the power supply. The capacitance value determines the amount of
ripples that appear in the DC output when the load takes current.

Figure3.4: Types of capacitors

With 50Hz AC input voltage, the output capacitor will have 50Hz ripple for a half wave rectified
circuit, and 120Hz ripple for a full wave rectified circuit. For the same rated output current, the

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full wave rectified circuit will have half as much output ripple as the half wave rectified circuit.
The peak voltage of the ripple will be at the Zener voltage, which should be taken into
consideration when observing maximum and minimum voltage thresholds of the load.
The magnitude of voltage ripple will vary directly with the amount of load current; more load
current will result in a higher magnitude of voltage ripple. Simulation is recommended to
determine whether the expected ripple is acceptable.

Figure 3.5: Full Bridge Rectifier with smoothing Capacitor

For applications which generate greater-than-desired ripple, the output can be

conditioned with an LDO or small DC-DC power converter, both of which provide power supply
ripple rejection (PSRR). When using an LDO, the Zener should be about 1 to 2V above the LDO
output voltage to ensure that the minimum dropout limit is met.
When using a DC-DC converter on the output of the Transformer less power supply, there is an
opportunity to significantly vary the voltage being fed to the DC-DC converter, which allows for
greater output currents. With a Transformer less power supply, current is typically limited to a
few tens of mA because of resistive heat losses. The average maximum output current must flow
through a resistor (either input impedance resistor or inrush limiting resistor) with high voltage
across it, which can generate substantial heat on the order of watts.

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If a step-down DC-DC converter is used on the output of a Transformer less power supply, a
higher output voltage (e.g. 24VDC ) can be reduced to the desired voltage (e.g. 3.0VDC)
efficiently, allowing more low voltage current to be available, even reasonably upwards of
100mA. In such applications, the heat generated by the Zener diode (under no-load conditions)
may then become the limiting constraint. This benefit, as well as the reduced output ripple,
should be considered against the higher cost of adding a DC-DC converter.

3.4 REGULATION

3.4.1 Zener Voltage Regulation

Figure 3.6: Appearance and symbol of zener diode

Zener diode is used to generate a regulated DC output. A Zener diode is designed to operate in
the reverse breakdown region. If a silicon diode is reverse biased, a point reached where its
reverse current suddenly increases. The voltage at which this occurs is known as "Avalanche or
Zener “value of the diode. Zener diodes are specially made to exploit the avalanche effect for use
in ‘Reference voltage ‘regulators. A Zener diode can be used to generate a fixed voltage by
passing a limited current through it using the series resistor (R). The Zener output voltage is not
seriously affected by R and the output remains as a stable reference voltage. But the limiting
resistor R is important, without which the Zener diode will be destroyed. Even if the supply
voltage varies, R will take up any excess voltage. The value of R can be calculated using the
formula

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𝑽𝒊𝒏 − 𝑽𝒁
𝑹=
𝑰𝒛
Where Vin is the input voltage, Vz output voltage and Iz current through the Zener.
In most circuits, Iz is kept as low as 5mA. If the supply voltage is 18V, the voltage that is to be
dropped across R to get 12V output is 6volts. If the maximum Zener current allowed is 100 mA,
then R will pass the maximum desired output current plus 5 mA . So the value of R appears as

18 − 12
R=
105 ∗ 10−3
= 57Ω

Power rating of the Zener is also an important factor to be considered while selecting the Zener
diode. According to the formula P = IV. P is the power in watts, I current in Amps and V, the
voltage. So the maximum power dissipation that can be allowed in a Zener is the Zener voltage
multiplied by the current flowing through it. For example, if a 12V Zener passes 12 V DC and
100 mA current, its power dissipation will be 1.2 Watts. So a Zener diode rated 1.3W should be
used.

3.4.2 Zener Power Dissipation:

Figure 3.7 : zener voltage regulator

The Zener will dissipate power in this circuit. In the worst case-scenario (when the load current
is zero) the maximum current for the Transformer less supply is being passed through the Zener
diode. The power dissipation in the Zener will be the Zener voltage multiplied by the rated

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output current of the Transformer less supply. Thus, the higher the Zener voltage and the higher
the power rating of the supply, the more heat the Zener will generate.
𝑃𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑜𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥
It is critical to note the thermal properties of the Zener diodes to ensure they will meet desired
performance at the temperature they will operate at. If necessary, per-Zener power dissipation
can be reduced by using multiple Zener diodes in series, but this comes at the cost of increased
part count and board space claim.

CHAPTER IV

SIMULATION OF TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

4.1 Simulation Circuit

Figure 4.1: Simulation of Transformer less power supply

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4.2 Simulation Output Waveforms

Figure 4.2: Simulation Output Waveforms

 Supply voltage V =-100v to 100v

 Reduced output V =-10v to 10v

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 Rectified output V = 0v to 10v

 Regulated output V = 0v to 5v

CHAPTER V

5.1 ADVANTAGES

Significantly small size and less weight than transformer based power supplies.
Lesser Cost than Transformer or Switcher based power supplies.
Lesser Cost than Capacitor Power Supply.
Capacitor Power Supply is more efficient than Resistive Transformer Less Power Supply.

5.2 DISADVANTAGES

Higher Cost when compared to a Resistive Power Supply.

No isolation from AC Mains which introduces many safety issues.
Resistive Power supplies are less efficient as the excess energy is losted in the form of heat
across the Voltage Dropping Resistor.

5.3 CONCLUSION
1. Meeting the demand of low power applications.

2. To get rid of unwanted things at output which have already been observed in
normal rectifier.

Above two objectives are accomplished through this device by nullifying losses and

noises.

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