Properties of matter Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of Arranged closely, Liquid particles Gas particles

Chapter 4 particles compactly and neatly nor are not neatly
orderly in fixed closely arranged and
MATTER AND SUBSTANCES. positions. There arranged. There are further apart
is very little empty are empty from one
space between spaces among another.
4.1 Changes in The States of Matter. one particle and the particles.
another. Most of the
particles keep
Kinetic theory of matter contact with one
another.
 the properties of matter can be explained by using the
kinetic theory of matter.
 the kinetic theory matter tries to explain the three states of
matter : solid, liquid, gas : based on the following
assumptions :
(a) matter is made up of a very fine and discrete
particles.
(b) the particles of matter constantly move or
vibrate.
Movement of Particles do not Particles move Particles move
(c) forces of attraction exist among the particles particles move freely and slowly in a fast in a random
in matter, the forces of attraction become only vibrate at random manner. manner and in
stronger when the particles are packed closely their fixed all directions.
together. positions.

 among the examples which support the kinetic theory of Forces of attraction Very strong Not very strong Very weak
matter is the diffusion process. between particles

 diffusion is the movement particles in matter from an area of Energy content Very low Moderate Very high
high concentration to an area of low concentration until both
Shape Fixed Following the Fills up the
area have the same concentration.
shape of the whole container
 the particles of liquid and gas move randomly and collide container
against one another. (Brownian movement)
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Compression Not compressible Very difficult to Easily
compress compressed
  the higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy
content of the particles.

Changes in the state of matter.

 heat is the energy that determine the movement particles in
matter.
 if the temperature of matter increases, particles will get higher
kinetic energy to move faster.
 when heat is supplied, the state of matter will change from solid
to liquid, and finally to gas.
 take changes in the state of matter which take place when heat
is supplied are – melting, boiling, sublimation  when a solid is heated, heat is absorbed by its particles.
 when heat is released the state of matter will change from gas  particles possesses more kinetic energy and vibrate faster.
to liquid and finally to solid.
 at melting point, particles in the solid have enough energy to
 the changes in the state of matter which take place when heat is overcome the forces of attraction between particles and to move
released are – freezing, condensation, sublimation. freely.
 sublimation occurs when the state of matter changes from solid  the solid melts and changes to become liquid.
to gas or vice versa without going through the liquid stage.

Melting
Boiling  when a solid is heated, its particles gain more energy and move
faster.
 the particles in solid separate from solid lattice and release as
gas into the air.

 when liquid is heated, heat energy is absorbed by its particles.

 the liquid particles have more kinetic energy and move faster.
 at boiling point, the energy possessed enable the particles to
Freezing
overcome the forces of attraction between the particles and they
released as gas.

Sublimation
  the gas changes to liquid

 when liquid is cooled, its particles lose energy and are held
together by strong forces of attraction between particles.
 this cause liquid particles not able to move freely and they only
vibrate in their positions
 the liquid freezes to become solid.
Sublimation

Condensation

sublimation
 when gas is cooled, its particles lose energy and are held
together by strong forces of attraction between particles.
(heat released)
 this cause the particles to move very slowly.
 when gas is cooled, its particles lose energy and are held
 the distance between gas particles becomes closer.
together by forces of attraction between particles.
 the gas changes to solid.
 this causes the particles to moves slowly.
 the distance between gas particles becomes closer.
 condensation
(heat released)
Changes in the state of matter involving heat change↓
Gas Liquid

boiling

Solid (heat absorbed)

melting

sublimation freezing (heat absorbed)

(heat absorbed) (heat released)

4.2 Structure of Atoms.

Atoms orbit

 all matter consists of tiny units called atoms. nucleus

 atom is a basic unit of all matter.
 atoms cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope because they are so tiny. electron
 an atom consists of a nucleus in the centre surrounded by electrons.
 electrons move around the nucleus following a certain orbit.

structure of an atom

Subatomic particles
  an atom is made up of particles that are even smaller called subatomic particles.
electron (-)
 there are three types of subatomic particles :
 protons
nucleus
 neutrons
 electrons
neutron
 protons and neutrons from the nucleus in the centre of an atom.
 electrons move around the nucleus at high speed.
 the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
proton (+)

subatomic particles in an atom

Comparison between subatomic particles

Subatomic Symbol Position in atom Relative Relative Mass in gram

particle charge mass

Proton p Nucleus +1 1 1.672 x 10-24

Neutron n Nucleus 0 1 1.675 x 10-24

Electron e Moves around nucleus -1 1/1840 9.107 x 10-28

comparison between subatomic particles

 atoms of any element are neutral because the number of electrons in an atom are the same.
  in a neutral atom, the total positive charges in the nucleus are the same as the total negative charges from the electrons which orbit around
the nucleus.

Atom Number of protons Number of Number of neutrons

electrons

Hydrogen 1 1 0
Helium 2 2 2
Carbon 6 6 6
Sodium 11 11 12
number of subatomic particles in different atoms

 ions are atoms or particles which have charge.

 ions are produced when the number of protons (positive charge) and the number of electrons (negative charge) are not balanced.
 positive ions are particles that are positively charged.
 positive ions are produced when the number of protons is more than the number of electrons.
 negative ions are particles that are negatively charged
 negative ions are produced when the number of electrons is more than the number of protons.

4.3 Proton Number and Nucleon Number in Atoms of Elements.  elements can be differentiated by referring to their proton
number.
 in a neutral atom, the proton number also refers to the number
Proton number and nucleon number
of electrons in that atom.
 proton number is the number of protons in an atom of an
element.
 proton number = number of proton
number of electrons in a neutral atom
 in a neutral atom :

a) nucleon number = number of electrons + number of neutrons

 nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in
an atom of an element. b) number of neutron = nucleon number + number of electrons

nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons

= proton number + number of neutrons

 the number of neutrons in an atom can be calculated if its proton

number and nucleon number are known.

number of neutrons = nucleon number – proton number

= nucleon number – number of protons

 table below shows that atoms of different element possesses different numbers of protons and electrons.

Element Number of Number of Number of Proton Nucleon

protons electrons neutrons number Number

Hydrogen 1 1 0 1 1
Helium 2 2 2 2 4
Lithium 3 3 4 3 7
Beryllium 4 4 5 4 9  atoms of certain elements can represented by the
following symbol :
Boron 5 5 6 5 11
Carbon 6 6 6 6 12
nucleon 14
Nitrogen 7 7 7 7 14 number

Oxygen 8 8 8 8 16 N symbol of
element
Fluorine 9 9 10 9 19 proton 7
number
Neon 10 10 10 10 20
number of neutron = 14 – 7 = 7

Isotopes
 are atoms of the same element that possesses the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
 can also be defined as atoms of the same element with the same proton number but different nucleon number.
 isotopes of the same element possess the same chemical properties.
 the physical properties of isotopes are different.

Element Isotope Nucleon Proton Number Number Number

number number of of of
protons neutrons electrons

Hydrogen Hydrogen-1 1 1 1 0 1

Hydrogen-2 2 1 1 1 1
 Hydrogen-3 3 1 1 2 1

Oxygen Oxygen-16 16 8 8 8 8

Oxygen-17 17 8 8 9 8

Oxygen-18 18 8 8 10 8

Carbon Carbon-12 12 6 6 6 6

Carbon-13 13 6 6 7 6

Carbon-14 14 6 6 8 6

examples of isotopes

4.4 Classification of Elements in Periodic Table.

The classification of elements.
 in the periodic table, the element are arranged in order of increasing proton number.
 the proton number increases from left to right and from top to bottom in the periodic table.
 each vertical column is called a group.
 elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
 each horizontal row is called a period.
  the chemical and physical properties of the elements are gradually changed when crossing periods.
 in the periodic table, there are 18 groups numbered from 1 to 18 and 7 periods numbered from 1 to 7.
 group 1 (alkali metals) and group 2 (earth alkali metals) consist of very reactive metals.
Importance of the periodic table.
 the importance of element classification in the periodic table:

(a) helps us to study elements in an orderly and systematic approach.

(b) helps us to know the properties elements easily because the elements with similar properties are located in the same group.

(c) helps us to predict the properties and uses of an element by referring to the element’s location in the periodic table.

4.5 Properties of substances based on their particle content.

 there are three types of particles.
 atoms are the tiniest particles in an element. atom

 molecules are groups of atoms joined together.

 a molecule consists of two or more atoms
 ions are particles which carry positive or negative charges.

Atomic substances.
 are substances that consist of only atoms. arrangement of atoms in metal

 all metals are atomic substances. (ex : iron, lead, sodium)

 the atoms are in atomic substances are packed closely,
compactly and arranged orderly in fixed positions.
 the atoms in atomic substances are held together by a strong
chemical bond.
 H

Molecular substances.
N
 molecules are the simplest particles found in molecular
substances.
 nitrogen, sulphur dioxide and iodine are examples of molecular H H
substances.
 molecular substances are made up of molecules which have
two or more atoms of the same type. ammonia molecule consists of one nitrogen atom and three
hydrogen atoms.
 for example, two oxygen atoms combine to form one oxygen
molecule.
 molecular substances can also be made up of two or more  molecules are made up of non-metal atoms held together by a
atoms of different types. strong covalent bond.

 for example, one nitrogen atom combines with three hydrogen  however, the forces of attraction between molecules in a
atoms to form one ammonia molecule. molecular substance are relatively weak.

Ionic substances.
 are formed when atoms of metals combine with atoms of non-metal through chemical bonding to form compounds.
 sodium chloride, lead (II) bromide and magnesium oxide are examples of ionic compounds.
 positive ion and negative ion attract one another.
 forces of attraction between ions of opposite charge are called electrostatic attraction force.

sodium ion (+)

chloride ion (-)

Physical properties of atomic, molecular and ionic substances.

Physical property Atomic Substance Molecular Substance Ionic Substances

Physical state at Solid except mercury Solid : Iodine Solid

room temperature
Liquid : Water

Gas : Oxygen

Arrangement of Packed very closely Solid : Packed Packed very

particles closely
Liquid : Not packed

Gas : Far apart

Forces of attraction Very strong Weak Very strong

between particles

Melting point and High Low High

boiling point

Electrical All metals and carbon Does not conduct electricity Conducts
conductivity (graphite) electricity in molten
state

Solubility Does not dissolve in Most of them dissolve in Most of them

anything organic solvent dissolve in water

4.6 Properties and Uses of Metals and Non-Metals.

Metals and Non-Metals.

  elements can be classified into metals and non-metals.
 ex : iron, aluminium, zinc, copper, lead, tin ,and gold.
 carbon, iodine, bromine, sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine are examples of non-metals.
 all metals exist in a solid state at room temperature except mercury.(liquid)
 non-metals exist in a solid, liquid, or, gaseous state at room temperature.

Physical properties of Metals and Non-Metals.

Metals Differences Non-metals

Have shiny surfaces Luminosity Have dull surfaces
Ductile Ductility Not ductile
Easily rolled or Malleability Cannot be forged
hammered into foils or
thin sheets
High Tensile strength Low
Good conductor of Electrical conductivity Do not conduct electricity
electricity except carbon
Good conductor of heat Heat conductivity Poor conductor of heat
High Melting point and boiling Low
point
High Density Low
Solid (except mercury in State of matter at room Solid, liquid, or gas
liquid state) temperature
Uses of Metals and Non-Metals in daily life.

Metal Physical Property Use

Iron High tensile strength Railway tracks and
framework for bridges
Aluminium Light, good conductor of electricity Kitchen utensils and electric
and heat cables
Copper Ductile and malleable, good Electrical wires
conductor of electricity and heat
Tin Do not rust Electroplating of food cans
Gold Does not rust and is shiny Jewellery
Lead Ductile, malleable Cable casing

Non-metal Physical Property Use

Carbon (graphite) Soft and smooth, good
conductor of electricity
Carbon (diamond) Hard
Neon gas and Poor conductor of heat
Lead of pencils, used as
the electrodes in
electrolysis and in dry cell
Drill bits for cutting stone
Lights used for billboards
krypton
Chlorine Acidic Used to kill germs in
drinking water

4.7 Methods of Substance Purification.

Characteristics of pure substances.

 pure substances do not contain any impurities.
 pure substances always have specific melting (freezing) point and boiling point.
 for example : pure water boils at 100oC and ice melts or freezes at 0oC at normal atmospheric pressure. pure iron melts at 1540oC and boils
at 2800oC at normal atmospheric pressure.
 any impurities added to a pure substance will increase the boiling point or lower the freezing (or melting) point of that substance.
 for example : water that is added with salt will boil at a temperature higher than 100 oC and will freeze at a temperature lower than 0oC.

Method of substance purification.

 impurities can be separated from pure substances.
 the process of separating impurities form a substance is called purification.
 there are two methods of purification :
  distillation
 crystallisation

Distillation  is used to obtain pure liquid from a solution which contains

impurities.
 this method is used to separate two liquids (liquid mixture) that :
1. dissolve one another
2. do not react
3. possess different boiling points

 distillation involves the process of heating liquid until it becomes

vapour (gas)
 this vapour is then condenses to become pure liquid.

Liquid boiling Gas condensation Liquid

  distillation can be conduced to separate mixtures of substances (c) obtaining pure ethanol from fermentation of sugar
such as purifying alcohol from a mixture of alcohol and water solution and yeast.
and also purifying water from a mixture of water and salt.
 examples of the application of crystallisation :
 the substance with a lower boiling point boils and vaporises
(a) production of salt from seawater.
earlier.
(b) preparation of white sugar crystals from
 then the gas (vapour) will go through condensation to form the
sugarcane juice.
pure product of distillation.
Crystallisation
 crystallisation is a purification method carried out to obtain pure
crystals from a saturated solution of the substances.
 example : purification of salt from its saturated solution.
 saturated solution is a solution containing maximum quantity of
solute.

Application of Purification Method.

 distillation and crystallisation are often used to obtain pure
substances.
 these purification methods have produced many substances for
our daily needs.
 examples of the application of distillation :
(a) breaking crude petroleum into its fractions such as
petrol, kerosene and diesel to produce fuels and
to make various kinds of plastic material.
(b) production of pure water or distilled water for the
preparation of chemical solution, medicine, as well
as food and beverages.