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What is Thermodynamics?

What is Thermodynamics?

A. Thermodynamics: Definition

The word thermodynamics comes from the Greek word thermos which
means heat and dynamis which means power. Instead of being grouped
within the chemistry family, thermodynamics is part of the physics family.

Essentially, thermodynamics is a science which studies the changes in

temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems on the
macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles
through observation and statistics.

Because heat means energy in transit and dynamics is associated with

movement; thermodynamics studies the movement of energy and how
energy creates movement.

B. Thermodynamics and Heat: History

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Before the 19th century, there was a common assumption that the degree
to which an object felt hot or cold was based upon the amount of heat it
contained.

At this time, heat was envisioned as a liquid that flowed from a hot object
to a cold object. During this time, the weightless fluid was termed
"caloric". This remained the case until Joseph Black (1728-1799)
produced findings that there was a connection between the quantity
(caloric) and the intensity (temperature) of heat as opposed to there
being no difference between heat and temperature.

Eventually, in 1847, J.P. Joule published the definitive paper which

confirmed the idea that heat was a form of energy. After a series of
experiments conducted by Joule, et. al., Helmholtz was able to visibly
demonstrate how various forms of energy could be transformed from one
to another.

C. Thermodynamics: The Laws

In thermodynamics, there are four laws. Broad based in their applications,
they can be beneficial to all types of systems so long as the functioning
element has to do with the balance of energy and transference of matter.
Far ranging examples of these applications include, at the turn of the 20th
century, Einstein's theory on spontaneous emission as well as the current
research that is being conducted on the thermodynamics of black holes.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics. The thermodynamic equilibrium

is an equivalence relation.

The Zeroth Law is explained in this manner: If two thermodynamic

systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Joule's aforementioned experimentation, whereby he confirmed the notion

that heat was indeed a form of energy, was the premise behind the First
Law of Thermodynamics (also known as the Law of Conversation of
Energy)

First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy).

When heat is transformed into any other form of energy, or when

other forms of energy are transformed into heat, the total amount of
energy (heat plus other forms) in the system is constant.

Specifically relating to how machines operate (historically,

thermodynamics was developed out of the need to increase the efficiency
of industrial steam engines), the Second Law of Thermodynamics explains
that a cyclic machine cannot convert heat energy on its own into other
forms of energy.

Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy).

The total entropy (measurement of internal energy) of any

isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time,
approaching a maximum value.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics proposes the notion that some

processes produce irreversible results. For instance, the process of
converting heat into mechanical energy cannot be reversed; you cannot
convert mechanical energy into heat after the heat energy has been
converted into mechanical energy.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics focuses on a temperature of absolute

zero.

Third Law of Thermodynamics (Absolute Zero Temperature).

 As a system asymptotically approaches absolute zero of temperature,
all processes virtually cease and the entropy of the system
asymptotically approaches a minimum value.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics reinforces the notion that upon

reaching the measurement of absolute zero, a system loses all value and
ability to function.

D. Thermodynamics: Scale of Temperature

In sync with the Third Law of Thermodynamics, in addition to, being

composed of all the core tenets of thermodynamics, the Thermodynamic
Scale of Temperature (also known as the absolute or Kelvin scale) is
considered to be the absolute measure of temperature.

It is an absolute scale not just because it is used to measure temperature

or heat, but also that it measures the fundamental property underlying
temperature, that of the null or zero point on the thermodynamic
temperature scale.

By definition, absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature where

nothing can be colder and no more heat energy can be extracted from a
substance.

The thermodynamic temperature scale is presented as being identical to

the gas temperature scale. This is based upon the microscopic (detailed)
interpretation of temperature, which proposes that the macroscopic
(broad based) measurable quantity known as temperature is a result of
the random motions of the individual particles that comprise a system.

E. Thermodynamics: Systems

An important concept in thermodynamics is the system. A system is the

region of the universe which is considered to be undergoing study.

A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by either an

imaginary or real boundary. This boundary helps to rope off' a specific
area, as well as, specify a specific volume. Across the delineated
boundary, an exchange of work, heat, and/or matter between the system
and its surroundings takes place.

In thermodynamics, there are five main classes of systems:

1. Isolated Systems. Where matter and energy do not cross the boundary.
2. Adiabatic Systems. Where heat does not cross the boundary.

3. Diathermic Systems. Where heat may cross the boundary.

4. Closed Systems. Where matter does not cross the boundary.

5. Open Systems. Where heat, work, and matter may cross the boundary.

In isolated systems, overall internal differences in the system eventually

even out; pressures, temperatures, and density differences tend to
balance out. When a system possesses areas which are nearly all equal, it
is considered to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. In
thermodynamic equilibrium, by definition, a system's properties do not
change over time. Basically, systems in equilibrium are much simpler and
easier to understand than systems which are not in equilibrium. Most
times, when analyzing a thermodynamic process, it can be assumed that
each intermediary state is at equilibrium. This also helps to simplify the
measurement of the process.

And lastly, thermodynamic processes which progress at incredibly slow

rates where each intermediary step is said to be at equilibrium are
classified as being reversible processes.

F. Thermodynamics: Parameters

The central concept of thermodynamics revolves around the idea of

energy, hence, the ability to do work. As explained by the first law, the
energy level of the entire system, as well as its surroundings, are
conserved. The energy may be transferred to a body through such means
as: heating, compression, or by the addition of more matter. It may be
extracted by: cooling, expansion, or the extraction of matter.

To provide a means for comparison, in mechanics, energy transfers result

from forces that cause displacement. Thereby, the product of the two
equals the total amount of energy that is being transferred. In a similar
sense, thermodynamic systems entail transferring energy that is produced
by a generalized force which causes a generalized displacement. Thus, the
product of the two equals the total amount of energy that is being
transferred.

Specifically, the thermodynamic force-displacement pairs are called,

"conjugate variables." The most common are: pressure-volume
(mechanical parameters), temperature-entropy (thermal parameters), and
chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).

G. Thermodynamics: States

Under a specified set of conditions, when a system is at equilibrium, it is

said to exist in a definite state. The state of the system can be described
by both intensive and extensive variables. In turn, the properties of the

system can be described by an equation of state that specifies the nature

of the relationship that exists between the variables.

State may be thought of as the immediate quantitative description of a

system whereby a predefined number of variables are held constant.

H. Thermodynamics: Processes

The definition for a thermodynamic process is the energy-infused

transformation of a thermodynamic system whereby it moves from an
introductory state to a final one.

For the most part, each thermodynamic process is distinguishable from

other processes. Fixed examples of some of the specific distinctive
characteristics which separate one from another include: quantities of
energy, parameters of the process, temperature, pressure, and volume of
material.

Note: It has been found useful to group these processes into pairs, in
which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.

The six most common thermodynamic processes are as follows:

1. An isobaric process. Takes place at a constant pressure.

2. An isochoric process (isometric/isovolumetric process). Takes place at

a constant volume.

3. An isothermal process. Takes place at a constant temperature.

4. An isentropic process. Takes place at a constant entropy (amount of

environmental disorder).

5. An isenthalpic process. Takes place at a constant enthalpy (amount of

internal heat).

6. An adiabatic process. Takes place with a constant loss or gain of heat.

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