QUESTIONAIRE AND SOLUTION

DR

Q.1. For many centuries man has been concerned about the shape of the Earth; the early
Greeks in their speculation and theorizing ranged from the flat disc to the sphere,
and even cylindrical and rectangular Earth’s have been propounded.

Q.2. This shape is more properly termed an oblate spheroid, which is the figure
generated by the revolution of an ellipse about its minor axis. Because of this
flattening, the Earth's polar diameter is approximately 27 statute miles shorter than its
average equatorial diameter.

Q.3. The ratio between this difference and the equatorial diameter is termed the
compression of the Earth, and indicates the amount of flattening.

Q.4. Geodetic information obtained from satellite measurements indicates that the Earth is
very slightly "pear-shaped", the greater mass being in the Southern Hemisphere.

Q.5. The extremities of the diameter about which the Earth rotates are called poles.

Q.6. The two poles are distinguished arbitrarily; the North Pole is said to be the pole,
which lies to the left of an observer facing East.

Q.7. North is therefore that direction in which an observer would have to move in order to
reach the North Pole; it is at right angles to the East-West direction.

Q.8. The shortest distance between two points is the length of the straight line joining
them.

Q.9. It is, however, impossible to draw a straight line on a spherical surface and so all
lines drawn on the Earth are curved, some regularly and others irregularly.

Q.10. A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose center and radius are
those of the sphere itself. Because its plane passes through the center of the sphere,
the resulting section is the largest that can be obtained hence the name great circle.

Q.11. Only one great circle may be drawn through two places on the surface of a sphere,
which is not diametrically opposed.

Q.12. The shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere is the
smaller arc of the great circle joining them

Q.13. A small circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose center and radius are not
those of the sphere. All circles other than great circles on the surface of a sphere are
small circles

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Q.14. The Equator is the great circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
the Earth. Every point on the equator is therefore equidistant from both poles.

Q.15. The equator lies in an East-West direction and divides the Earth into northern and
southern hemispheres.

Q.16. Meridians are semi-great circles joining the poles; every great circle joining the poles
forms a meridian and its anti-meridian.

Q.17. All meridians indicate North-South directions.

Q.18. Parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the Earth whose planes are
parallel to the plane of the equator. They therefore lie in an East-West direction

Q.19. A rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth cutting all meridians
at the same angle. Only one such line may be drawn through any two points.

Q.20. The advantage of the rhumb line is that its direction is constant, therefore the rhumb
line between two points may be followed more conveniently than the great circle.

Q.21. The meridians are only parallel to one another where they cross the equator,
elsewhere the angle of inclination between selected meridians increases towards the
poles.

Q.22. This angle of inclination between selected meridians at particular latitude is known
variously as Earth convergence, true convergence, and meridian convergence.

Q.23. The sexagesimal system of measuring angles is universally employed in navigation.

Q.24. In this sexagesimal system the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc
equal to the 360th part of the circumference is called a degree; each degree is
subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds.

Q.25. In spherical calculations it is frequently convenient to express spherical distances

(i.e., great circle distances) in terms of angular measurement rather than in linear
units.

Q.26. Assuming the Earth to be a true sphere, a nautical mile is defined as the length of the
arc of a great circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the center of the
Earth.

Q.27. The number of nautical miles in the arc of any great circle equals the number of
minutes subtended by that arc at the center of the Earth.

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Q.28. The conversion of an angular measurement of spherical distance to linear units
requires only the reduction of the angle to minutes of arc; the number of minutes is
equal to the spherical distance in nautical miles.

Q.29. Because of the Earth's uneven shape the actual length of the nautical mile is not
constant, but varies with latitude from 6,046 feet at the equator to approximately
6,108 feet at the poles.

Q.30. The other mile unit in common use is the statue mile (so called because its length is
determined by law; this is 5,280 feet in length. It is a purely arbitrary unit of
measurement and, unlike the nautical mile, is not readily converted into angular
measurement terms.

Q.31. The kilometer is the SI unit of distance. This unit is the length of 1/10,000th part of the
average distance between the equator and either pole; it is equivalent to 3,280 feet.

Q.32. Speed is the rate of change of position. It is usually expressed in linear units per
hour.

Q.33. As there are three main linear units, there are three expressions of speed:
a. Knots, or nautical miles per hour (kt)
b. Miles per hour i.e. statute miles per hour (mph).
c. Kilometers per hour (km/hr).

Q34. In order to fly in a given direction it is necessary to be able to refer to a datum line or
fixed direction whose orientation is known or can be determined.
Q.35. The most convenient datum is the meridian through the current position, since it is the
North-South line.

Q.36. Direction measured with reference to True North, the direction of the North
geographic pole, is said to be the True direction.

Q.37. True direction has the advantages of being a constant directional reference (i.e.
True direction about a point does not change with time), of being the basis of
nearly all maps and charts, and of being directly and continuously output by inertial
systems.

Q.38. Magnetic direction continues to be used as an aircraft heading reference and as the
basic direction reference in non-inertial systems.

Q.39. The Earth acts as if it is a huge magnet whose field is strong enough to influence the
alignment of a freely suspended magnetic needle anywhere in the world.

Q.40. The poles of hypothetical magnet are known as North and South magnetic poles
and, like those of any magnet, they can be considered to be connected by lines of
magnetic force.

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Q.41. A freely suspended magnetic needle will take up the direction indicated by the
Earth's lines of force and thus assume a general North-South direction

Q.42. Knowing the angle by which the direction of Magnetic North differs from True North at
any given point (an angle which is accurately measured on the ground and displayed
on plotting charts), it is possible to convert Magnetic direction, which can be
measured, into True direction which is required.

Q.43. The angular difference between the direction of True North and Magnetic North at any
given point, and therefore between all True directions and their corresponding
Magnetic directions at that point, is called Variation.

Q.44. Variation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (-) according to
whether the North-seeking end of a freely-suspended magnetic needle, influenced
only by the Earth's field, lies to the East of West of True North at any given point.

Q.45. The algebraic sign given to Variation indicates how it is to be applied to magnetic
direction to convert it to True direction.

Q.46. At any point, therefore, the True direction can be determined by measuring magnetic
direction and then applying the local Variation. A useful mnemonic is:” Variation
East, Magnetic least, Variation West, Magnetic best."

Q.47. Variation is not constant over the Earth's surface but varies from place to place. The
change is gradual and follows a more or less regular pattern.

Q.48. By means of a magnetic survey the variation at numerous points is accurately

measured and tabulated. From such a survey it is possible to discover a number of
points where variation has the same value.

Q.49. Lines joining these points of equal variation are known as isogonals and these lines
are printed on maps and charts.

Q.50. The variation at any given point is not a fixed quantity but is subject to gradual change
with the passage of time because the magnetic axis of the Earth is constantly
changing.

Q.51. When a freely suspended magnetic needle is influenced only by the Earth's magnetic
field, the direction it assumes is known as Magnetic North.

Q.52. If a needle is placed in an aircraft, it is subject to a number of additional magnetic

fields created by various electrical circuits and magnetized pieces of metal
within the aircraft; consequently its North-seeking end deviates from the direction of
magnetic North and indicates a direction known as compass North.

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Q.53. The angular difference between the direction of Magnetic North and that of Compass
North, and therefore all Magnetic directions and their corresponding Compass
directions is called Deviation.
Q.54. Deviation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (-) according to
whether the North-seeking end of a compass needle, under various disturbing
influences, lies to the East or West of Magnetic North.

Q.55. Deviation is not, as might be imagined, a constant value for a given compass; instead
it varied with the heading of the aircraft.

Q.56. The deviation of a compass will change as its position in the aircraft is changed.

Q.57. Deviation will also change, over a period of time, due to changing magnetic fields
within the aircraft. Moreover, as the aircraft flies great distances over the Earth,
changes occur in deviation because of the Earth's changing magnetic field.

Q.58. It is not sufficient, therefore, to prepare a deviation card and expect it to last
indefinitely; the card must be renewed at frequent intervals in order that it may
always record the deviation as accurately as possible.

Q.59. A useful mnemonic for the application of deviation is:

"Deviation East, compass least, deviation west, compass best."

Q.60. It is possible therefore to express a direction given with regard to a particular

compass needle as True direction, provided that deviation and variation are known.
Q.61. To avoid the complications arising from the changing values of variation and deviation
during flight, plotting is usually carried out using true directions.

Q.62. Since air navigation is the process of directing an aircraft from one point to another, it
is essential to be able to define points as positions on the Earth's surface.

Q.63. Mathematically, a point can be defined by reference to two mutually perpendicular

axes.

Q.64. On the Earth position is normally defined by a reference system known as latitude
and longitude. The chosen axes are the equator and the meridian of Greenwich -
the prime meridian.

Q.65. Latitude is defined as the angular distance from the equator to a point, measured
northward or southward along the meridian through that point.

Q.66. The longitude of any point is the shorter angular distance along the equator
between the prime meridian and the meridian through the point

Q.67. In air navigation it is usually sufficient to express latitude and longitude in degrees
and minutes only.

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Q.68. By convention, the group of figures representing latitude is always written first and is
followed by the figures expressing longitude. To avoid ambiguity there are always
two figures used to denote degrees of latitude, those below ten being preceded by
the digit 0
Q.69. The change of latitude (ch lat) between two points is the arc of a meridian intercepted
between their parallels of latitude. It is annotated N or S according to the direction
of the change from the first point to the second.

Q.70. The change of longitude (ch long) between two points is the smaller arc of the
equator intercepted by the meridians through the two points.

Q.71. The distance between two given meridians, measured along a stated parallel and
expressed in nautical miles is called departure. In general terms it is defined as the
East-West component of the rhumb line distance between two points.
Q.71. The value of departure between two meridians varies with latitude, decreasing with
increasing latitude (Fig 7); the change of longitude between these meridians of course
remains the same, irrespective of the latitude.

Q.72. The departure between any two points is thus a function of their latitudes and the
change of longitude and the relationship is given by: Departure (nms) = ch long
(mins) x cos mean lat:

Q.73. The World Geographic Reference System, or GEOREF, was introduced with the
object of providing a simple, speedy, unambiguous method of defining position
which is capable of universal application.

Q.74. GEOREF incorporates the best of both systems by utilizing the orthodox graticule of
meridians and parallels and by expressing the position of any point, in relation to it, by
a system of lettered coordinates.

Q.75. It is emphasized that the GEOREF system replaces neither the latitude nor longitude
nor the rectangular grid methods of reporting positions, but provides a convenient
means of reporting position within the framework of the former system.

Q.76. The GEOREF system divides the surface of the Earth into quadrangles, the sides of
which are specific arc lengths of longitude and latitude. Each quadrangle is then
identified by a simple, systematic, lettered code.

Q.77. The first division of the Earth's surface is into 24 longitudinal zones, each 15° wide,
which are lettered A to Z inclusive (omitting O and I), commencing eastwards from the
180° meridian.

Q.78. In GEOREF corresponding division is made of the Earth's surface into 12 latitudinal
bands, each 15° wide, which are lettered A to M inclusive (omitting I).

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Q.79. In GEOREF case, the lettering commences northwards from the South Pole. The
earth is therefore divided into 288 quadrangles, of 15° sides, each of which is
identified by a unique combination of two letters.

Q.80. In GEOREF The first letter is always that of the longitude zone or easting and the
second that of the latitude band or northing. In this respect the system differs from
that of latitude and longitude in which the latitude is always given first.

Q.81. The reference number of any point in GEOREF can be given, to an accuracy of one
minute of arc, by quoting four letters and four numerals.

Q.82. The accuracy of the GEOREF can be achieved unto approximately 608 ft, and the
reference is given by quoting six numerals instead of four.

Q.83. A further refinement to accuracy of GEOREF is approximately 61 ft is obtained when

the eastings and northings are given additional figures.

Q.84. The GEOREF system is used specifically in:

a. The control and direction of forces engaged in the air defence of the
United Kingdom and the countries of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.
b. The coastal defence of the United Kingdom.

Q.85. Although the GEOREF system has now a restricted use it is available for universal
application should the occasion arise? Whenever security demands, it is a simple
operation to change the code letters from time to time.

Q.86. Like the latitude and longitude system GEOREF compares unfavorably with a
rectangular grid since a different scale has to be used for the measurement of
eastings and northings. The GEOREFsystem can be confusing because, contrary to
latitude and longitude procedures, the eastings are given before the northings.

Q.87. The simplest method of reporting an aircraft's position is to name the point directly
beneath the aircraft at that time; this may be a town, airfield, radio beacon etc.

Q.88. An alternative method is to express the aircraft's position as a range (distance) and
bearing (angular relationship) from an easily identified datum or feature. This method
is sometimes referred to as a rho-theta (r, q) system.

Q.89. The magnetic direction of the line joining the feature and the aircraft, measured at the
feature. This method is often used in conjunction with TACAN and VOR beacons,
which provide this information directly. These bearings are sometimes referred to as
radials.

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Q.90. Topographical charts for navigation must be conformal and have the same other
properties as plotting charts. Thus the Mercator and Lambert projections are
usually chosen.

Q.91. It is important to realize the difference between the meanings of the words 'speed'
and 'velocity'. Speed describes only the rate at which an object is moving.
Q.92.

Q.93. Since a velocity is a speed in a given direction, it may be represented graphically by a

straight line whose length is proportional to speed, and whose direction is
measured from an arbitrary datum line.

Q.94. The scale used in drawing vectors may be any that is convenient. The datum line for
measurement of direction is by convention true north, and usually point to the top of
the sheet.

Q.95. To indicate the direction and scale of the vector, it is usual to insert the true north
symbol at some point in the diagram, and to indicate scale by a graduated scale line.

Q.96. Wind is air in approximately horizontal motion. The direction and speed of that
motion defines wind velocity (w/v), and it can be represented by a vector.

Q.97. Win Velocity can be expressed as a five or six figure group; the first three figures refer
to wind direction (the true direction from which it blows); the last two or three figures
indicate wind speed in knots.

Q.98. If the component velocities act in the same direction (i.e., the aircraft flies directly
upwind or downwind), the resultant velocity is the algebraic sum of the aircraft and
wind speeds along the aircraft heading.

Q.99. When the component velocities do not act in the same line, the resultant velocity is an
intermediate speed in an intermediate direction. In such cases it is possible to find the
resultant by constructing a vector diagram, or triangle of velocities.

Q.100. Using the triangle of velocities to solve the basic navigation problem, the component
vectors represent the aircraft's velocity (true heading and true airspeed) and wind
velocity; the resultant vector represents the aircraft's true track and
groundspeed

Q.101. The true heading and true airspeed vector carries one arrow, pointing in the
direction of heading.

Q.102. The track and groundspeed vector carries two arrows, pointing in the direction of
track.

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Q.103. The wind velocity vector carries three arrows pointing in the direction in which the
wind is blowing.

Q.104. The speed of an aircraft measured relative to the air mass through which it is moving
is termed true airspeed (TAS).

Q.105. It is emphasized that because of wind velocity this speed will differ from that
measured by an observer on the Earth. Airspeed is independent of wind, and is the
same regardless of whether the aircraft is flying upwind or downwind.

Q.106. An airspeed indicator (ASI) usually measures an aircraft’s airspeed. The ASI reading
is termed indicated airspeed (IAS), but this does not equal true airspeed.

Q.107. The difference between IAS and TAS quantities is caused by a number of
inaccuracies which, broadly speaking, stem from two sources, the ASI itself and the
atmosphere.

Q.108. If IAS is corrected for the inaccuracies of the ASI - instrument and pressure (or
position) errors - the result is called calibrated airspeed (CAS).

Q.109. At higher speeds (normally above about 300 kt) a correction to CAS is necessary to
take into account the compressibility of air; this correction varies with altitude and
speed.
Q.110. ASIs are calibrated in relation to the International Standard Atmosphere and at mean
sea level. At all other altitudes EAS and CAS are less than TAS because the air is
less dense than at sea level.

Q.111. CAS or EAS may be corrected to TAS by using graphs, tables, digital computers
or analogue computers (such as the Dead Reckoning Computer.

Q.112. The speed of sound varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. Thus the
calculation of TAS from Mach number is much simpler than, say, from CAS, for the
only variable is temperature.

Q.113. Since air navigation is concerned with the movement of an aircraft over the Earth, it
is necessary to know the speed at which the aircraft is moving relative to the Earth;
this is termed groundspeed and, like airspeed, it is measured in knots.

Q.114. Groundspeed is usually determined by one of the following methods:

a. Calculating the effect of wind velocity on the aircraft, i.e. by solving the
triangle of velocities
b. Measuring the time taken to travel a known distance between two positions
on the ground.
c. The use of Doppler equipment.
d. The use of inertial navigation systems.

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Q.115. The direction of the path of an aircraft over the ground is called its track. If an aircraft
flies directly upwind or downwind, or in still air, its path over the ground lies in the
same direction as its heading.

Q.116. The line joining two points between which it is required to fly is known as the
required track.

Q.117. In flying from one point to another the path, which the aircraft actually follows over
the ground, is called its track made good.

Q.118. When track made good coincides with required track, the aircraft is said to be on
track; when track made good and required track are not the same the aircraft is said
to be off track.

Q.119. Any two points on the Earth's surface may be joined by a rhumb line and by a great
circle. It follows, therefore, that tracks may be of two kinds; the rhumb line track,
which follows the rhumb line between two points, and the great circle track,
which follows the great circle between the points.

Q.120. By definition, the rhumb line track maintains a constant direction relative to true
North and is therefore in many cases the easier to make good.

Q.121. Track is measured in degrees and is expressed (like heading) as a three-figure group
e.g. 045°. It may be measured relative to true North, magnetic North or grid North
and is annotated (T), (M) or (G) accordingly.

Q.122.. It is due to the effect of the wind and is the lateral movement imparted to an aircraft
by the wind.

Q.123. An aircraft flying in conditions of no wind, or directly upwind or downwind,

experiences no drift. In such cases, track and heading coincide. Under all other
conditions track and heading differ by a certain amount, referred to as the drift.

Q.124. Drift may be measured manually by observing the direction of the apparent
movement of objects on the ground below the aircraft (Track) and comparing this
direction with the fore and aft axis of the aircraft (Heading) to obtain the angular
difference

Q.125. Many aircraft are fitted with automatic systems that calculate drift continuously by
electronic means e.g. Doppler or inertial systems.

Q.126. Drift is expressed in degrees to port (P) or starboard (S) of the aircraft's heading; an
aircraft experiencing port drift is said to drift to port, and its track lies to port of its
heading.

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Q.127. Thus knowing the heading of the aircraft, the track can be determined by proper
application of drift to heading; if drift is to port track angle is less than heading; if to
starboard, track angle is greater than heading.

Q.128. Automatic systems can continuously apply drift to heading to give a direct indication
of track

Q.129. The direct measurement of track, i.e. from knowledge of actual ground position,
enables drift to be determined provided the heading is known.

Q.130. The triangle of velocities may be considered to have six parts; each of its three sides
representing a speed and a direction. Knowledge of any four of these parts enables
the remaining two parts to be found.

Q.131. In navigation the types of problem solved by triangle of velocities method are:
a. Finding the length and direction of one side e.g. finding track and
groundspeed, wind velocity or, occasionally, heading and airspeed.
b. Finding the length of one side and the direction of another, e.g. true heading
and groundspeed.

Q.132. In practice, the triangle of velocities can be continuously resolved by automatic

navigation systems. However, graphical methods may still be used during planning
and in flight, using the transparent plotting disc of the DR Computer.

Q.133. In plotting the vector triangle there are a number of points to note. The same datum
direction, and a uniform unit of measurement must be used for all vectors,
otherwise the diagram will be distorted.

Q.134. One must ensure that true airspeed is measured only along true heading and those
similar relationships for track and groundspeed, and wind direction and wind speed
are maintained.

Q.135. It has been seen that the progress of an aircraft can be represented by a triangle of
velocities. By drawing to scale the appropriate sides of the triangle on a chart, this
progress can be monitored; a technique known as plotting.

Q.136. Prior to the widespread introduction of Doppler and inertial equipment into aircraft,
the only reliable side of the triangle of velocities readily available was heading and
TAS.

Q.137. The air plot technique is generally used, where the air position was determined from
heading and TAS and the resultant ground position was established by applying the
best known wind vector to this air position.

Q.138. Since Doppler or inertial derived track and groundspeed now continuously displayed,
the more useful track plot is the only plotting technique in current use.

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Q.139. No chart has a constant scale and for plotting distances the length of the nautical
mile in the area of operation must be used. This length will change along the vector
(except in the east-west case), but for plotting purposes on the three commonly used
projections, Mercator, Lambert and Stenographic,

Q.140. For a chart with converging meridians (e.g. Lambert Conformal) it is similarly
important that all vector directions in the triangle of velocities are measured from the
same directional datum, i.e. the mid-longitude.

Q.141. Although the air plot technique has been superseded by the track plot, an
elementary understanding of the technique provides a background against which the
track plot can be viewed and the determination of wind velocity can be understood.

Q.142. By maintaining the vector representing the true heading and airspeed of the
aircraft, drawn to the scale of the chart and originating from the point of departure, the
aircraft's position or the wind velocity can be determined.

Q.143. The manual track plot is a simple form of plotting. The position of the aircraft,
determined by pinpoints, fixes, automatic position indicating equipment or DR
calculation, is plotted at regular intervals on a chart.

Q.144. The manual track plot positions are used to determine the aircraft’s progress, and to
calculate future positions, estimated time of arrival (ETA), and any necessary
corrections to heading that may be required.

Q.145. The manual track plot is considered under:

a. Rapid fixing conditions, in which the aircraft’s position can be determined
continuously and accurately (e.g. by radar or pin-pointing).
b. Non-rapid fixing conditions, in which an assessment of position can only be
made after the calculation and plotting of such information as astro
position lines, radio bearings etc.

Q.146. Where fixes are available continuously; a track plot can be kept by plotting them at
regular intervals of, say, six or ten minutes. From such a series of fixes an accurate
assessment of track made good (TMG) and groundspeed can easily be made, and
from the latter, ETAs can be checked.

Q.147. The time interval between fixes used for calculating groundspeed and track and
groundspeed wind velocity must not be too short.

Q.148. Consider an aircraft with
intervals, and each fix has
can range from 32 to 40
between 320 and 400 kt,
figure, or ± 11.1%.
a groundspeed of 360 kt. If fixes are taken at 6-minute
a possible error of 2 N.M., the distance between the fixes
nm. The groundspeed would be calculated as anything
i.e. a maximum error of 40 kt either side of the correct

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Q.149. Thus errors in calculating groundspeed are a function of the fixing accuracy, the
time interval between fixes and the speed of the aircraft. The faster the aircraft the
shorter is the time interval required for groundspeed assessments between fixes.

Q.150. Where fixes or pinpoints are not continuously available, a track plot may still be kept
by calculating track and groundspeed in one of two ways:
a. By finding W/V and applying it to the aircraft’s heading and TAS.
b. By taking drift and groundspeed values from Doppler or inertial equipment
(or groundspeed from position lines).

Q.151. Without Doppler or inertial equipment the track plot will be based initially on the
forecast W/V. Subsequently the actual W/V may be found to differ from that forecast.

Q.152. Automatic ground position indicators (GPIs) are designed to give a continuous
indication of TMG by applying the drift, obtained from their associated Doppler
equipment, to the heading supplied by the compass system.

Q.153. Doppler also measures groundspeed so a continuous display of track and

groundspeed is available. If the point of departure is set into the GPI initially it will
present its calculation of present position continuously, either as a latitude and
longitude, a grid position, or as a position relative to a pre-determined track.

Q.154. Inertial navigation systems measure aircraft accelerations in order to calculate

distance and direction traveled from a manually set datum position. As with the
Doppler/GPI system the output can be displayed in a variety of ways or the system
can be used to drive a moving map display.

Q.155. The automatic GPIs process inputs either by analogue or digital computing
methods to continuously deduce and indicate the aircraft’s position.

Q.156. Some systems can process radio signals to continuously fix the aircraft’s ground
position. They all rely on the availability and quality of their inputs for the accuracy of
the indicated position.

Q.157. Wind velocity plays a major part in navigation calculations. If wind velocity was
constant, one measurement would suffice for all calculations and workloads would
be considerably reduced.

Q.158. Wind velocity is seldom constant; it varies in direction and speed with height, time,
and place.

Q.159. Knowledge of the expected wind velocities is required in order to plan a flight, a
knowledge of the wind effect actually being experienced in flight is necessary to
calculate position and a knowledge of present wind velocity is needed to calculate
alterations of heading.

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Q.160. Because of its continual variation it is normally necessary to measure wind velocity
frequently if accurate navigation is to be accomplished.

Q.161. Measured wind velocities may be divided into mean and local winds, the division
depending upon the interval over which the wind is determined.

Q.162. A mean wind velocity is one which has been found over a fairly long time period
and usually over a large area; it represents the mean effect of all the different wind
velocities experienced by the aircraft during that time

Q.163. If the wind velocity has changed during the period of measurement, the mean wind
velocity may be quite different from the actual wind velocity affecting the aircraft at
the end of the period.

Q.164. A mean wind velocity is ideal for calculating position, it is not usually suitable for
calculating alterations of heading, and because it may not represent the wind
velocity that will affect the aircraft to its next turning point or destination.

Q.165. A wind velocity found instantaneously or over a comparatively short period of time is
known as a local wind velocity. It represents the wind velocity affecting the aircraft
at that time and as such is usually the best available wind velocity for use in
calculating alterations of heading.

Q.166. In practice it is usually necessary to compromise between mean winds velocities

found over long periods of time and the more quickly calculated local wind velocity.

Q.167. The track and groundspeed method is that solution of the vector triangle which
determines the length and direction of one side of the triangle (the wind vector),
given the length and direction of the other two sides (the heading and track vectors).

Q.168. The track and groundspeed method of finding wind velocity eliminates the plotting
and measurement of wind vectors, which is often a major source of error, and so
its accuracy depends primarily on the accuracy of, and measurement between, the
fixes used to determine the track and groundspeed.

Q.169. Wind velocities found from the continuous outputs of drift and groundspeed provided
by Doppler or inertial navigation equipment may be applied to true heading and true
airspeed either automatically or manually to find the local wind velocity.

Q.170. The track and groundspeed method are that the wind velocity currently affecting the
aircraft can be quickly, easily and continuously determined, consequently there is little
restriction on tactical freedom.

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Q.171. When keeping a track plot, winds are normally found by the track and groundspeed
method. If however a fix is found from which neither groundspeed nor track can be
calculated, the wind velocity may be determined by back plotting vectors.

Q.172. The air plot method does not rely on the measurement of track and groundspeed,
instead the wind vector, i.e. the displacement between a fix and its corresponding air
position, is measured directly

Q.173. The wind vector measured is proportional to the period of time the air plot has been
running, and must be converted mathematically to nautical miles per hour (i.e. a
wind velocity in knots).

Q.174. whereas the track and groundspeed method of finding wind velocity cannot be used
if there is any alteration of heading or airspeed between the fixes, this restriction does
not apply to the air plot method.

Q.175. Wind velocities can be measured regardless of heading and airspeed flown, provided
an accurate log of air positions is maintained for each change of heading or airspeed.
The plot must be restarted whenever a fix is obtained and the navigation equipment
updated.

Q.176. The accuracy of the air position, which depends on the accuracy of the start fix and
the knowledge of headings and airspeed flown, together with the accuracy of the final
fix dictates the accuracy to which the wind velocity can be determined.

Q.177. An air plot wind is the mean wind velocity over the period since the air plot was
started and thus its validity for future calculations must be considered carefully. It is
usually necessary for this reason to limit the period over which air plot winds are
found in order to obtain an approximation to the local wind.

Q.178. If air plots winds are found over very short intervals, the resultant vectors are often so
short that accurate measurement is difficult. Errors in measuring vectors
representing short periods of wind effect cause large errors in the wind speed found,
e.g. an error of 1 N.M. in a vector representing a 6 minute period will result in a 10
knot inaccuracy.

Q.179. Usually the most satisfactory period for wind finding is between 18 and 40 minutes.

Q.180. When flying at low level, in sight of the surface, it may be possible to make an
assessment of the wind direction, and with experience also of the wind speed, by
observing its effect on smoke plumes from factories, power stations and other
miscellaneous fires.

Q.181. It should be remembered that close to the surface there may be local wind
channeling and eddies, and the apparent wind direction may not be a true
representation of the mean wind over a broader area or at the aircraft’s height.

15
Q.182. Despite shortcomings such clues can be helpful where there is little better
information or where it is required to confirm a forecast wind velocity. Over open
water the wind causes a pattern of parallel lines or streaks formed by foam or
spray. These streaks, called wind lanes, are aligned with the wind direction and are
usually clearly visible from the air.

Q.183. Where the meteorological forecast for a particular flight is divided into a number of
zones, it will be necessary to take into account the change in wind to be expected on
crossing the boundary between zones.
Q.184. The method of selecting a wind velocity for use after the aircraft has changed height.
A correction factor, being the difference between the forecast and found winds at
the height flown, is applied to the forecast wind velocity for the height to be flown.

Q.185. In the event of the aircraft making a long climb, it may be necessary to alter heading
while ascending and therefore to select a wind velocity for that part of the climb from
the DR position at the time of altering heading to the limit of the ascent.

Q.186. Wind velocities found whilst climbing are mean wind velocities (apart from those
found by Doppler or inertial equipment) and the height at which they are considered
to be operative is ascertained by the application of simple rules which depend
upon the rate of climb of the aircraft.

Q.187. If the rate of climb is constant throughout the period in which the wind velocity is
found, the wind velocity is said to apply to the mean height for the period.

Q.188. If the rate of climb is decreasing during the period in which the wind velocity is found,
the wind applies at two-thirds of the height band ascended during the period.
Q.189. The wind velocity to be used when flight planning a climb or descent is the mean of
the wind effects which will be experienced by the aircraft as it ascends or descends
through the various layers of air.

Q.190. The selection of wind velocity in practice depends upon the change of wind speed
and direction with height, and upon the rate of climb or descent of the aircraft.

Q.191. Where the wind velocity changes regularly with height and the rate of climb or
descent is constant, the wind velocity at the mid-level would be used; where the rate
of climb reduces with altitude the level chosen.

Q.192. Where there is an intermediate fix (or fixes) in the climb or descent an appropriate
wind velocity for each section can be used.

Q.193. If the aircraft was to climb from 2,000 ft to 27,000 ft at a reducing rate of climb the
two-thirds rule would be applied to determine the appropriate height, i.e. 18,500 ft in
this case

16
Q.194. A position determined without reference to any former position is called a fix. This is
a generic term and is often qualified to indicate the fixing method, e.g. radar fix.

Q.195. Instantaneous fixes can be obtained from radio and radar systems, and the symbol
is used when plotting these positions on the chart.

Q.196. A pinpoint, the visual identification of the position vertically beneath the aircraft, is
also an instantaneous fix but is represented by the chart symbol

Q.197. The rapid fixing facilities are not always available, and in these circumstances
position lines are used to determine position.

Q.198. If is possible to fly over and identifiable feature, e.g. a motorway, without knowing the
precise point of crossing; all that can be said is that at that particular time the aircraft
was somewhere on the line of the motorway. This is known as a position line (P/L)
and, , two or more such lines will provide a fix.

Q.199. Position lines may be classified according to the observation method employed, the
general classifications are visual, astronomical and radio.

Q.200. Position lines can be straight or curved, depending on the information they convey.

Q.201. Bearings are straight position lines representing the angular relationship between the
aircraft and a known position, or the orientation of a line feature.

Q.202. Circular position lines represent the aircraft's range from a position, the radius of
the curve being equal to the range. .

Q.203. A bearing may be taken relative to the fore and aft axis of the aircraft normally by
using a radio compass tuned to a radio beacon or by visual or radar observation
of a feature.

Q.204. To obtain the true bearing of the beacon or feature, the true heading of the aircraft
must be added to the relative bearing (either directly or by offsetting the azimuth
scale of the measuring instrument).

Q.205. The reciprocal of true bearing plotted from the beacon or feature gives the position
line for the time of observation. It is essential that the true heading applied to the
relative bearing is that obtaining at the time of the observation.

Q.206. A line drawn on a chart through two features observed to be in line, i.e. in transit,
must pass through the aircraft's position at the time of sighting. This line, a true
bearing, is therefore a position line.

17
Q.207. Line Features. Stretches of coastline, road, railway or river, though lacking prominent
features suitable for pinpoints, may be used as position lines provided that they are
marked on the charts in use.

Q.208. A direction-finding ground station taking a bearing on an aircraft’s radio transmission

may obtain a position line. The bearing is passed to the aircraft by radio usually in the
form of either the true bearing of the aircraft from the station, or as the magnetic
track that the aircraft must make good to reach the station.

Q.209. TACAN and VOR beacons both transmit a signal which, when interpreted by the
aircraft equipment, gives the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the beacon. The
position line is obtained by taking the reciprocal of the reading of the indicator
needle, applying the value of magnetic variation at the beacon, and then plotting the
true bearing.

Q.210. The range from a ground TACAN or DME beacon can be obtained using
transmitter/responder equipment. The range displayed is a slant value , which should
be converted to plan range before plotting.

Q.211. Navigation aids such as Decca and LORAN provide hyperbolic position lines which
are normally combined with another of the same type to provide a fix. This is done by
plotting on special charts, and the problem of transferring these lines to the standard
plotting chart rarely arises.

Q.212. A single position line can be used to provide navigation data in one or more of the
following ways:
a. As a check on groundspeed.
b. As a check on ETA.
c. As a check on track made good.
d. As a check on true heading flown.
e. As a means of homing to an objective.
f. To refine a DR position by constructing the most probable position.

Q.213. For a groundspeed check, a position line is required which lies as nearly as possible
perpendicular to the aircraft's track

Q.214. The distance between the last fix and the position line is measured along the DR
track, and so knowing the time that has elapsed the groundspeed can be calculated.
If the position line is within ± 20° of the perpendicular to track.

Q.215. A position line near the perpendicular to track may provide a check of ETA at the
next turning point by enabling the distance to run to be measured accurately.

Q.216. The position line should be near perpendicular (± 20°) to track in order that errors in
DR track will make little difference to the measured distance.

18
Q.217. To check track made good, a position line is required which is parallel or nearly
parallel (± 10°) to DR track.

Q.218. An arc equal in radius to the ground distance flown since the last fix, calculated using
the latest groundspeed, is described from that fix to cut the position line represents
the track made good.

Q.219. Where the true bearing of a terrestrial object (azimuth) is known, it can be used to
obtain a check on the true heading of the aircraft.

Q.220. The bearing of the lightship and headland in transit, as measured on the chart, is
290°T. on sighting these objects in transit their relative bearing is measured as 260°.
Therefore the true heading of the aircraft is 290° - 260° = 030°.

Q.221. Homing to a destination along a position line whose origin is the destination is a
simple matter, since the direction of the position line is the same as that of the
required track. The aircraft is turned on to a heading which will make good this track
and tracking can be checked against further position lines obtained from the
destination.

Q.222. Thus three forms of fix may be obtained from position lines:
a. Two position line fix.
b. Three position line fix.
c. Sandwich fix.

Q.223. With many navigation aids e.g. Decca, TACAN and ground mapping radar, it is
possible to obtain two position lines simultaneously, their point of intersection being
the aircraft's position.

Q.224. When the using aids such as radio compass, VOR, astro and visual observation this
facility is not necessarily available and a fix must be constructed from position lines
which are spaced in time. At the speed at which an aircraft travels the time interval
cannot be ignored, but this difficulty is overcome by transferring the position lines to a
common time.

Q.225. A position line is a bearing or range of the aircraft's position from a known origin
were moved on a track parallel to that of the aircraft and at the same

Q.226. A position line may be transferred to the time of another by the following procedure in
the track and groundspeed method:
a. Note the time interval for which it is desired to transfer the position line.
b. Transfer the position line along track for a distance given by the time
interval at the DR groundspeed. If the aircraft has Doppler equipment then the
difference in the distance gone counter readings, taken at the time of
observation and at the required fix time, can be used as the distance by which
to move the position line.

19
 c. Draw in the transferred position line parallel to the original and mark it with
double arrows.

Q.227. Range or curved position lines may also be transferred using the track and
groundspeed method but in this case the origin must be moved parallel to the
aircraft's track for a distance equal to that traveled by the aircraft during the period
of transfer.

Q.228. The transferred position line arc is then constructed using this false origin as a
center. The track and groundspeed method is the simplest method of transfer;
however the groundspeed used (unless using Doppler or inertial sources) is only valid
if the wind effect, TAS and headings can be considered constant.

Q.229. The transfer period should be relatively short (e.g. 6 minutes). Furthermore the total
alteration of heading should not exceed 20° and TAS
Q.230. Although the track and groundspeed method is a relatively simple method of transfer,
its usefulness is limited by the accuracy to which aircraft velocities are known during
the transfer period, and in any case these velocities must be considered constant.

Q.231. A GPI continuously senses velocities and it can therefore be used as a basis for the
transfer of position lines regardless of any change in heading, speed or wind
velocity. Two methods may be used, the choice depending on the known accuracy of
the GPI and the reliability of the position line.

Q.232. With a fully serviceable GPI of proven accuracy and any difference between the GPI
position and the position line is assumed to be position line error and/or resetting
error, neither of which will increase with time.

Q.233. The track and groundspeed method is quick and simple, and allows transfer to be
made prior to the fix time thus enabling a fix to be completed quickly.

Q.234. Errors in track and groundspeed values can lead to large errors in the transferred
position line; track errors have the most effect on position lines parallel to track,
while groundspeed error is most significant with across track lines.

Q.235. The track and groundspeed method is unwieldy, and normally considered
impractical, for the transfer of position lines after a turn. This method should,
therefore, only be used when transfer times are short and do not include other than
minor changes in aircraft velocity.

Q.236. With an accurate GPI this method is the most precise available as all changes in
velocity are accounted for, thus the transferred position line will have the same
accuracy as the original line.

20
Q.237. The disadvantage is that the transfer cannot be completed until after the final GPI
position is plotted, so delaying the completion of the fix. With a degraded GPI the
method equates to the track and groundspeed method with the associated errors.

Q.238. The expanding vector method accounts for the known GPI error accumulated during
the transfer time. However, it assumes that the position line is correct and so should
only be used with reliable position lines; any position line error will be magnified on
transfer.

Q.239. When the position of an aircraft is determined by transferring one or more position
lines to cut another position line at a common time, the intersection of such lines is
known as a running fix.

Q.240. The principle of the running fix may be applied when two or more bearings are
successively taken on a single origin.

Q.241. A fixing method, which dispenses with the transfer of position lines, and so facilitates
plotting, is the sandwich fix.

Q.242. In a sandwich Fix Four position lines, from two sources, are taken so that:
a. The two pairs of lines are approximately at 90° to one another.
b. The time of the observations are symmetrically spaced about a Central Time

Q.243. The disadvantages of the sandwich Fix method are:

a. The fix time is earlier that that of the last position line, thus the fix
information is more out of date than that obtained by the transfer method.
b. No alteration of heading may be made during the fixing period, for the
method is based upon a regular rate of change of position relative to the
sources.

Q.244. Even if the position lines are accurate, the resultant fixes can be in error because of
inaccuracies in the DR quantities used in the transfer.

Q.245. An inaccurate DR track will cause a maximum fixing error if the position line to be
transferred to parallel to track.

Q.246. Where the position line to be transferred is perpendicular to track, the resultant error
in the fix is at a minimum.

Q.247. Where the position line to be transferred is parallel to track, an inaccurate DR

groundspeed produces no error in the fix.

Q.248. Where the position line to be transferred is perpendicular to track the resultant error
in the fix is at its maximum.

21
Q.249. In summary, where there is confidence in the groundspeed, but not in the track, the
position line perpendicular to track should be obtained first. Conversely, when
confidence is high in track but not in groundspeed, the position lines parallel to track
should be obtained first.

Q.250. If two position lines each in error by ± 2 N.M. are to be used to form a fix then the
area of uncertainty caused by these errors is at a minimum when the lines are at
right angles. For this reason, two position line fixes constructed from lines with an
angle of cut of less then 45° should be avoided.

Q.251. The more position lines that intersect to form a fix, the greater are the likely accuracy
of that fix. However, since the position lines are subject to errors, it is improbable that
more than two position lines transferred to the same time will intersect at a point.
Usually any three-position lines will form a small triangle that is called a cocked hat.

Q.252. When a position line is obtained and plotted on a chart it is assumed for the purposes
of navigation that the aircraft's position is on that line at the particular time.

Q.253. In practice the aircraft is very seldom exactly on that line at the time it was obtained.
All position lines are subject to errors, the magnitude of which depends upon the type
of position line, i.e. whether it is a visual bearing, a radio bearing, or an astro
observation, and the conditions under which it is obtained.

Q.254. If a large number of position lines of the same type could be taken from an aircraft in
the same known position, and operating under identical conditions, the position lines
when plotted would be found to lie in a band about the aircraft's true position.
They would be found to be concentrated in the area about the aircraft's position and
would become more widely dispersed with distance away from the aircraft.

Q.255. This dispersion of position lines is due to a variety of reasons, e.g. slight errors in
timing and observation, approximations in calculations.

Q.256. It is possible to carry out a statistical analysis on a set of accuracy figures for position
lines of any type, and from this to define the width of the band about the true position
which would enclose a certain proportion, say 50, 70 or 90 per cent, of all the
position lines considered.

Q.257. The position line bands that are known as bands of error in navigation terminology
and the 50% and 75% bands are those normally considered.

Q.258. Extensive trials have been carried out on the accuracy of position lines and as a
result it has been possible to produce a table which defines, for convenience, half the
width of bands of errors for various types of position lines. These half-widths must be
plotted on either side of the position line to obtain the full band.

22
Q.259. Taking the 50% band as an example, this band encloses 50% of all possible lines,
and there is, therefore, only an even chance of being somewhere inside the band of
error.

Q.260. The 76% band is wider since it must contain a larger number of possible position
lines and if this band is plotted there is a 76% chance of being somewhere inside it.

Q.261. To cover every possible case the 100% band of error would inevitably occur in a few
cases in the calculating and plotting of a large number of position lines. It is clearly
impracticable to work at very high levels of probability and indeed a position line that
falls a considerable distance from its expected position should be treated with
circumspection and its accuracy should be verified by other means if possible.

Q.262. For practical purposes, the 50% and 76% bands of error are used in the
construction of most probable positions.

Q.263. Bands of error are only plotted when most probable positions are being constructed,
the probable accuracy of information obtained should be kept in mind so that a mental
assessment of the overall accuracy of a plot can be maintained.

Q.264. The 50% band of error in an astro position line for an aircraft at 200 kt is 5 N.M. Thus
the GPI position is likely to be more accurate than an astro position line and there is,
therefore, little to be gained from taking astro position lines at that time.

Q.265. All DR positions, whether manual, automatic, are subject to error, and this error can
be divided into constant and variable components.

Q.266. Any inaccuracy in the fix from which the DR plot was started produces a constant
error, whereas accuracy in the inputs results in errors that increase with time.

Q.267. The constant error component is ignored in practice, though to justify this origin of
the plot must be selected with great care. The variable errors are taken into account
by constructing an area of uncertainty about the DR position.

Q.268. The probability of the aircraft's position actually falling within this area is stated as a
percentage probability; the greater the percentage probability required, the greater
the size of this area. The shape and size of this area depend on the type of DR
position and the time for which the plot has been running.

Q.269. In a Doppler/GPI system the Doppler derived drift and groundspeed are combined
with the aircraft's heading to give readout of DR position. The accuracy of the
Doppler groundspeed is better than that of the heading, and so the across track
error in a GPI position would be expected to be greater than the along track error.

23
Q.270. In MPP construction the accuracy of a fix or position line is weighed against that of a
DR position. The process involves plotting the area of uncertainty around the DR
position, and the hands of error about the position lines.

Q.271. Where the position lines used to obtain a fix are of doubtful accuracy it may be
decided to construct a MPP rather than accept the fix as the aircraft's position.

Q.272. The practical rule of thumb method for establishing the MPP is inevitably a
compromise between statistical correctness and the simplicity and speed of
solution. An assessment of the position line, fix or DR position can be used to modify
the procedure if necessary, for example if the information was obtained under poor
conditions.

Q.273. There is little point in constructing a MPP if the areas of DR uncertainty and fix
probability have to be increased by large amounts before they will intersect.

Q.274. It is required to determine the TAS corresponding to M0.85 in a corrected OAT of -

50° T.
a. Set -50°C against the 'M' index arrow.
b. Read TAS (495) knots on the outer scale against 0.85 on the inner scale.

Q.275. The reverse sides of the Mks 4A and 5A DR Computer carry a circular slide rule.

Q.276. Although the pocket electronic calculator has superseded the slide rule for carrying
out arithmetic, the circular slide rule is nevertheless useful for the solution of the
normal speed, distance and time, and fuel consumption problems that regularly
occur in navigation.

Q. 277. It should be remembered that, as with all slide rules, decimal points are ignored
during calculation and only inserted at the end. It is therefore important to have an
appreciation of the order of the result expected.

Q.278. Reflecting the normal usage of the circular slide rule, the outer scale is marked
'MILES', and the scale on the rotating disc (the inner scale) is marked 'MINUTES'.
The inner scale has a large black arrow indicating one hour.

Q.279. The problem most often encountered, which is solved readily by the circular slide
rule, is that of determining the time taken to cover a given distance, or conversely the
distance covered in a given time. To solve these problems, the given groundspeed
is set, in knots on the outer scale, against the black (hour) arrow of the inner scale.
Distance is then read on the outer scale, against time in minutes on the inner
scale.

Q.280. Given a groundspeed of 470 kts, how long will it take to fly 100 N.M., and how far will
the aircraft fly in 8 minutes? By
setting 47 on the outer scale against the hour arrow it will be seen that a time of

24
 12.8 minutes on the inner scale will be read against the 10 mark on the outer
scale, i.e. 100 N.M. takes 12.8 minutes; against 8 on the inner (minutes) scale, a
distance of 62.5 N.M. will be read on the outer scale.
Q.281. If the distance flown in a given time is known, the circular slide rule can be used to
find the groundspeed. The procedure is to set the distance flown on the outer scale
against the time taken on the inner scale.

Q.282. Given the fuel consumption rate (e.g. in kgs/min) and the leg time, over which that
consumption rate applies, the circular slide rule can conveniently be used to
determine the total fuel used.

Q.283. The fuel consumption rate is set on the outer scale against the appropriate time on
the inner scale. The total fuel used can then be read on the outer scale against the
leg time on the inner scale.

Q.284. The navigation planning requirements for any flight will depend largely on the nature
of the task, the area of operation and any procedures or orders relevant to a
particular aircraft type or role.

Q.285. Many tasks will be of a 'standard' nature, e.g. regular air transport routes and in such
cases, maximum use can be made of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs),
computerized planning facilities and statistical meteorological data.

Q.286. Alternatively the mission may be of an operational or emergency nature and the
normal flight planning procedures may have to be amended or circumvented in the
interests of expediency; much reliance will be placed on the use of SOPs and on the
experience of the crew.
Q.287. Before any actual planning can take place a number of factors must be considered
which will help to determine the route and techniques to be used.
a. The task.
b. The fuel requirements or limitations.
c. Aircraft performance.
d. The geography of the area to be over flown.
e. The meteorological forecast of the route or area.
f. The availability of navigation aids.
g. Air traffic restrictions, danger areas and prohibited airspace.
h. Any special procedures that must be obeyed.
i. Availability of diversion airfields.

Q.288. There are no particular geographical factors pertaining to a flight except that it should
be noted that the end of the route is over mountainous terrain and particular care
must be taken when calculating safety altitude and when monitoring the descent.

Q.289. Fuel planning is an integral part of flight planning, and accurate calculation of the fuel
requirement for a particular flight is important for safety, economical operation, and
the maximum utilization of payload.

25
Q.290. The methods of calculating the fuel plan, and of monitoring the fuel consumption in
flight, will vary between aircraft type and role, and on the requirements of the flight.

Q.291. Fuel consumption is a function of altitude, air temperature, speed, all up weight
and engine RPM. Data on fuel consumption, expressed in either lbs. or kgs per
minute or hour, is presented in the Operating Data Manual (ODM) for the aircraft type,
usually in tabular form with entering arguments of altitude and all up weight.

Q.292. An important aspect of flight planning is the calculation of the action to be taken in
the event of a diversion or an emergency. The decision to be made is whether, with
the available fuel and knowledge of the wind velocity, it will be preferable to return to
base, divert, or continue to the destination, and indeed which of these options is
feasible.

Q.293. The CP is the point between two airfields from which it would take the same time to
fly to either airfield. The calculation of critical point is based on the ratio of
groundspeed to destination and groundspeed back to base. These speeds are
computed from a mean wind velocity for the flight for simplicity.

Q.294. The TAS selected for the calculation of CP depends on the type of emergency
envisaged. For example in the case of an engine failure a reduced TAS will be
used, whereas in the case of a sudden deterioration in the condition of a patient on a
medical evacuation flight a higher than normal TAS might be appropriate.

Q.295. There are three methods of determining the critical point between two airfields;
formula (DR Computer), Howgozit and critical line graphics.

Q.296. The point of no return (PNR) is that point furthest removed from base to which an
aircraft can fly and still return to base within its safe endurance. PNR is normally
calculated on long flights where the aircraft is unable to land between the departure
and destination airfields.

Q.297. The last point of diversion (LPD) is a special case of the point of no return.

Q.298. Under normal circumstances an aircraft will arrive at its destination with sufficient fuel
reserves to divert to and reach its diversion with a specified minimum fuel. However
occasionally routes may be flown where the nearest diversion is at such a distance
from the destination that the aircraft cannot carry enough fuel to reach the destination
and then divert safely. Under these circumstances it is possible to determine that
point along track beyond which it is impossible to reach the diversion airfield safely.
This point is known as the 'Last Point of Diversion'.

Q.299. The objects of keeping a navigation log are:

a. To record navigation information in an orderly manner for use in flight.

26
 b. To record the navigator's actions and calculations in flight such that the
work can be assessed and any necessary improvements in technique
highlighted.
c. To assist in any necessary reconstruction of the flight.
d. To record miscellaneous information obtained in flight, e.g. weather reports,
flying times, reconnaissance reports, messages received and sent.

Q.300. The methods of log keeping and the recording requirements will vary between
operating authorities and may also vary depending on the nature of the flight.

Q.301. The purpose of the conventional log is to record in an unambiguous manner any
information relevant to the progress of the flight and the navigator's actions.

Q.302. In order to reduce the amount of writing required standard abbreviations and
symbols are used in log and chart preparations. The 24-hour clock system is used
and the time zone in use is written at the top of the time column. Fractions of minutes
are usually expressed as decimals.

Q.303. Many air operations require that aircraft reach a given point at a precise time. As it is
usually easier to lose time than to gain it, such operations are often planned with a
margin of time in hand. Whether or not this is done, some adjustment to the speed or
to the distance flown will invariably be necessary to achieve the planned arrival time.

Q.304. The obvious way to alter an aircraft's time of arrival at its target is to increase or
decrease the airspeed, thus changing the groundspeed. If the aircraft is equipped
with a Doppler or inertial navigation system it is more convenient to base adjustments
directly on groundspeed.

Q.305. Heading is altered 60° in either direction for the length of time that is to be lost, then
altered 120° in the opposite direction for the same length of time to regain track in a
60 dogleg

Q.306. In a 60 dogleg aircraft will have flown two sides of an equilateral triangle, and the
time lost will be equal to the time taken to fly one side.

Q.307. Small inaccuracies in tracking and time lost will be introduced by the wind effect
during the 60 dogleg procedure, but they will usually by negligible if the amount of
time to be lost is small.

Q.308. For each minute to be lost each leg is flown for four minutes. This procedure is useful
for small time losses (up to two mins) when it is desired to stay near track and avoid
big alterations of heading and is called 30 dogleg.

Q.309. Even when timing is not a consideration, adoption of a formal dog-leg procedure to
avoid obstacles or weather will enable the track to be regained and ETA amended
with minimum calculation.

27
Q.310. To lose more than min, subtract from the time to be lost and straighten up
between each reverse for half the resultant time. Is the procedure for S – Turns.

Q.311. The disadvantages of dogleg procedures are that:

a. They are imprecise in track-regaining.
b. They are inaccurate in time losing.

Q.312. If there is a suitably large track alteration along the route, timing may be adjusted by
extending or cutting the corner at that turning point.
Q.313. A more precise method of adjusting timing by revising the distance to be flown is to
use pre-computed timing legs at any convenient turning point. Use is again made of
the principle of isosceles triangles.

Q.314. The choice of which map to use for low level visual navigation should be dictated by
considerations of the scale, the clarity with which appropriate features are
shown, and the depiction of aeronautical information such as Danger Areas and
Controlled Airspace. In practice, availability and common usage may be overriding
factors.

Q.315. Spot heights show the highest elevation in a region. They are simply shown as a
black dot with the elevation above mean sea level printed alongside.

Q.316. Although normally in feet, it should be noted that spot heights are shown in meters
on the 1:50,000 OS series. The only information they convey is the position and
height of the highest point; there is no information as to land shape.

Q.317. Layer tinting shows different bands of height in different colours; the deeper the color
the higher the land. A key shows the height band corresponding to each color.
Q.318. Contours are lines joining points of equal height above sea level. They are drawn at
regular intervals of height and figures, which may be in feet or meters, are printed
periodically along them.

Q.319. Closely spaced contour lines represent steep gradients, and conversely widely
spaced lines indicate gentle gradients. Thus contours can give a good impression of
both height and shape.

Q.320. Hill shading is a technique that imagines that the land is illuminated from one
direction. Thus, for example, one side of a ridge will be illuminated while the other
will be in shadow.

Q.321. Hill shading gives no indication of height but can give a fair impression of hill shape.
Hill shading is never used in isolation.

Q.322. The aim of low flying is to arrive safely and ideally undetected, at an objective;
typically at a target. In practice the target planning will be done before the route
planning.

28
Q.323. Low level navigation may be undertaken on occasions without a target element, the
route planning will be considered first.

Q.324. The low-level route should normally be the shortest, safest, practical route to the
target and back to base or destination. In particular the time spent in "enemy"
territory should be kept to the absolute minimum.

Q.325. The area downwind of a large industrial complex is often associated with poor
visibility, especially into sun, and therefore should be avoided. Visual perspective
and range to the horizon reduce as height reduces.

Q.326. Wherever possible, the highest ground should be avoided, both for tactical and
meteorological reasons. An aircraft flying over high ground is often easy to detect,
and high ground is more likely to be enshrouded in low cloud; turbulence is often
encountered to the lee of high ground.

Q.327. Flying adjacent to coastlines and estuaries should be kept to a minimum as these
tend to have higher than average bird concentrations.

Q.328. To reduce undue noise nuisance, towns and villages should be given as wide a berth
as is practical; if this is not practical then the transit height must be increased.

Q.329. It should be noted that when flying in formation other aircraft may be displaced
laterally and so adequate horizontal clearance must be planned.

Q.330. Use should be made whenever possible of natural line features which lie more or
less along track and funnel features that can be followed to the destination, turning
point or check feature.

Q.331. Landmarks with vertical extent which rise above the surrounding terrain should be
chosen as turning points or check features.

Q.332. Low level fixed wing navigation exercises are normally planned and flown on the
basis of maintaining a constant groundspeed. For convenience this groundspeed is
usually a multiple of 60 kt so that it equates to an integral number of N.M. per minute.

Q.333. The low-level plan is usually made on a 'still air' basis, and so directions are
annotated in terms of track, true or magnetic, rather than heading. Adjustments are
made on the day by rule of thumb methods to account for drift.

Q.334. The art of map reading consists of visualizing the physical features represented on
the map by symbols, and thus forming a complete mental picture of the ground by
relating the features one to another. It is also necessary to perform this analysis in
reverse, i.e. seeing an arrangement of features on the ground and being able to
recognize the relevant portion of the map.

29
Q.335. Expertise at low level map reading demands much practice but there are a number of
factors that can make the task easier. The most important of these is thorough
flight planning and pre-flight route study.

Q.336. When in flight, maintaining track and time should be a prime aim; errors should be
recognized and acted upon early, but concentration on navigation to the detriment of
other tasks must be resisted.

Q.337. It is equally important to keep a good look-out to reduce collision risks, to detect any
enemy activity, to be aware of any potential weather problems, and to manage the
aircraft systems.

Q.338. Significant features should be selected at the planning stage at perhaps 3 to 5

minute intervals, and the in-flight technique should be to identify these features as
early as possible and fly with reference to them.

Q.339. The check feature need not be exactly on track; a good feature close to track will
usually be better than a poor feature on track, and it is a relatively simple matter to
fly the appropriate distance away from the feature.

Q.340. The ideal check feature will be big (or part of a big feature), unique, have some
vertical extent, and will contrast in colour or texture with its surroundings.

Q.341. The value of any type of feature to navigation will depend on circumstances - minor
roads may be poor features in built-up areas but may become very significant in an
otherwise barren landscape.

Q.342. Careful map study is necessary to ensure that the feature will be seen. For example,
when crossing a valley at 90° any feature in the valley, on or close to the near side,
may not be seen until it has been passed.

Q.343. Many features will show seasonal variation - thus snow cover may hide smaller
roads, but conversely cleared roads may become more apparent due to their
increased contrast with the surroundings.

Q.344. Coastlines are generally excellent fixing features, unfortunately many routes do not
allow much time within sight of one.

Q.345. Coastlines are rarely entirely uniform for any great distance, there is usually some
associated feature such as a river estuary, headland, or beach to enable position to
be fixed with reasonable accuracy.

Q.346. Large rivers, estuaries, canals and lakes normally show up well, even taking into
account seasonal variations such as floods and droughts.

30
Q.347. Water features tend to occupy the lowest ground in the area and so they may be
hidden from view by the surrounding terrain. This is particularly true of lakes in
mountainous regions; it is quite possible to fly within a mile or two of a mountain lake
and not see it.

Q.348. Smaller rivers are often tree-lined which may be help or a hindrance. The trees help
to locate the river but tend to hide the detail so that particular features of the river
may not be seen.

Q.349. From a low level viewpoint mountains and hills take on considerable significance,
however the interpretation of topography from the map is more difficult than the
interpretation of water and man-made features.

Q.350. Isolated hills provide the best features; terrain which undulates fairly uniformly is
perhaps the most difficult to use unless there are additional features such as
significant woods or transmission masts.

Q.351. Wherever there are mountains and hills there will be valleys and these can be
extremely valuable features. They can usually be identified with confidence from
their orientation and from the presence of roads, railways and settlements, and they
provide a line feature for navigation and a route away from the highest ground.

Q.352. Because the flight over towns and villages should be avoided they cannot be used
for accurate pinpointing on their own. However they are useful as general indicators
of position and in directing the eyes to suitable features nearby.

Q.353. In areas of dense population and industry the identification of railway lines can
sometimes prove troublesome but in more rural areas they provide an excellent line
feature and, if there is some unique aspect to the line such as a junction, station, or
conspicuous bridge, a pinpoint can be obtained.

Q.354. Many other features can prove to be satisfactory navigation checks. Power
transmission lines can act as line features, and as pinpoints where they cross each
other or other line features. Power stations, airfields, transmission masts,
lighthouses, monuments, and follies are all worthy of consideration.

Q.355. Three types of map detail are always plotted in their correct geographic positions.
These are:
a. Coastlines.
b. River centerlines.
c. Tops of Hills (Spot height/Trig points).
Q.356. The intelligent use of the stopwatch is perhaps the most valuable aid to low level
navigation. Provided that the correct heading and speed are flown, the stop watch
will provide a relatively accurate means of reckoning position, and the refinement of
this position by reference to map and ground will be considerably eased.

31
Q.357. An alternative method of quoting TAS is to express it as a fraction of the local speed
of sound; this fraction is known as the Mach Number (M) .

Q.358. There are aerodynamic problems which occur at a certain fraction (depending on the
aircraft type) of the speed of sound. Although this fraction is fixed, it may be
represented by widely varying values of CAS (depending on altitude) and varying
values of TAS (depending on temperature).

Q.359. It is more convenient, therefore, in high-speed flight to display the aircraft's speed as
a Mach Number rather than as IAS or TAS

Q.360 .An alternative method of quoting TAS is to express it as a fraction of the local speed
of sound; this fraction is known as the Mach Number (M). T/F

Q.362. Flattening is The ratio between the difference of the equatorial and polar
diameter and its ratio is approximately 1/300.

Q363. The direction of rotation of the Earth is East.

Q.364. The shortest distance between any two points on the surface of the sphere is arc of
the great circle joining them.

Q.365. The two poles are not distinguished arbitrarily. T/F

Q.366. Parallel of latitude are small circles on the surface of the Earth whose plane is
parallel to the plane of equator. Therefore they lie in East – West direction.

Q.367. Rhumb Line or Loxodrome is a regularly curved line on the surface of earth
cutting all the meridian at the same angle.

Q.368. The angle of inclination between selected meridians increases towards

the poles. T/ F

Q.369. The Nautical Mile is defined as the length of the arc of a great circle that
substance an angle of 1 minute at center of the earth.

Q.370. Variation is not constant over the Earth’s surface but varies from place to
Place. T/F

Q.371. The deviation of a compass will change as its position in the aircraft is changed.
Deviation will also change, over a period of time due to changing magnetic fields
within the aircraft. T / F.

32
Q.372. Ch Lat is The arc of the meridian intercepted between two parallel of lat,
annoted North or South according to the direction of movement

Q.373. The disadvantages of the Latitude of Longitude reference system are: -

(a) Confusion at or near the equator
(b) Different scale has to be used for measurement
(c) Not suitable for purpose of security

Q.374. The GEOREF system was introduced with object of providing quick and efficient
method of position reporting.

Q.375. The advantages of GEOREF system are: -

(a) Provide easy and quick method of position reference
(b) There is no risk of ambiguity
(c) It is suitable for use over R/T and telephone
(d) Capable of universal application
(e) It can quote the reference to an accuracy of 1/minute of latitude and
longitude

Q.376. Track is defined as the intended flight pass over the ground
and drift is the angle between heading and track of the aircraft.

Q.377. The Errors in manual air plot are: -

(a) Pilot error
(b) Instrument error
(c) Calculation error
(d) Plotting error

Q.378. The Methods of Finding W/V are: -

(a) Track and ground speed method
(b) Doppler wind velocity method
(c) Air plot method
(d) Track plot method
(e) Multiple drift method
(f) Drift and wind lane method

Q.379. The uses of a single position Line are: -

(a) Ground speed check
(b) Heading check
(c) Track check
(d) Check on ETA
(e) Homming
(f) Refine DR position (MPP)

Q.380. Calculate Mach No with given data:-

33
 OAT -20° C
TAS 440
Ans: .72 M

Q.381. The advantages of the track plot are: -

(a) Straight forward system
(b) Less plotting
(c) Less focusing of attention
(d) When accurate fixes readily available it is more useful

Q.382. The topographical details shown on Maps are: -

(a) Contours and form lines
(b) Spot elevation
(c) Hachuring
(d) Layer tinting
(e) Hill shading

Q.383. The procedure for pre-flight Map preparation: -

(a) Mark turning points
(b) Letter turning points
(c) Mark intended Tracks
(d) Scan the map for features which give you help for position update
(e) Arrange the map in order of probable use
(f) Fold the map
(g) Letter the map in sequence

Q.384. The procedure for Low Level Map preparation is: -

(a) Letter and mark the turning points
(b) Construct turning circles
(c) From each turning point mark back along require tracks
(d) Insert time to go on DR ground speed
(e) Draw 5° lines on either side of track
(f) Study the route
(g) Arrange the map

Q.385. The problems associated with Low Level flying are:

(a) Ground obstructions
(b) Collision risk
(c) Bird strikes
(d) Surface visibility and low cloud
(e) Air space restrictions
(f) Nuisance

Q.386. CP is defined as distance between two airfields from where it takes equal time
to either proceed to destination or come back to departure airfield.

34
Q.387. PNR is defined as The farthest distance in aircraft can fly along a certain move
and under given conditions, TAS wind velocity and few consumption and
returned to base with safe endurance.

Q.388. The formula of CP = X = DH/O+H

And calculate CP for a leg distance of 600nm with G/S OUT=270 g/s home=300
Ans: 316 NM

Q.389. The formula for adjustment in speed is: -

Speed = TAS X/Time Late Early

Time to go

Q.390. The Methods for adjustments in distances to be flown are: -

(a) 60° dog leg
(b) 30° dog leg
(c) Rate of Turn
(d) Cutting corner
(e) Pre-Computed leg timing

Q.391. The detection distance is based upon the following factors: -

(a) Oblique visibility from A/C to the object
(b) Illumination, clouds, intensity of sunlight reflection
(c) Size of the object
(d) Color contrast between the object and background
(e) Aspect of the object
(f) Height of the A/C
(g) State of Sea, terrain, vegetation
(h) Speed of movement of the object

Q.392. The point searches can be classified into: -

(a) Square search
(b) Sector search
(c) Contour search

Q.393. The area search can be categorized as: -

(a) Track Crawl
(b) Parallel Tracks
(c) Creeping lines attend search

Q.394. The factors determining the primary search area are: -

(a) Proposed Route of missing A/C
(b) In flight reports
(c) Radar fixes
(d) Ground observer report
(e) Weather data

35
 (f) AK wreckage

Q.395. The area of possibility is the area corresponding to:

(a) W/V
(b) TAS
(c) Endurance or time

Q.396. Solve with the help of Navigation computer:

Speed 240 Kts
Dist 140 KMs
Time ?

Q.397. IAS 214 Kts

Altitude 160
Temp -12° C
TAS ?

Q.398. TRK 250(T) TAS 270 Kts

W/V 170/30 Kts Dev 7° W
Find Hdgs Drift, G/S

Q.399. TRK 130° (M) Var 15° W

Drift 7° S
TAS 240 Kts
G/S 260 Kts
W/V ?

Q.400. Difference between hdg and trk is known as Drift and difference between track made
good and track required is track error.

Q.401. Radius of the circle of uncertainty is a function of speed of the a/c and varies as:
(a) Type of position line
(b) Conditions under which is obtained
(c) Time since last restart

Q.402. Track pot caters for alteration of heading within + 10 and TAS changes of + 15 Kts.
T/F

Q.403. G/S check may be accomplished when the time interval between fixes in 6 minutes.
T/F

Q.404. To an observer looking down on the North Pole, earth rotates in an anti-clock wise
direction. T/F

Q.405. For a DR position. That is off-track within 2-10 NMs A/H to intercept track is the most
suitable method. T/F

36
Q.406. Restart of an air plot is always carried out from DR position. T/F

Q.407. Direction of the wind is taken as the direction towards which it blows. T/F

Q.408. Drift is expressed port according to whether the hdg. Lies left of the track. T/F

Q.409. Square search is an area search. T/F

Q.410. The rate of sweep width to track spacing is known as Coverage factor.

Q.411. Track spacing is based on a distance called Sweep width which is derived from
detection distance.

Q.412. The horizontal distance on the chart’s surface between two successive contours is
known as horizontal equivalent. T/F

Q.413. Running fix is defined as When is position of an aircraft is determined by

transferring by one or more position lines to cut another position line at a
common time, the intersection of such lines is known as running fix.

Q.414. For a two position line fix the angle of cut between the two should be minimum of:-
(a) 45° (b) 60° (c) 90°

Q.415. For a G/S check the position line should be: -

(a) Within + 10° of the perpendicular to the A/C track
(b) Within + 20° of the perpendicular to the A/C track
(c) Within + 10° of the perpendicular to the A/C hdg

Q.416. The three component vectors of the triangle of velocity are: -

(a) Track (b) Heading (c) Wind velocity

Q.417. Ch Lat between two points is the arc of meridian intercepted between their parallels
of latitude.

Q.418. Longitude is the angular distance along the equator between the prime meridian and
the meridian through that point.

Q.419. Isogonals are the lines which join the points of:
(a) Equal variation (b) Zero variation

Q.420. Equator is a G/C whose plane is parallel to the axis of rotation of earth. T/F

Q.421. W/V is combination of a/c speed and wind direction. T/F

Q.422. Length of a NM is more at the poles than at the equator. T/F

37
Q.423. For navigation purposes the earth is taken to be sphere.

Q.424. 41 nautical mile = 76 KM.

Q.425. Calculate Chlong and Chlat from point A to B.

(a) A 30 degrees 50 Minutes N B 15 degrees 35 Minutes S
071 degrees 28 Minutes E 125 degree 15 Minutes W
Ans: 46° 28 S 146° 17 W

Q.426. Depict the following data in a neat diagram and find out missing quantities: -
Compass Direction : 225 degree
Deviation : 2 degree W
Variation : 12 degree W
Magnetic Direction : 223°
True Direction : 211°

Q.427. For navigation purposes the earth is taken to be __sphere__________.

Q.428. The earth’s polar diameter is approximately 30 statue miles greater than equatorial
diameter. T/F

Q.429. One nautical mile = ______6080______ feet

Q.430. 41 nautical mile = ________66____ SM and ________76__ KM

Q.431. Graticules are ___Parallels and meridians drawn on a map____________.

Q.432. Drift is expressed port according to whether the hdg lies left of the tack. T/F

Q.433. Direction of the wind is taken as the direction towards which it below. T/F

Q.434. For a given vertical interval, the smaller the horizontal equivalent, closer are the
contours. T/F

Q.435. Map reading is generally accomplished from air to map. T/F

Q.436. Restart of an air plot is always carried out from DR position. T/F

Q.437.Graticules are Parallels and meridians drawn on a map. T/F

Q.438. To an observer looking down on the North Pole earth rotates in an anti-clockwise
direction. T/F

Q.439. Shortest distance between any two points on the surface of the earth is the smaller
are of the rhumb line joining them. T/F

38
Q.440. The actual length of a nautical mile remains constant at various latitudes. T/F

Q.441. G/S check may be accomplished when the time interval between fixes is 6 minutes.
T/F

Q.442. W/V is combination of aircraft speed and wind direction. T/F

Q.443. W/V which is found over a fairly long period of time is known as local W/V. T/F

Q.444. Air plot method does not rely on the measurement of track or G/S. T/F

Q.445. Track spacing is based on a distance called ____ which is derived from the detection
distance.

Q.446. The ratio of sweep width to track spacing is known as __________.

Q.447. The angular difference between the Magnetic North and the compass North is known
as _____deviations.

Q.448. The time interval for calculation of G/S and the W/V must be ____12 minutes.

Q.449. Isogonals are Lines joining the places of: -

(a) Equal variation (b) Zero variation

Q.450. Equator is G/C whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of Earth. T/F

Q.451. Contingency reserve fuel is taken 5% of the fuel required for _diversions_

Q.452. For grounds speed check we require a position line: -

(a) Parallel to track of aircraft
(b) Perpendicular the heading of aircraft
(c) Perpendicular the track of aircraft

Q.453. For a two position line fix, the angle of out between the position lines should be:-
(a) Within + 18° of the perpendicular to the aircraft track
(b) Within + 20° of the perpendicular to the aircraft track
(c) Within + 10° of the perpendicular to the aircraft hdg.

Q.454. Parallels of latitudes are examples of a rhumb line. T/F

Q.455. Running fix is found by taking two position lines at any instant of time simultaneously
T/F

Q.456. CH-Long is annotated North or South according to direction change. T/F

39
Q.457. Formulae for CP _=DH/O+H___________________.

Q.458. Formulae for PNR ___=POH/O+H________________.

Q.459. CH-Long is annotated East or West according to direction change.

Q.460. Large cities are good pinpoint features at night. T/F

Q.461 Even when timing is not a consideration, adoption of a formal dogleg procedure to
avoid obstacles or weather will enable the track to be regained and ETA amended
with minimum calculation. T/F

Q.462. To lose more than a min, subtract from the time to be lost and straighten up between
each reverse for the resultant time. Is the procedure for S – Turns. T/F

Q.463. If there is a suitably large track alteration along the route, timing may be adjusted by
extending or cutting the corner at that turning point. T/F

Q.464 A more precise method of adjusting timing by revising the distance to be flown is to
use pre-computed timing legs at any convenient turning point. Use is again made of
the principle of equilateral triangles. T/F

Q.464. Spot heights show the highest elevation in a region. They are simply shown as a
Cross-with the elevation above mean sea level printed alongside. T/F

Q.466. Layer tinting shows different bands of height in different colours; the deeper the color
the higher the land. A key shows the height band corresponding to each color. T/F

Q.467. Contours are lines joining points of equal height above sea level. They are drawn at
irregular intervals of height and figures, which may be in feet or meters, are printed
periodically along them. T/F

Q.468. Closely spaced contour lines represent low gradients, and conversely widely spaced
lines indicate gentle gradients. Thus contours can give a good impression of both
height and shape. T/F

Q.469. Hill shading is a technique that imagines that the land is illuminated from all
directions. Thus, for example, one side of a ridge will be illuminated while the other
will be in shadow. T/F

Q.470. Hill shading gives no indication of height but can give a fair impression of hill shape.
Hill shading is never used in isolation. T/F

40
Q.471 The aim of low flying is to arrive safely and ideally detected, at an objective; typically
at a target. In practice the target planning will be done before the route planning. T/F

Q.472. Low level navigation may be undertaken on occasions without a target element, the
route planning will be considered first. T/F

Q.473 The area downwind of a large industrial complex is often associated with poor
visibility, especially into sun, and therefore should be flown. Visual perspective and
range to the horizon reduce as height reduces. T/F

Q.474. Flying adjacent to coastlines and estuaries should be kept to a maximum, as these
tend to have higher than average bird concentrations. T/F

Q.475. Show with the help of diagram:

True direction 337°
Mag direction 331°
Compass direction 341°

Q.476. Find TAS in KMs

Mach NO 1.1 Temp -30
Q.477. The low-level plan is usually made on a 'still air' basis, and so directions are
annotated in terms of track, true or magnetic, rather than heading. Adjustments are
made on the day by rule of thumb methods to account for drift. T/F

Q.478. The art of map reading consists of visualizing the physical features represented on
the map by symbols, and thus forming a complete mental picture of the ground by
relating the features one to another. It is also necessary to perform this analysis in
reverse, i.e. seeing an arrangement of features on the ground and being able to
recognize the relevant portion of the map. T/F

Q.479. Expertise at low level map reading demands much practice but there are a number of
factors that can make the task easier. The most important of these is thorough flight
planning and pre-flight route study. T/F

Q.480. When in flight, maintaining track and time should be a prime aim; errors should be
recognized and acted upon early, but concentration on navigation to the detriment of
other tasks must be resisted. T/F

Q.481. It is equally important to keep a good lookout to reduce collision risks, to detect any
enemy activity, to be aware of any potential weather problems, and to manage the
aircraft systems. T/F

Q.482. Significant features should be selected at the planning stage at perhaps 3 to 5

minute intervals, and the in-flight technique should be to identify these features as
early as possible and fly with reference to them. T/F

41
Q.483. The check feature need not be exactly on track; a good feature close to track will
usually be better than a good feature on track, and it is a relatively simple matter to fly
the appropriate distance away from the feature. T/F

Q.484. The ideal check feature will be big (or part of a big feature), unique, have some
vertical extent, and will contrast in colour or texture with its surroundings. T/F

Q.485. The value of any type of feature to navigation will depend on circumstances - minor
roads may be poor features in built-up areas but may become very significant in an
otherwise barren landscape.

Q.486. Careful map study is necessary to ensure that the feature will be seen. For example,
when crossing a valley at 90° any feature in the valley, on or close to the near side,
may be seen until it has been passed. T/F

Q.487. Many features will show seasonal variation - thus snow cover may hide smaller
roads, but conversely cleared roads may become less apparent due to their
increased contrast with the surroundings. T/F

Q.488. Coastlines are generally excellent fixing features, unfortunately many routes do not
allow much time within sight of one. T/F

Q.489. Coastlines are rarely entirely uniform for any great distance, there is usually some
associated feature such as a river estuary, headland, or beach to enable position to
be fixed with reasonable accuracy. T/F

Q.490. Large rivers, estuaries, canals and lakes normally show up well, even taking into
account seasonal variations such as floods and droughts. T/F

Q.491. Water features tend to occupy the lowest ground in the area and so they may not be
hidden from view by the surrounding terrain. This is particularly true of lakes in
mountainous regions; it is quite possible to fly within a mile or two of a mountain lake
and not see it. T/F

Q.492. Smaller rivers are often tree-lined which may be help or a hindrance. The trees help
to locate the river but tend to hide the detail so that particular features of the river may
not be seen. T/F

Q.493. From a low level viewpoint mountains and hills take on considerable significance,
however the interpretation of topography from the map is more difficult than the
interpretation of water and man-made features. T/F

Q.494. Isolated hills provide the best features; terrain which undulates fairly uniformly is
perhaps the most difficult to use unless there are Noadditional features such as
significant woods or transmission masts. T/F

42
Q.495. Wherever there are mountains and hills there will be valleys and these can be
extremely bad features. They can usually be identified with confidence from their
orientation and from the presence of roads, railways and settlements, and they
provide a line feature for navigation and a route away from the highest ground. T/F

Q.496. Because the flight over towns and villages should be avoided they cannot be used
for accurate pinpointing on their own. However they are useful as general indicators
of position and in directing the eyes to suitable features nearby. T/F

Q.497. In areas of dense population and industry the identification of railway lines can
sometimes prove troublesome but in more rural areas they provide an bad line
feature and, if there is some unique aspect to the line such as a junction, station, or
conspicuous bridge, a pinpoint can be obtained. T/F

Q.498. Many other features can prove to be satisfactory navigation checks. Power
transmission lines can act as line features, and as pinpoints where they cross each
other or other line features. Power stations, airfields, transmission masts,
lighthouses, monuments, and follies are all worthy of consideration. T/F

Q.499. Three types of map detail are always plotted in their correct geographic positions.
These are:
a. Coastlines. b. River centerlines. c. Tops of Hills (Spot height/Trig points). T/F

Q.500. The intelligent use of the stopwatch is perhaps the most valuable aid to low level
navigation. Provided that the correct heading and speed are flown, the stop watch
will provide a relatively accurate means of reckoning position, and the refinement of
this position by reference to map and ground will be considerably eased. T/F

Q.501. The more position lines that intersect to form a fix, the greater are the likely accuracy
of that fix. However, since the position lines are subject to errors, it is improbable that
more than two position lines transferred to the same time will intersect at a point.
Usually any three-position lines will form a small triangle that is called a DR position.
T/F.

Q.502 When a position line is obtained and plotted on a chart it is assumed for the purposes
of navigation that the aircraft's position is on that line at the any time. T/F

Q.503253. In practice the aircraft is very seldom exactly on that line at the time it was
obtained. All position lines are subject to errors, the magnitude of which depends
upon the type of position line, i.e. whether it is a visual bearing, a radio bearing, or an
astro observation, and the conditions under which it is obtained. T/F

Q.504. If a large number of position lines of the same type could be taken from an aircraft in
the same known position, and operating under identical conditions, the position lines

43
 when plotted would be found to lie in a band about the aircraft's true position. They
would be found to be concentrated in the area about the aircraft's position and would
become more widely dispersed with distance away from the aircraft. T/F

Q.505. This dispersion of position lines is due to a variety of reasons, e.g. slight errors in
timing and observation, approximations in calculations. T/F

Q.506. It is not possible to carry out a statistical analysis on a set of accuracy figures for
position lines of any type, and from this to define the width of the band about the true
position which would enclose a certain proportion, say 50, 70 or 90 per cent, of all the
position lines considered. T/F

Q507. The position line bands that are known as bands of error in navigation terminology
and the 50% and 75% bands are those normally considered. T/F

Q.508. Extensive trials have been carried out on the accuracy of position lines and as a
result it has been possible to produce a table which defines, for convenience, half the
width of bands of errors for various types of position lines. These half-widths must be
plotted on either side of the position line to obtain the full band. T/F

Q.509. Taking the 50% band as an example, this band encloses 76% of all possible lines,
and there is, therefore, only an even chance of being somewhere inside the band of
error. T/F

Q.510. The 76% band is wider since it must contain a larger number of possible position
lines and if this band is plotted there is a 50% chance of being somewhere inside it.
T/F
Q.511. To cover every possible case the 100% band of error would inevitably occur in a few
cases in the calculating and plotting of a large number of position lines. It is clearly
practicable to work at very high levels of probability and indeed a position line that
falls a considerable distance from its expected position should be treated with
circumspection and its accuracy should be verified by other means if possible. T/F

Q.512. For practical purposes, the 50% and 96% bands of error are used in the construction
of most probable positions. T/F

Q.513. Bands of error are only plotted when most probable positions are being constructed,
the probable accuracy of information obtained should be kept in mind so that a mental
assessment of the overall accuracy of a plot can be maintained. T/F

Q.514. The 50% band of error in an astro position line for an aircraft at 200 kt is 8NM. Thus
the GPI position is likely to be more accurate than an astro position line and there is,
therefore, little to be gained from taking astro position lines at that time. T/F

Q.515. All DR positions, whether manual, automatic, are subject to error, and this error can
be divided into constant and variable components. T/F

44
Q.516. Any inaccuracy in the fix from which the DR plot was started produces a variable
error, whereas accuracy in the inputs results in errors that increase with time. T/F

Q.517. The constant error component is ignored in practice, though to justify this origin of
the plot must be selected with great care. The variable errors are taken into account
by constructing an area of uncertainty about the DR position. T/F

Q.518. The probability of the aircraft's position actually falling within this area is stated as a
percentage probability; the greater the percentage probability required, the less the
size of this area. The shape and size of this area depend on the type of DR position
and the time for which the plot has been running. T/F

Q.519. In a Doppler/GPI system the Doppler derived drift and groundspeed are combined
with the aircraft's heading to give readout of DR position. The accuracy of the Doppler
groundspeed is better than that of the heading, and so the across track error in a GPI
position would be expected to be greater than the along track error. T/F

Q.520. In MPP construction the accuracy of a fix or position line is weighed against that of a
DR position. The process involves plotting the area of uncertainty around the DR
position, and the hands of error about the position lines. T/F

Q.521. Where the position lines used to obtain a fix are of doubtful accuracy it may be
decided to construct a MPP rather than accept the fix as the aircraft's position. T/F

Q.522. The practical rule of thumb method for establishing the MPP is inevitably a
compromise between statistical correctness and the simplicity and speed of solution.
An assessment of the position line, fix or DR position can be used to modify the
procedure if necessary, for example if the information was obtained under poor
conditions. T/F

Q.523. There is little point in constructing a MPP if the areas of DR uncertainty and fix
probability have to be decreased by large amounts before they will intersect. T/F

Q.524. It is required to determine the TAS corresponding to M0.85 in a corrected OAT of -

50° T.
a. Set -50°C against the 'M' index arrow.
b. Read TAS (495) knots on the outer scale against 0.85 on the inner scale.
T/F

Q.525. The reverse sides of the Mks 4A and 5A DR Computer carry a circular slide rule. T/F

Q.526. Although the pocket electronic calculator has superseded the slide rule for carrying
out arithmetic, the circular slide rule is nevertheless useful for the solution of the
normal speed, distance and time, and fuel consumption problems that regularly occur
in navigation. T/F

45
Q. 527. It should be remembered that, as with all slide rules, decimal points are ignored
during calculation and only inserted at the end. It is therefore important to have an
appreciation of the order of the result expected. T/F

Q.528. Reflecting the normal usage of the circular slide rule, the outer scale is marked
'MILES', and the scale on the rotating disc (the inner scale) is marked 'MINUTES'.
The inner scale has a large black arrow indicating one hour. T/F

Q.529. The problem most often encountered, which is solved readily by the circular slide
rule, is that of determining the time taken to cover a given distance, or conversely the
distance covered in a given time. To solve these problems, the given groundspeed is
set, in knots on the outer scale, against the black (hour) arrow of the inner scale.
Distance is then read on the outer scale, against time in minutes on the inner scale.
T/F

Q.530. Given a groundspeed of 470 kts, how long will it take to fly 100 N.M., and how far will
the aircraft fly in 8 minutes?
By setting 47 on the outer scale against the hour arrow it will be seen that a
time of 12.8 minutes on the inner scale will be read against the 10 mark on the outer
scale, i.e. 100 N.M. takes 12.8 minutes; against 8 on the inner (minutes) scale, a
distance of 62.5 N.M. will be read on the outer scale. T/F

Q.531. If the distance flown in a given time is known, the circular slide rule can be used to
find the groundspeed. The procedure is to set the distance flown on the outer scale
against the time taken on the inner scale. T/F

Q.532. Given the fuel consumption rate (e.g. in kgs/min) and the leg time, over which that
consumption rate applies, the circular slide rule can conveniently be used to
determine the fuel used for landing only. T/F

Q.533. The fuel consumption rate is set on the outer scale against the appropriate time on
the outer scale. The total fuel used can then be read on the outer scale against the
leg time on the inner scale. T/F

Q.534. The navigation planning requirements for any flight will depend largely on the nature
of the task, the area of operation and any procedures or orders relevant to a particular
aircraft type or role. T/F

Q.535. Many tasks will be of a 'standard' nature, e.g. regular air transport routes and in such
cases, no use can be made of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), computerized
planning facilities and statistical meteorological data. T/F

Q.536. Alternatively the mission may be of an operational or emergency nature and the
normal flight planning procedures may have to be amended or circumvented in the

46
 interests of expediency; much reliance will be placed on the use of SOPs and on the
experience of the crew. T/F

Q.537 Before any actual planning can take place a number of factors must be considered
which will help to determine the route and techniques to be used.
a. The task.
b. The fuel requirements or limitations.
c. Aircraft performance.
d. The geography of the area to be over flown.
e. The meteorological forecast of the route or area.
f. The availability of navigation aids.
g. Air traffic restrictions, danger areas and prohibited airspace.
h. Any special procedures that must be obeyed.
i. Availability of diversion airfields. T/F

Q.538. There are no particular geographical factors pertaining to a flight except that it should
be noted that the end of the route is over mountainous terrain and particular care
must be taken when calculating safety altitude and when monitoring the descent. T/F

Q.539. Fuel planning is an integral part of flight planning, and accurate calculation of the fuel
requirement for a particular flight is important for safety, economical operation, and
the maximum utilization of payload. T/F

Q.540. An important aspect of flight planning is the calculation of the action to be taken in
the event of a diversion or an emergency. The decision to be made is whether, with
the available fuel and knowledge of the wind velocity, it will be preferable to return to
base, divert, or continue to the destination, and indeed which of these options is
feasible. T/F

Q.541. The CP is the point between two airfields from which it would take the same time to
fly to either airfield. The calculation of critical point is based on the ratio of
groundspeed to destination and groundspeed back to base. These speeds are
computed from a mean wind velocity for the flight for simplicity. T/F

Q.542. The TAS selected for the calculation of CP depends on the type of emergency
envisaged. For example in the case of an engine failure a FULL TAS will be used,
whereas in the case of a sudden deterioration in the condition of a patient on a
medical evacuation flight a higher than normal TAS might be appropriate. T/F

Q.543. There are three methods of determining the critical point between two airfields;
formula (DR Computer), Howgozit and critical line graphics. T/F

Q.544. For many centuries man has been concerned about the shape of the Earth; the early
Greeks in their speculation and theorizing ranged from the flat disc to the sphere, and
even cylindrical and rectangular Earth’s have been propounded. T/F

47
Q.545. This shape is more properly termed an oblate spheroid, which is the figure generated
by the revolution of an ellipse about its minor axis. Because of this flattening, the
Earth's polar diameter is approximately 27 statute miles shorter than its average
equatorial diameter. T/F

Q.546. The ratio between this difference and the equatorial diameter is termed the
compression of the Earth, and indicates the amount of flattening. T/F

Q.547. Geodetic information obtained from satellite measurements indicates that the Earth is
very slightly "pear-shaped", the greater mass being in the Southern Hemisphere. T/F

Q.548. The extremities of the diameter about which the Earth rotates are called poles. T/F

Q.549. The two poles are distinguished arbitrarily; the North Pole is said to be the pole,
which lies to the left of an observer facing East. T/F

Q.550. North is therefore that direction in which an observer would have to move in order to
reach the North Pole; it is at right angles to the East-West direction. T/F

Q.551. The shortest distance between two points is the length of the straight line joining
them. T/F

Q.552. It is, however, impossible to draw a straight line on a spherical surface and so all
lines drawn on the Earth are curved, some regularly and others irregularly. T/F

Q.553. A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose center and radius are
those of the sphere itself. Because its plane passes through the center of the sphere,
the resulting section is the largest that can be obtained hence the name great circle.
T/F

Q.554. Only one great circle may be drawn through two places on the surface of a sphere,
which are not diametrically opposed. T/F

Q.555. The shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere is the
smaller arc of the great circle joining them. T/F

Q.556. A small circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose center and radius are not
those of the sphere. All circles other than great circles on the surface of a sphere are
small circles T/F

Q.557. The Equator is the great circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
the Earth. Every point on the equator is therefore equidistant from both poles. T/F

Q.558. The equator lies in an East-West direction and divides the Earth into northern and
southern hemispheres. T/F

48
Q.559. Meridians are semi-great circles joining the poles; every great circle joining the poles
forms a meridian and its anti-meridian. T/F

Q.560. All meridians indicate North-South directions. T/F

Q.561. Parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the Earth whose planes are
parallel to the plane of the equator. They therefore lie in an East-West direction. T/F

Q.562. A rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth cutting all
meridians at the same angle. Only one such line may be drawn through any two
points. T/F

Q.563. The advantage of the rhumb line is that its direction is constant, therefore the rhumb
line between two points may be followed more conveniently than the great circle. T/F

Q.564. The meridians are only parallel to one another where they cross the equator,
elsewhere the angle of inclination between selected meridians increases towards the
poles. T/F

Q.565. This angle of inclination between selected meridians at particular latitude is known
variously as Earth convergence, true convergence, and meridian convergence. T/F

Q.566. The sexagesimal system of measuring angles is universally employed in navigation.

T/F
Q.567. In this sexagesimal system the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc
equal to the 360th part of the circumference is called a degree; each degree is
subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. T/F
Q.568. In spherical calculations it is frequently convenient to express spherical distances
(i.e., great circle distances) in terms of angular measurement rather than in linear
units. T/F

Q.569. Assuming the Earth to be a true sphere, a nautical mile is defined as the length of the
arc of a great circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the center of the Earth.
T/F

Q.570. The number of nautical miles in the arc of any great circle equals the number of
minutes subtended by that arc at the center of the Earth. T/F

Q.571. The conversion of an angular measurement of spherical distance to linear units

requires only the reduction of the angle to minutes of arc; the number of minutes is
equal to the spherical distance in nautical miles. T/F

Q.572. Because of the Earth's uneven shape the actual length of the nautical mile is not
constant, but varies with latitude from 6,046 feet at the equator to approximately
6,108 feet at the poles. T/F

49
Q.573. The other mile unit in common use is the statue mile (so called because its length is
determined by law; this is 5,280 feet in length. It is a purely arbitrary unit of
measurement and, unlike the nautical mile, is not readily converted into angular
measurement terms. T/F

Q.574. The kilometer is the SI unit of distance. This unit is the length of 1/10,000th part of
the average distance between the equator and either pole; it is equivalent to
3,280 feet. T/F

Q.575. Speed is the rate of change of position. It is usually expressed in linear units per
hour. T/F

Q576. In order to fly in a given direction it is necessary to be able to refer to a datum line or
fixed direction whose orientation is known or can be determined. T/F

Q.577. The most convenient datum is the meridian through the current position, since it is
the North-South line. T/F

Q.578. Direction measured with reference to True North, the direction of the North
geographic pole, is said to be the True direction. T/F

Q.579. True direction has the advantages of being a constant directional reference (i.e. True
direction about a point does not change with time), of being the basis of nearly all
maps and charts, and of being directly and continuously output by inertial systems.

Q.580. Magnetic direction continues to be used as an aircraft heading reference and as the
basic direction reference in non-inertial systems. T/F
Q.581. The Earth acts as if it is a huge magnet whose field is strong enough to influence the
alignment of a freely suspended magnetic needle anywhere in the world. T/F

Q.582. The poles of hypothetical magnet are known as North and South magnetic poles
and, like those of any magnet, they can be considered to be connected by lines of
magnetic force. T/F

Q.583. A freely suspended magnetic needle will take up the direction indicated by the
Earth's lines of force and thus assume a general North-South direction T/F

Q.584. Knowing the angle by which the direction of Magnetic North differs from True North
at any given point (an angle which is accurately measured on the ground and
displayed on plotting charts), it is possible to convert Magnetic direction, which can be
measured, into True direction which is required. T/F

Q.585. The angular difference between the direction of True North and Magnetic North at
any given point, and therefore between all True directions and their corresponding
Magnetic directions at that point, is called Variation. T/F

50
Q.586. Variation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (-) according to
whether the North-seeking end of a freely-suspended magnetic needle, influenced
only by the Earth's field, lies to the East of West of True North at any given point. T/F

Q.587. The algebraic sign given to Variation indicates how it is to be applied to magnetic
direction to convert it to True direction. T/F

Q.588. At any point, therefore, the True direction can be determined by measuring magnetic
direction and then applying the local Variation. A useful mnemonic is:” Variation East,
Magnetic least, Variation West, Magnetic best." T/F

Q.589. Variation is not constant over the Earth's surface but varies from place to place. The
change is gradual and follows a more or less regular pattern. T/F

Q.590. By means of a magnetic survey the variation at numerous points is accurately

measured and tabulated. From such a survey it is possible to discover a number of
points where variation has the same value. T/F

Q.591. Lines joining these points of equal variation are known as isogonals and these lines
are printed on maps and charts. T/F

Q.592. The variation at any given point is not a fixed quantity but is subject to gradual
change with the passage of time because the magnetic axis of the Earth is constantly
changing. T/F

Q.593. When a freely suspended magnetic needle is influenced only by the Earth's magnetic
field, the direction it assumes is known as Magnetic North. T/F
Q.594. If a needle is placed in an aircraft, it is subject to a number of additional magnetic
fields created by various electrical circuits and magnetized pieces of metal within the
aircraft; consequently its North-seeking end deviates from the direction of magnetic
North and indicates a direction known as compass North. T/F

Q.595. The angular difference between the direction of Magnetic North and that of Compass
North, and therefore all Magnetic directions and their corresponding Compass
directions is called Deviation. T/F

Q.596. Deviation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (-) according to
whether the North-seeking end of a compass needle, under various disturbing
influences, lies to the East or West of Magnetic North. T/F

Q.597. Deviation is not, as might be imagined, a constant value for a given compass;
instead it varied with the heading of the aircraft. T/F

Q.598. The deviation of a compass will change as its position in the aircraft is changed. T/F

51
Q.599. Deviation will also change, over a period of time, due to changing magnetic fields
within the aircraft. Moreover, as the aircraft flies great distances over the Earth,
changes occur in deviation because of the Earth's changing magnetic field. T/F

Q.600. It is not sufficient, therefore, to prepare a deviation card and expect it to last
indefinitely; the card must be renewed at frequent intervals in order that it may always
record the deviation as accurately as possible. T/F

Q.601. A useful mnemonic for the application of deviation is Deviation East, compass least,
deviation west, compass best. T/F

Q.602. It is possible therefore to express a direction given with regard to a particular

compass needle as True direction, provided that deviation and variation are known.
T/F

Q.603. To avoid the complications arising from the changing values of variation and
deviation during flight, plotting is usually carried out using true directions. T/F

Q.604. Since air navigation is the process of directing an aircraft from one point to another, it
is essential to be able to define points as positions on the Earth's surface. T/F

Q.605. Mathematically, a point can be defined by reference to two mutually perpendicular

axes. T/F

Q.606. On the Earth position is normally defined by a reference system known as latitude
and longitude. The chosen axes are the equator and the meridian of Greenwich - the
prime meridian. T/F

Q.607. Latitude is defined as the angular distance from the equator to a point, measured
northward or southward along the meridian through that point. T/F

Q.608. The longitude of any point is the shorter angular distance along the equator between
the prime meridian and the meridian through the point T/F

Q.609. In air navigation it is usually sufficient to express latitude and longitude in degrees
and minutes only. T/F

Q.610. By convention, the group of figures representing latitude is always written first and is
followed by the figures expressing longitude. To avoid ambiguity there are always
two figures used to denote degrees of latitude, those below ten being preceded by the
digit. T/F

Q.611. The change of latitude (ch lat) between two points is the arc of a meridian intercepted
between their parallels of latitude. It is annotated N or S according to the direction of
the change from the first point to the second. T/F

52
Q.612. The change of longitude (ch long) between two points is the smaller arc of the
equator intercepted by the meridians through the two points. T/F

Q.613. The distance between two given meridians, measured along a stated parallel and
expressed in nautical miles is called departure. In general terms it is defined as the
East-West component of the rhumb line distance between two points. T/F

Q.614. The value of departure between two meridians varies with latitude, decreasing with
increasing latitude (Fig 7); the change of longitude between these meridians of course
remains the same, irrespective of the latitude. T/F

Q.615. The departure between any two points is thus a function of their latitudes and the
change of longitude and the relationship is given by: Departure (nms) = ch long (mins)
x cos mean lat: T/F

Q.616. The World Geographic Reference System, or GEOREF, was introduced with the
object of providing a simple, speedy, unambiguous method of defining position which
is capable of universal application. T/F

Q.617. GEOREF incorporates the best of both systems by utilizing the orthodox graticule of
meridians and parallels and by expressing the position of any point, in relation to it, by
a system of lettered coordinates. T/F

Q.618. It is emphasized that the GEOREF system replaces neither the latitude nor longitude
nor the rectangular grid methods of reporting positions, but provides a convenient
means of reporting position within the framework of the former system. T/F

Q.619. The GEOREF system divides the surface of the Earth into quadrangles, the sides of
which are specific arc lengths of longitude and latitude. Each quadrangle is then
identified by a simple, systematic, lettered code. T/F

Q.620. The first division of the Earth's surface is into 24 longitudinal zones, each 15° wide,
which are lettered A to Z inclusive (omitting O and I), commencing eastwards from the
180° meridian. T/F

Q.621. In GEOREF corresponding division is made of the Earth's surface into 12 latitudinal
bands, each 15° wide, which are lettered A to M inclusive (omitting I). T/F

Q.622. In GEOREF case, the lettering commences northwards from the South Pole. The
earth is therefore divided into 288 quadrangles, of 15° sides, each of which is
identified by a unique combination of two letters. T/F

Q.623. In GEOREF The first letter is always that of the longitude zone or easting and the
second that of the latitude band or northing. In this respect the system differs from
that of latitude and longitude in which the latitude is always given first. T/F

53
Q.624. The reference number of any point in GEOREF can be given, to an accuracy of one
minute of arc, by quoting four letters and four numerals. T/F

Q.625. The accuracy of the GEOREF can be achieved unto approximately 608 ft, and the
reference is given by quoting six numerals instead of four. T/F

Q.626. A further refinement to accuracy of GEOREF is approximately 61 ft is obtained when

the eastings and northings are given additional figures. T/F

Q.627. Although the GEOREF system has now a restricted use it is available for universal
application should the occasion arise? Whenever security demands, it is a simple
operation to change the code letters from time to time. T/F

Q.628. Like the latitude and longitude system GEOREF compares unfavorably with a
rectangular grid since a different scale has to be used for the measurement of
eastings and northings. The GEOREFsystem can be confusing because, contrary to
latitude and longitude procedures, the eastings are given before the northings. T/F

Q.629. The simplest method of reporting an aircraft's position is to name the point directly
beneath the aircraft at that time; this may be a town, airfield, radio beacon etc. T/F

Q.630. An alternative method is to express the aircraft's position as a range (distance) and
bearing (angular relationship) from an easily identified datum or feature. This method
is sometimes referred to as a rho-theta (r, q) system. T/F

Q.631. The magnetic direction of the line joining the feature and the aircraft, measured at the
feature. This method is often used in conjunction with TACAN and VOR beacons,
which provide this information directly. These bearings are sometimes referred to as
radials. T/F

Q.632. Topographical charts for navigation must be conformal and have the same other
properties as plotting charts. Thus the Mercator and Lambert projections are usually
chosen. T/F

Q.633. It is important to realize the difference between the meanings of the words 'speed'
and 'velocity'. Speed describes only the rate at which an object is moving. T/F

Q.634. Velocity describes speed in a specified direction, it is said to be a vector quantity for
it has both magnitude and direction. T/F

Q.635. Since a velocity is a speed in a given direction, it may be represented graphically by

a straight line whose length is proportional to speed, and whose direction is measured
from an arbitrary datum line. T/F

54
Q.636. The scale used in drawing vectors may be any that is convenient. The datum line for
measurement of direction is by convention true north, and usually point to the top of
the sheet. T/F

Q.637. To indicate the direction and scale of the vector, it is usual to insert the true north
symbol at some point in the diagram, and to indicate scale by a graduated scale line.
T/F

Q.638. Wind is air in approximately horizontal motion. The direction and speed of that
motion defines wind velocity (w/v), and it can be represented by a vector. T/F

Q.639. Win Velocity can be expressed as a five or six figure group; the first three figures
refer to wind direction (the true direction from which it blows); the last two or three
figures indicate wind speed in knots. T/F

Q.640. If the component velocities act in the same direction (i.e., the aircraft flies directly
upwind or downwind), the resultant velocity is the algebraic sum of the aircraft and
wind speeds along the aircraft heading. T/F

Q.641. The true heading and true airspeed vector carries one arrow, pointing in the direction
of heading. T/F

Q.642. The track and groundspeed vector carries two arrows, pointing in the direction of
track. T/F

Q.643. The wind velocity vector carries three arrows pointing in the direction in which the
wind is blowing. T/F

Q.644. The speed of an aircraft measured relative to the air mass through which it is moving
is termed true airspeed (TAS). T/F

Q.645. It is emphasized that because of wind velocity this speed will differ from that
measured by an observer on the Earth. Airspeed is independent of wind, and is the
same regardless of whether the aircraft is flying upwind or downwind. T/F

Q.646. An airspeed indicator (ASI) usually measures an aircraft’s airspeed. The ASI reading
is termed indicated airspeed (IAS), but this does not equal true airspeed. T/F

Q.647. The difference between IAS and TAS quantities is caused by a number of
inaccuracies which, broadly speaking, stem from two sources, the ASI itself and the
atmosphere. T/F

Q.648. If IAS is corrected for the inaccuracies of the ASI - instrument and pressure (or
position) errors - the result is called calibrated airspeed (CAS). T/F

55
Q.649. At higher speeds (normally above about 300 kt) a correction to CAS is necessary to
take into account the compressibility of air; this correction varies with altitude and
speed. T/F

Q.650. ASIs are calibrated in relation to the International Standard Atmosphere and at mean
sea level. At all other altitudes EAS and CAS are less than TAS because the air is
less dense than at sea level. T/F

Q.651. CAS or EAS may be corrected to TAS by using graphs, tables, digital computers or
analogue computers (such as the Dead Reckoning Computer. T/F

Q.652. The speed of sound varies as the square root of the absolute temperature. Thus the
calculation of TAS from Mach number is much simpler than, say, from CAS, for the
only variable is temperature. T/F

Q.653. Since air navigation is concerned with the movement of an aircraft over the Earth, it
is necessary to know the speed at which the aircraft is moving relative to the Earth;
this is termed groundspeed and, like airspeed, it is measured in knots. T/F

Q.654. The direction of the path of an aircraft over the ground is called its track. If an aircraft
flies directly upwind or downwind, or in still air, its path over the ground lies in the
same direction as its heading. T/F

Q.655. The line joining two points between which it is required to fly is known as the required
track. T/F

Q.656. In flying from one point to another the path, which the aircraft actually follows over
the ground, is called its track made good. T/F

Q.657. When track made good coincides with required track, the aircraft is said to be on
track; when track made good and required track are not the same the aircraft is said
to be off track. T/F

Q.658. Any two points on the Earth's surface may be joined by a rhumb line and by a great
circle. It follows, therefore, that tracks may be of two kinds; the rhumb line track,
which follows the rhumb line between two points, and the great circle track, which
follows the great circle between the points. T/F

Q.659. By definition, the rhumb line track maintains a constant direction relative to true North
and is therefore in many cases the easier to make good. T/F

Q.660. Track is measured in degrees and is expressed (like heading) as a three-figure group
e.g. 045°. It may be measured relative to true North, magnetic North or grid North and
is annotated (T), (M) or (G) accordingly. T/F

56
Q.661. The angle between the heading and track of an aircraft is called drift. It is due to the
effect of the wind and is the lateral movement imparted to an aircraft by the wind. T/F

Q.662. An aircraft flying in conditions of no wind, or directly upwind or downwind,

experiences no drift. In such cases, track and heading coincide. Under all other
conditions track and heading differ by a certain amount, referred to as the drift. T/F

Q.663. Drift may be measured manually by observing the direction of the apparent
movement of objects on the ground below the aircraft (Track) and comparing this
direction with the fore and aft axis of the aircraft (Heading) to obtain the angular
difference. T/F

Q.664. Many aircraft are fitted with automatic systems that calculate drift continuously by
electronic means e.g. Doppler or inertial systems. T/F

Q.665. Drift is expressed in degrees to port (P) or starboard (S) of the aircraft's heading; an
aircraft experiencing port drift is said to drift to port, and its track lies to port of its
heading. T/F

Q.666. Thus knowing the heading of the aircraft, the track can be determined by proper
application of drift to heading; if drift is to port track angle is less than heading; if to
starboard, track angle is greater than heading. T/F

Q.667. Automatic systems can continuously apply drift to heading to give a direct indication
of track T/F

Q.668. The direct measurement of track, i.e. from knowledge of actual ground position,
enables drift to be determined provided the heading is known. T/F

Q.669. The triangle of velocities may be considered to have six parts; each of its three sides
representing a speed and a direction. Knowledge of any four of these parts enables
the remaining two parts to be found. T/F

Q.670. In practice, the triangle of velocities can be continuously resolved by automatic

navigation systems. However, graphical methods may still be used during planning
and in flight, using the transparent plotting disc of the DR Computer. T/F

Q.671. In plotting the vector triangle there are a number of points to note. The same datum
direction, and a uniform unit of measurement must be used for all vectors, otherwise
the diagram will be distorted. T/F

Q.672. One must ensure that true airspeed is measured only along true heading and those
similar relationships for track and groundspeed, and wind direction and wind speed
are maintained. T/F

57
Q.673. It has been seen that the progress of an aircraft can be represented by a triangle of
velocities. By drawing to scale the appropriate sides of the triangle on a chart, this
progress can be monitored; a technique known as plotting. T/F

Q.674. Prior to the widespread introduction of Doppler and inertial equipment into aircraft,
the only reliable side of the triangle of velocities readily available was heading and
TAS. T/F

Q.675. The air plot technique is generally used, where the air position was determined from
heading and TAS and the resultant ground position was established by applying the
best known wind vector to this air position. T/F

Q.677. Since Doppler or inertial derived track and groundspeed now continuously displayed,
the more useful track plot is the only plotting technique in current use. T/F

Q.678. No chart has a constant scale and for plotting distances the length of the nautical
mile in the area of operation must be used. This length will change along the vector
(except in the east-west case), but for plotting purposes on the three commonly used
projections, Mercator, Lambert and Stenographic, T/F

Q.679. For a chart with converging meridians (e.g. Lambert Conformal) it is similarly
important that all vector directions in the triangle of velocities are measured from the
same directional datum, i.e. the mid-longitude. T/F

Q.680. Although the air plot technique has been superseded by the track plot, an elementary
understanding of the technique provides a background against which the track plot
can be viewed and the determination of wind velocity can be understood. T/F

Q.681. By maintaining the vector representing the true heading and airspeed of the aircraft,
drawn to the scale of the chart and originating from the point of departure, the
aircraft's position or the wind velocity can be determined. T/F

Q.682. The manual track plot is a simple form of plotting. The position of the aircraft,
determined by pinpoints, fixes, automatic position indicating equipment or DR
calculation, is plotted at regular intervals on a chart. T/F

Q.683. The manual track plot positions are used to determine the aircraft’s progress, and to
calculate future positions, estimated time of arrival (ETA), and any necessary
corrections to heading that may be required. T/F

Q.684. Where fixes are available continuously; a track plot can be kept by plotting them at
regular intervals of, say, six or ten minutes. From such a series of fixes an accurate
assessment of track made good (TMG) and groundspeed can easily be made, and
from the latter, ETAs can be checked. T/F

58
Q.685. The time interval between fixes used for calculating groundspeed and track and
groundspeed wind velocity must not be too short. T/F

Q.686. Consider an aircraft with
intervals, and each fix has
can range from 32 to 40
between 320 and 400 kt,
figure, or ± 11.1%. T/F
a groundspeed of 360 kt. If fixes are taken at 6-minute
a possible error of 2 N.M., the distance between the fixes
nm. The groundspeed would be calculated as anything
i.e. a maximum error of 40 kt either side of the correct

Q.687. Thus errors in calculating groundspeed are a function of the fixing accuracy, the time
interval between fixes and the speed of the aircraft. The faster the aircraft the shorter
is the time interval required for groundspeed assessments between fixes. T/F

Q.688. Without Doppler or inertial equipment the track plot will be based initially on the
forecast W/V. Subsequently the actual W/V may be found to differ from that forecast.
T/F

Q.689. Automatic ground position indicators (GPIs) are designed to give a continuous
indication of TMG by applying the drift, obtained from their associated Doppler
equipment, to the heading supplied by the compass system. T/F

Q.690. Doppler also measures groundspeed so a continuous display of track and

groundspeed is available. If the point of departure is set into the GPI initially it will
present its calculation of present position continuously, either as a latitude and
longitude, a grid position, or as a position relative to a pre-determined track. T/F

Q.691. Inertial navigation systems measure aircraft accelerations in order to calculate

distance and direction traveled from a manually set datum position. As with the
Doppler/GPI system the output can be displayed in a variety of ways or the system
can be used to drive a moving map display. T/F

Q.692. The automatic GPIs process inputs either by analogue or digital computing methods
to continuously deduce and indicate the aircraft’s position. T/F

Q.693. Some systems can process radio signals to continuously fix the aircraft’s ground
position. They all rely on the availability and quality of their inputs for the accuracy of
the indicated position. T/F

Q.694. Wind velocity plays a major part in navigation calculations. If wind velocity was
constant, one measurement would suffice for all calculations and workloads would be
considerably reduced. T/F

Q.695. Wind velocity is seldom constant; it varies in direction and speed with height, time,
and place. T/F

59
Q.696. knowledge of the expected wind velocities is required in order to plan a flight, a
knowledge of the wind effect actually being experienced in flight is necessary to
calculate position and a knowledge of present wind velocity is needed to calculate
alterations of heading. T/F

Q.697. Because of its continual variation it is normally necessary to measure wind velocity
frequently if accurate navigation is to be accomplished. T/F

Q.698. Measured wind velocities may be divided into mean and local winds, the division
depending upon the interval over which the wind is determined. T/F

Q.699. A mean wind velocity is one which has been found over a fairly long time period and
usually over a large area; it represents the mean effect of all the different wind
velocities experienced by the aircraft during that time. T/F

Q.700. If the wind velocity has changed during the period of measurement, the mean wind
velocity may be quite different from the actual wind velocity affecting the aircraft at the
end of the period. T/F

Q.701. A mean wind velocity is ideal for calculating position, it is not usually suitable for
calculating alterations of heading, and because it may not represent the wind velocity
that will affect the aircraft to its next turning point or destination. T/F

Q.702. A wind velocity found instantaneously or over a comparatively short period of time is
known as a local wind velocity. It represents the wind velocity affecting the aircraft at
that time and as such is usually the best available wind velocity for use in calculating
alterations of heading. T/F

Q.703. In practice it is usually necessary to compromise between mean winds velocities

found over long periods of time and the more quickly calculated local wind velocity.
T/F
Q.704. The track and groundspeed method is that solution of the vector triangle which
determines the length and direction of one side of the triangle (the wind vector), given
the length and direction of the other two sides (the heading and track vectors). T/F

Q.705. The track and groundspeed method of finding wind velocity eliminates the plotting
and measurement of wind vectors, which is often a major source of error, and so its
accuracy depends primarily on the accuracy of, and measurement between, the fixes
used to determine the track and groundspeed. T/F

Q.706. Wind velocities found from the continuous outputs of drift and groundspeed provided
by Doppler or inertial navigation equipment may be applied to true heading and true
airspeed either automatically or manually to find the local wind velocity. T/F

60
Q.707. The track and groundspeed method are that the wind velocity currently affecting the
aircraft can be quickly, easily and continuously determined, consequently there is little
restriction on tactical freedom. T/F

Q.708. When keeping a track plot, winds are normally found by the track and groundspeed
method. If however a fix is found from which neither groundspeed nor track can be
calculated, the wind velocity may be determined by back plotting vectors. T/F

Q.709. The air plot method does not rely on the measurement of track and groundspeed,
instead the wind vector, i.e. the displacement between a fix and its corresponding air
position, is measured directly T/F

Q.710. The wind vector measured is proportional to the period of time the air plot has been
running, and must be converted mathematically to nautical miles per hour (i.e. a wind
velocity in knots). T/F

Q.711. Whereas the track and groundspeed method of finding wind velocity cannot be used
if there is any alteration of heading or airspeed between the fixes, this restriction does
not apply to the air plot method. T/F

Q.712. Wind velocities can be measured regardless of heading and airspeed flown, provided
an accurate log of air positions is maintained for each change of heading or airspeed.
The plot must be restarted whenever a fix is obtained and the navigation equipment
updated. T/F

Q.713. The accuracy of the air position, which depends on the accuracy of the start fix and
the knowledge of headings and airspeed flown, together with the accuracy of the final
fix dictates the accuracy to which the wind velocity can be determined. T/F

Q.714. An air plot wind is the mean wind velocity over the period since the air plot was
started and thus its validity for future calculations must be considered carefully. It is
usually necessary for this reason to limit the period over which air plot winds are
found in order to obtain an approximation to the local wind. T/F

Q.715. If air plots winds are found over very short intervals, the resultant vectors are often so
short that accurate measurement is difficult. Errors in measuring vectors representing
short periods of wind effect cause large errors in the wind speed found, e.g. an error
of 1 N.M. in a vector representing a 6 minute period will result in a 10 knot inaccuracy.
T/F
Q.716. Usually the most satisfactory period for wind finding is between 18 and 40 minutes.
T/F

Q.717. When flying at low level, in sight of the surface, it may be possible to make an
assessment of the wind direction, and with experience also of the wind speed, by
observing its effect on smoke plumes from factories, power stations and other
miscellaneous fires. T/F

61
Q.718. It should be remembered that close to the surface there may be local wind
channeling and eddies, and the apparent wind direction may not be a true
representation of the mean wind over a broader area or at the aircraft’s height. T/F

Q.719. Despite shortcomings such clues can be helpful where there is little better
information or where it is required to confirm a forecast wind velocity. Over open
water the wind causes a pattern of parallel lines or streaks formed by foam or spray.
These streaks, called wind lanes, are aligned with the wind direction and are usually
clearly visible from the air. T/F

Q.720. Where the meteorological forecast for a particular flight is divided into a number of
zones, it will be necessary to take into account the change in wind to be expected on
crossing the boundary between zones. T/F

Q.721. The method of selecting a wind velocity for use after the aircraft has changed height.
A correction factor, being the difference between the forecast and found winds at the
height flown, is applied to the forecast wind velocity for the height to be flown. T/F

Q.722. In the event of the aircraft making a long climb, it may be necessary to alter heading
while ascending and therefore to select a wind velocity for that part of the climb from
the DR position at the time of altering heading to the limit of the ascent. T/F

Q.723. Wind velocities found whilst climbing are mean wind velocities (apart from those
found by Doppler or inertial equipment) and the height at which they are considered
to be operative is ascertained by the application of simple rules which depend upon
the rate of climb of the aircraft. T/F

Q.724. If the rate of climb is constant throughout the period in which the wind velocity is
found, the wind velocity is said to apply to the mean height for the period. T/F

Q.725. If the rate of climb is decreasing during the period in which the wind velocity is found,
the wind applies at two-thirds of the height band ascended during the period.

Q.726. The wind velocity to be used when flight planning a climb or descent is the mean of
the wind effects which will be experienced by the aircraft as it ascends or descends
through the various layers of air.

Q.727. The selection of wind velocity in practice depends upon the change of wind speed
and direction with height, and upon the rate of climb or descent of the aircraft. T/F

Q.728. Where the wind velocity changes regularly with height and the rate of climb or
descent is constant, the wind velocity at the mid-level would be used; where the rate
of climb reduces with altitude the level chosen. T/F

62
Q.729. Where there is an intermediate fix (or fixes) in the climb or descent an appropriate
wind velocity for each section can be used. T/F

Q.730. If the aircraft was to climb from 2,000 ft to 27,000 ft at a reducing rate of climb the
two-thirds rule would be applied to determine the appropriate height, i.e. 18,500 ft in
this case T/F

Q.731. A position determined without reference to any former position is called a fix. This is
a generic term and is often qualified to indicate the fixing method, e.g. radar fix. T/F

Q.732. Instantaneous fixes can be obtained from radio and radar systems, and the symbol is
used when plotting these positions on the chart. T/F

Q.733. A pinpoint, the visual identification of the position vertically beneath the aircraft, is
also an instantaneous fix but is represented by the chart symbol. T/F

Q.734. The rapid fixing facilities are not always available, and in these circumstances
position lines are used to determine position. T/F

Q.735. If is possible to fly over and identifiable feature, e.g. a motorway, without knowing the
precise point of crossing; all that can be said is that at that particular time the aircraft
was somewhere on the line of the motorway. This is known as a position line (P/L)
and, , two or more such lines will provide a fix. T/F

Q.736. Position lines may be classified according to the observation method employed, the
general classifications are visual, astronomical and radio. T/F

Q.738. Position lines can be straight or curved, depending on the information they convey.
T/F

Q.739. Bearings are straight position lines representing the angular relationship between the
aircraft and a known position, or the orientation of a line feature. T/F

Q.740. Circular position lines represent the aircraft's range from a position, the radius of the
curve being equal to the range. T/F

Q.741. A bearing may be taken relative to the fore and aft axis of the aircraft normally by
using a radio compass tuned to a radio beacon or by visual or radar observation of a
feature. T/F

Q.742. To obtain the true bearing of the beacon or feature, the true heading of the aircraft
must be added to the relative bearing (either directly or by offsetting the azimuth scale
of the measuring instrument). T/F

63
Q.743. The reciprocal of true bearing plotted from the beacon or feature gives the position
line for the time of observation. It is essential that the true heading applied to the
relative bearing is that obtaining at the time of the observation. T/F

Q.744. A line drawn on a chart through two features observed to be in line, i.e. in transit,
must pass through the aircraft's position at the time of sighting. This line, a true
bearing, is therefore a position line. T/F

Q.745. Line Features. Stretches of coastline, road, railway or river, though lacking prominent
features suitable for pinpoints, may be used as position lines provided that they are
marked on the charts in use. T/F

Q.746. A direction-finding ground station taking a bearing on an aircraft’s radio transmission

may obtain a position line. The bearing is passed to the aircraft by radio usually in the
form of either the true bearing of the aircraft from the station, or as the magnetic track
that the aircraft must make good to reach the station. T/F

Q.747. TACAN and VOR beacons both transmit a signal which, when interpreted by the
aircraft equipment, gives the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the beacon. The
position line is obtained by taking the reciprocal of the reading of the indicator needle,
applying the value of magnetic variation at the beacon, and then plotting the true
bearing. T/F

Q.748. The range from a ground TACAN or DME beacon can be obtained using
transmitter/responder equipment. The range displayed is a slant value , which should
be converted to plan range before plotting. T/F

Q.749. Navigation aids such as Decca and LORAN provide hyperbolic position lines which
are normally combined with another of the same type to provide a fix. This is done by
plotting on special charts, and the problem of transferring these lines to the standard
plotting chart rarely arises. T/F

Q.750. For a groundspeed check, a position line is required which lies as nearly as possible
perpendicular to the aircraft's track T/F

Q.751. The distance between the last fix and the position line is measured along the DR
track, and so knowing the time that has elapsed the groundspeed can be calculated.
If the position line is within ± 20° of the perpendicular to track. T/F

Q.752. A position line near the perpendicular to track may provide a check of ETA at the
next turning point by enabling the distance to run to be measured accurately. T/F

Q.753. The position line should be near perpendicular (± 20°) to track in order that errors in
DR track will make little difference to the measured distance. T/F

64
Q.754. To check track made good, a position line is required which is parallel or nearly
parallel (± 10°) to DR track. T/F

Q.755. An arc equal in radius to the ground distance flown since the last fix, calculated using
the latest groundspeed, is described from that fix to cut the position line represents
the track made good. T/F

Q.756. Where the true bearing of a terrestrial object (azimuth) is known, it can be used to
obtain a check on the true heading of the aircraft. T/F

Q.757. The bearing of the lightship and headland in transit, as measured on the chart, is
290°T. on sighting these objects in transit their relative bearing is measured as 260°.
Therefore the true heading of the aircraft is 290° - 260° = 030°. T/F

Q.758. Homing to a destination along a position line whose origin is the destination is a
simple matter, since the direction of the position line is the same as that of the
required track. The aircraft is turned on to a heading which will make good this track
and tracking can be checked against further position lines obtained from the
destination. T/F

Q.759. With many navigation aids e.g. Decca, TACAN and ground mapping radar, it is
possible to obtain two position lines simultaneously, their point of intersection being
the aircraft's position. T/F

Q.760. When the using aids such as radio compass, VOR, astro and visual observation this
facility is not necessarily available and a fix must be constructed from position lines
which are spaced in time. At the speed at which an aircraft travels the time interval
cannot be ignored, but this difficulty is overcome by transferring the position lines to a
common time. T/F

Q.761. A position line is a bearing or range of the aircraft's position from a known origin were
moved on a track parallel to that of the aircraft and at the same. T/F

Q.762. Range or curved position lines may also be transferred using the track and
groundspeed method but in this case the origin must be moved parallel to the
aircraft's track for a distance equal to that traveled by the aircraft during the period of
transfer. T/F

Q.763. The transferred position line arc is then constructed using this false origin as a
center. The track and groundspeed method is the simplest method of transfer;
however the groundspeed used (unless using Doppler or inertial sources) is only valid
if the wind effect, TAS and headings can be considered constant. T/F

Q.764. The transfer period should be relatively short (e.g. 6 minutes). Furthermore the total
alteration of heading should not exceed 20° and TAS. T/F

65
Q.765. Although the track and groundspeed method is a relatively simple method of transfer,
its usefulness is limited by the accuracy to which aircraft velocities are known during
the transfer period, and in any case these velocities must be considered constant. T/F

Q.766. A GPI continuously senses velocities and it can therefore be used as a basis for the
transfer of position lines regardless of any change in heading, speed or wind velocity.
Two methods may be used, the choice depending on the known accuracy of the GPI
and the reliability of the position line. T/F

Q.767. With a fully serviceable GPI of proven accuracy and any difference between the GPI
position and the position line is assumed to be position line error and/or resetting
error, neither of which will increase with time. T/F

Q.768. The track and groundspeed method is quick and simple, and allows transfer to be
made prior to the fix time thus enabling a fix to be completed quickly. T/F

Q.769. Errors in track and groundspeed values can lead to large errors in the transferred
position line; track errors have the most effect on position lines parallel to track, while
groundspeed error is most significant with across track lines. T/F

Q.770.The track and groundspeed method is unwieldy, and normally considered impractical,
for the transfer of position lines after a turn. This method should, therefore, only be
used when transfer times are short and do not include other than minor changes in
aircraft velocity. T/F

Q.771. With an accurate GPI this method is the most precise available as all changes in
velocity are accounted for, thus the transferred position line will have the same
accuracy as the original line. T/F

Q.772. The disadvantage is that the transfer cannot be completed until after the final GPI
position is plotted, so delaying the completion of the fix. With a degraded GPI the
method equates to the track and groundspeed method with the associated errors. T/F
Q.773. The expanding vector method accounts for the known GPI error accumulated during
the transfer time. However, it assumes that the position line is correct and so should
only be used with reliable position lines; any position line error will be magnified on
transfer. T/F

Q.774. When the position of an aircraft is determined by transferring one or more position
lines to cut another position line at a common time, the intersection of such lines is
known as a running fix. T/F

Q.775. The principle of the running fix may be applied when two or more bearings are
successively taken on a single origin. T/F

Q.776. A fixing method, which dispenses with the transfer of position lines, and so facilitates
plotting, is the sandwich fix. T/F

66
Q.777. Even if the position lines are accurate, the resultant fixes can be in error because of
inaccuracies in the DR quantities used in the transfer. T/F

Q.778. An inaccurate DR track will cause a maximum fixing error if the position line to be
transferred to parallel to track. T/F

Q.779. Where the position line to be transferred is perpendicular to track, the resultant error
in the fix is at a minimum. T/F

Q.780. Where the position line to be transferred is parallel to track, an inaccurate DR

groundspeed produces no error in the fix. T/F

Q.781. Where the position line to be transferred is perpendicular to track the resultant error
in the fix is at its maximum. T/F

Q.782. In summary, where there is confidence in the groundspeed, but not in the track, the
position line perpendicular to track should be obtained first. Conversely, when
confidence is high in track but not in groundspeed, the position lines parallel to track
should be obtained first. T/F

Q.783. If two position lines each in error by ± 2 N.M. are to be used to form a fix then the
area of uncertainty caused by these errors is at a minimum when the lines are at right
angles. For this reason, two position line fixes constructed from lines with an angle of
cut of less then 45° should be avoided. T/F

Q.784. The more position lines that intersect to form a fix, the greater are the likely accuracy
of that fix. However, since the position lines are subject to errors, it is improbable that
more than two position lines transferred to the same time will intersect at a point.
Usually any three-position lines will form a small triangle that is called a cocked hat.
T/F

Q.785. When a position line is obtained and plotted on a chart it is assumed for the purposes
of navigation that the aircraft's position is on that line at the particular time. T/F

Q.786. In practice the aircraft is very seldom exactly on that line at the time it was obtained.
All position lines are subject to errors, the magnitude of which depends upon the type
of position line, i.e. whether it is a visual bearing, a radio bearing, or an astro
observation, and the conditions under which it is obtained. T/F

Q.787. If a large number of position lines of the same type could be taken from an aircraft in
the same known position, and operating under identical conditions, the position lines
when plotted would be found to lie in a band about the aircraft's true position. They
would be found to be concentrated in the area about the aircraft's position and would
become more widely dispersed with distance away from the aircraft. T/F

67
Q.788. This dispersion of position lines is due to a variety of reasons, e.g. slight errors in
timing and observation, approximations in calculations. T/F

Q.789. It is possible to carry out a statistical analysis on a set of accuracy figures for position
lines of any type, and from this to define the width of the band about the true position
which would enclose a certain proportion, say 50, 70 or 90 per cent, of all the position
lines considered. T/F

Q.790. The position line bands are known as bands of error in navigation terminology and
the 50% and 75% bands are those normally considered. T/F

Q.791. Extensive trials have been carried out on the accuracy of position lines and as a
result it has been possible to produce a table which defines, for convenience, half the
width of bands of errors for various types of position lines. These half-widths must be
plotted on either side of the position line to obtain the full band. T/F

Q.792. Taking the 50% band as an example, this band encloses 50% of all possible lines,
and there is, therefore, only an even chance of being somewhere inside the band of
error. T/F

Q.793. The 76% band is wider since it must contain a larger number of possible position
lines and if this band is plotted there is a 76% chance of being somewhere inside it.
T/F

Q.794. To cover every possible case the 100% band of error would inevitably occur in a few
cases in the calculating and plotting of a large number of position lines. It is clearly
impracticable to work at very high levels of probability and indeed a position line that
falls a considerable distance from its expected position should be treated with
circumspection and its accuracy should be verified by other means if possible. T/F

Q.795. For practical purposes, the 50% and 76% bands of error are used in the construction
of most probable positions. T/F

Q.796. Bands of error are only plotted when most probable positions are being constructed,
the probable accuracy of information obtained should be kept in mind so that a mental
assessment of the overall accuracy of a plot can be maintained. T/F

Q.797. When the component velocities do not act in the same line, the resultant velocity is
an intermediate speed in an intermediate direction. In such cases it is possible to find
the resultant by constructing a vector diagram, or triangle of velocities. T/F

Q.798. Using the triangle of velocities to solve the basic navigation problem, the component
vectors represent the aircraft's velocity (true heading and true airspeed) and wind
velocity; the resultant vector represents the aircraft's true track and groundspeed . T/F

Q.799. Write the steps for pre-flight preparation and flight planning.

68
Q.800. What is the in-flight Navigation Technique?

Q.801. What are the different methods of timing by adjustment of the distance to be flown.

Q.802. While the methods of losing time by 60° and 30° dogleg procedures.

Q.803. What are the Navigation procedures pertaining to Doppler velocities and position.

Q.804. What is the sea-movement error while using a Doppler?

Q.805. What are the pressure pattern technique, and what techniques are adopted to find
wind velocities.

Q.806. What are the factors on which detection distance depends, why is it important in
visual search.

Q.807. The search techniques can be sub-classified into two broad categories. Discuss?

Q.808. Discuss sweep width, trade spacing and coverage factors in search techniques.

Q.809. What is the square search and modified CLA search. Discuss?

Q.810. How do you use a personal locator beacon during a search.

Q.811. What are the crew procedures, initial action and information required during a
search?

Q.812. Air Navigation is the:-

(a) Art and science which deals with the safe conduct of flight from one
place to another.
(b) Art and science which deals with the safe conduct of flight on the aerodrome.
(c) Art and science which deals with the safe conduct of flight from one place to
another only in Risalpur Area.

Q.813. Dead Reckoning is the :-

(a) Name given to the art of navigating an airplane with the basic knowledge
of its heading, airspeed and time.
(b) Name given to the art of navigating an airplane with the basic knowledge of
aircraft type, airspeed and time.
(c) Name given to the art of navigating an airplane with the basic knowledge of
aircraft type, airspeed and aircraft altitude.

Q.814. Contact / Visual Navigation is the :-

69
 (a) Art of conducting a flight with the help of visual aids.
(b) Art of conducting a flight with the help of audiovisual aids.
(c) Art of conducting a flight with the help of perception and audiovisual aids.

Q.815. Astro Navigation is the :-

(a) Art of conducting a flight with the help of astronomical bodies.

(b) Art of conducting a flight only with the help of north star.
(c) Art of conducting a flight with the help of astronomical bodies only at night.
Q.816. Inertial Navigation is the :-
(a) Art of conducting a flight with the help of a stabilized platform measuring
accelerations in various axis.
(b) Art of conducting a flight with the help of an un-stabilized platform measuring
accelerations in various axis.
(c) Art of conducting a flight with the help of an un-stabilized platform measuring g
forces in various axis.

Q.817. For navigation purposes, Earth’s shape has been assumed to be:-

(a) Almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the equator.

(b) Almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the poles.
(c) Almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the center

Q.818. Compression Ration is given by the equation:-

(a) (Equatorial Diameter – Polar Diameter) / Equatorial Diameter.

(b) (Equatorial Diameter – Polar Diameter) / Polar Diameter.
(c) (Polar Diameter – Equatorial Diameter) / Polar Diameter.

Q.819. The directions North, South, East and West are known as :-

(a) Cardinal directions.

(b) Quadrantal directions.
(c) True directions.

Q.820. The directions North-East, South-East, South-West and North-West are known as:-

(a) Cardinal directions.

(b) Quadrantal directions.
(c) Compass directions.

Q.821. The shape of the earth is termed as :-

(a) Oblate Spheroid.

(b) Oblate Sphere.

70
 (c) Oblong Sphere.
Q.822. A great circle is a circle on the surface of:-

(a) A sphere whose center and radius are those of the sphere itself.
(b) The Earth whose center and radius are those of the sphere itself.
(c) Oblate spheroid whose center and radius are those of the sphere itself.

Q.823. A small circle is a circle on the surface of:-

(a) A sphere whose center and radius are not those of the sphere itself.
(b) The Earth whose center and radius are not those of the sphere itself.
(c) Oblate spheroid whose center and radius are not those of the sphere itself.

Q.824. A Rhumb line is a :-

(a) Regularly curved line on the surface of Earth, which crosses every
meridian (line of longitude) at the same angle.
(b) Regularly curved line on the surface of Earth, which crosses every parallel (line
of latitude) at the same angle.
(c) Regularly curved line on the surface of Earth, which crosses every parallel and
meridian at the same angle.

Q.825. Only one great circle maybe drawn through two points which are:-

(a) Not diametrically opposed.

(b) Not radially opposed.
(c) Not linearly opposed.

Q.826. The advantage of the rhumb line is that its:-

(a) Distance is shortest.

(b) Heading is constant.
(c) Angles are symmetrical.

Q.827. Latitude is defined as :-

(a) The angular distance from the Equator to a point, measured northwards
or southwards, along the meridian through that point.
(b) The angular distance from the Poles to a point, measured northwards or
southwards, along the meridian through that point.
(c) The angular distance from the Center of the Earth to a point, measured
northwards or southwards, along the meridian through that point.

Q.828. Longitude is defined as:-

71
 (a) The shorter angular distance, along the equator, between the prime
meridian and the meridian through the point.
(b) The shorter angular distance, along the poles, between the prime meridian and
the meridian through the point.
(c) The larger angular distance, along the poles, between the prime meridian and
the meridian through the point.

Q.829. The change of latitude (ch lat) between two points is the arc of a:-

(a) Meridian intercepted between their parallels of latitude.

(b) Latitude intercepted between their longitudes
(c) Equator intercepted between their parallels of latitude.

Q.830. Change of longitude (ch long) between two points is the arc of:-

(a) The equator intercepted by the meridians through the two points.
(b) The poles intercepted by the meridians through the two points.
(c) Equator intercepted between their parallels of latitude.

Q.831. Departure is the:-

(a) Distance between two given meridians, measured along a stated parallel
and expressed in nautical miles.
(b) Distance between two given parallels, measured along a stated meridian and
expressed in nautical miles.
(c) Distance between two given points, measured along a stated parallel and
expressed in nautical miles.

Q.832. A Nautical Mile is defined as :-

(a) The length of the arc of a great circle which subtends an angle of one
minute at the center of the Earth.
(b) The length of the arc of a great circle which subtends an angle of one degree
at the center of the Earth.
(c) The length of the arc of the Earth which subtends an angle of one second at
the center of a great circle.

Q.833. A geographic mile is defined as:-

(a) The length of one minute of arc of the Earth’s equator, and is
approximately equal to 6987 feet.
(b) The length of one minute of arc of the Earth’s Polar Diameter, and is
approximately equal to 6900 feet.
(c) The length of one minute of arc of the Earth’s Polar Diameter, and is
approximately equal to 6910 feet.

72
Q.834. A statute mile is defined as the:-

(a) Length determined by law, and is 5,280 feet in length.

(b) Length determined by law, and is 5,290 feet in length.
(c) Length determined by law, and is 5,380 feet in length.

Q.835. A kilometer is defined as the:-

(a) Length of 1/10,000th part of the average distance between the equator and
either pole; it is equivalent to 3,280 feet.
(b) Length of 1/100,000th part of the average distance between the equator and
either pole; it is equivalent to 4,280 feet.
(c) Length of 1/100,000th part of the average distance between the equator and
either pole; it is equivalent to 6,280 feet..

Q.836. For navigation purposes, the length of Nautical Mile is taken as:-

(a) 6980 feet.

(b) 7080 feet.
(c) 6080 feet.

Q.837. True Direction is defined as the:-

(a) Direction measurement with reference to True North, the direction of the
North geographic pole.
(b) Accurate direction measurement with reference to the direction of the North
Star.
(c) Exact direction measurement with reference to the direction of the point
latitude 73º N and longitude 100º W on Prince of Wales Island.
Q.838. Magnetic North is defined as:-
(a) The actual direction, in which a freely suspended magnetic needle points
assuming no other influences are acting upon it, is said to be Magnetic North.
(b) The actual direction, in which a fixed magnetic needle points, assuming no
other influences are acting upon it, is said to be Magnetic North.
(c) Exact direction measurement with reference to the direction of the point
latitude 68º S and longitude 144º E, on Antarctica.
Q.839. Variation is defined as the:-
(a) Angular difference between the direction of true north and magnetic
north at any given point.
(b) Angular difference between the direction of true north and true south at any
given point.
(c) Angular difference between the direction of magnetic north and magnetic south
at any given point.

73
Q.840. Isogonals are defined as the:-
(a) Lines joining places of equal variation.
(b) Lines joining places of equal variation only in Pakistan.
(c) Lines joining places of equal variation in rest of the world other than Pakistan.
Q.841. Compass North is defined as the direction indicated by the north seeking end of a:-
(a) Freely suspended magnetic needle, influenced by various electrical
circuits and magnetized pieces of metal within the aircraft.
(b) Fixed magnetic needle, influenced by various electrical circuits and
magnetized pieces of metal within the aircraft.
(c) Freely suspended magnetic needle, influenced by various electrical circuits
and magnetized pieces of metal outside the aircraft.

Q.842. Track required (TR) is defined as the :-

(a) Direction of the path of an aircraft over the ground.
(b) Direction of the path of an aircraft over the sea.
(c) The path of the direction of an aircraft over the hills and mountains in the
required area.

Q.843. Drift is defined as:-

(a) The angular difference between Heading and the Track.
(b) The angular difference between Heading and the Bearing.
(c) The angular difference between Heading and the Track Error.
Q.844. Airspeed is defined as the speed of the aircraft measured in relation to:-
(a) The air through which it is moving.
(b) The ground over which it is moving.
(c) The air mass of uniform density through which it is moving.
Q.845. A pinpoint is defined as the:-
(a) Ground position of the aircraft obtained by direct visual observation of
the ground.
(b) Ground position of the aircraft obtained by indirect visual observation of the
ground.
(c) Accurate position of the aircraft obtained by any means.
Q.846. Altitude is defined as the vertical distance of :-
(a) A level, a point or an air object considered as a point, measured from the
mean sea level.
(b) A level, a point or any ground object considered as a point, measured from the
mean sea level.

74
 (c) A level, a point or an air object considered as a point, measured from a
specified datum other than the mean sea level.

Q.847. Normally the aircraft position in lat long is reported only to the :-
(a) Nearest degree.
(b) Nearest minute.
(c) Nearest second.

Q.848. In the lat long method of reporting position: -

(a) The longitude is reported first.
(b) The latitude is reported first.
(c) Latitude or longitude either can be reported first as it is always clear from
latitude degrees north / south or longitude degrees east / west.
Q.849. The surest method of reporting position is the:-
(a) Latitude / Longitude method.
(b) Name Place Method.
(c) By bearing and distance to a known place.
Q.850. In the bearing and distance to a known place method:-
(a) The distance is reported first.
(b) The bearing is reported first.
(c) Either way it is correct.
Q.851. The limitations of reporting position by reference to Place Name method are that the
place must be:-

(a) Prominent, well-known, and the place should not cover a large area.
(b) Prominent, well-known, and the place should cover a large area.
(c) Prominent, well-known, and the place should very small area.

Q.852. Relief is defined as the representation of:-

(a) High ground as it would appear from the air.

(b) Airports as they would appear from the air.
(c) Sea as it would appear from the air.
Q.853. Contours are lines drawn on maps, joining places of equal:-
(a) Elevation.
(b) Variation.
(c) Deviation.
Q.854. Hill shading is the simulation of shadows that would be produced if the high ground
were actually standing out in relief on the map, and a light shining:-

75
 (a) Across the map surface.
(b) Below the map surface.
(c) Above the map surface.
Q.855. In day map reading, map read from:-
(a) Clock to map to ground.
(b) Map to clock to ground.
(c) Clock to ground to map.
Q.856. Interval of height between successive contour lines is known as:-
(a) The vertical interval.
(b) The horizontal interval.
(c) The horizontal equivalent.

Q.857. Douglas Protractor is an aid to plotting and determining:-

(a) Elevations, tracks and bearing on charts.

(b) Headings, tracks and bearing on charts.
(c) Variation, tracks and bearing on charts.
Q.858. The edge of the Douglas Protractor square is marked off in degrees and numbered
at:-
(a) 100 intervals on two scales, the outer one clockwise and the inner one, in
italics, anti-clockwise.
(b) 50 intervals on two scales, the outer one clockwise and the inner one, in italics,
anti-clockwise.
(c) 100 intervals on two scales, the inner one clockwise and the outer one, in
italics, anti-clockwise.
Q.859. The left side of the protractor, which can be distinguished by the words DOUGLAS
COMBINED PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULE, is used as:-
(a) The ruling edge.
(b) The bearing edge.
(c) The distance edge.
Q.860. Owing to proximity of the degree marking, it is not recommended that interpolation to
an extent greater than:-
(a) Half a degree be attempted.
(b) One degree be attempted.
(c) One and a half degree be attempted.
Q.861. In the Douglas Protractor, bearing is given by the figure on the:-
(a) Inner scale, where the meridian cuts the edge of the protractor.
(b) Outer scale, where the meridian cuts the edge of the protractor.

76
 (c) Inner scale, where the parallel cuts the edge of the protractor.

Q.862. One-in-sixty Rule states:-

(a) After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 1 NM off the track
then your track error is 1º.
(b) After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 1 NM off the track then
your track error is 6º.
(c) After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 6 NM off the track then
your track error is 10º.
Q.863. Track Error is equal to:-
(a) (Distance Off Track /Distance to Fly) X 60.
(b) (Distance Off Track /Distance Flown) X 60.
(c) (Angle Off Track /Distance Flown) X 60.
Q.864. Correction Angle is equal to:-
(a) (Distance Off Track / Distance to Go) X 60.
(b) (Distance Off Track / Distance Flown) X 60.
(c) (Angle Off Track / Distance to Go) X 60.

Q.865. Formula for change in TAS / IAS is given by:-

(a) {(TAS or IAS) X (Time late or early on ETA)} / Actual time to go to ETA.
(b) {(TAS or EAS) X (Time late or early on ETA)} / Actual time to go to ETA.
(c) {(TAS or IAS) X (Time late or early on ETA)} / Actual time elapsed.
Q.866. Required Mach No formula is given by:-
(a) {(Current Mach No) X (Required Groundspeed)} / Current Groundspeed.
(b) {(Current Mach No) X (Required Groundspeed)} / Current TAS.
(c) {(Current Mach No) X (Required TAS)} / Current Groundspeed.

Q.867. Straight Position Lines are:-

(a) Bearing Position Lines.
(b) Range Position Lines.
(c) Both.
Q.868. For a groundspeed check, a position line is required which lies as nearly as
possible:-
(a) Perpendicular to the track of the aircraft (within ± 20º).
(b) Parallel to the track of the aircraft (within ± 20º).
(c) Perpendicular to the track of the aircraft (within ± 10º).
Q.869. For a track check, a position line is required which lies as nearly as possible:-
(a) Parallel to the track of the aircraft (within ± 10º).

77
 (b) Parallel to the track of the aircraft (within ± 20º).
(c) Perpendicular to the track of the aircraft (within ± 10º).
Q.870. Radio bearings are:-
(a) Straight position lines.
(b) Circular position lines.
(c) Both.
Q.871. Radar ranges are:-
(a) Straight position lines.
(b) Circular position lines.
(c) Both.
Q.872. Definition of Critical Point is:-
(a) That position in flight from which it takes equal time to proceed or return.
(b) The maximum distance it can travel outwards from a datum point before
returning to the same or another datum point within a specified time.
(c) The point farthest removed from base to which an aircraft can fly and return to
base within the safe endurance of the aircraft.
Q.873. Definition of Radius of Action is:-
(a) That position in flight from which it takes equal time to proceed or return.
(b) The maximum distance it can travel outwards from a datum point before
returning to the same or another datum point within a specified time.
(c) The point farthest removed from base to which an aircraft can fly and return to
base within the safe endurance of the aircraft.

Q.874. Definition of Point of No Return is:-

(a) That position in flight from which it takes equal time to proceed or return.
(b) The maximum distance it can travel outwards from a datum point before
returning to the same or another datum point within a specified time.
(c) The point farthest removed from base to which an aircraft can fly and
return to base within the safe endurance of the aircraft.
Q.875. Formula for distance to CP is given by:-
(a) X = (DH) / (O+H).
(b) X = (DH) / (O+H).
(c) X = (DO) X (O+H).
Q.876. Formula time to PNR is given by:-
(a) T = (PH) / (O+H).
(b) T = (DH) / (O-H).
(c) T = (PO) X (O+H).

78
Q.877. The 5Cs in lost procedures are:-
(a) Confess, Climb, Communicate, Conserve and Comply.
(b) Confess, Climb, Communicate, Conserve and Coordinate.
(c) Confess, Climb, Communicate, Control and Comply.
Q.878. The radius of DR circle of uncertainty is the circle around DR position, whose radius
is equal to:-
(a) 10% of the air distance flown since last reliable fix.
(b) 20% of the air distance flown since last reliable fix.
(c) 50% of the air distance flown since last reliable fix.
Q.879. The procedure for application of wind for constant rate of climb or descend is:-
(a) Altitude at lower level +1/2 the change in altitude.
(b) Altitude at lower level +2/3 change in altitude.
(c) Altitude at higher level +2/3 change in altitude.
Q.880. The formula for radius of turn is given by:-
(a) V2 / g Tan θ.
(b) g Tan θ / V.
(c) g Tan2 θ / V.
Q.881. For estimation of distances, the formula based on a right angled triangle is that if the
length of the hypotenuse is:-
(a) 60 units, the number of same units in the length of the side opposite the
small angle will be approximately the same as the number of degrees in the
small angle.
(b) 30 units, the number of same units in the length of the side opposite the small
angle will be approximately the same as the number of degrees in the small angle.
(c) 10 units, the number of same units in the length of the side adjacent to the
small angle will be approximately the same as the number of degrees in the small
angle.
Q.882. Heading correction can be made if 50 Lines have been drawn on:-
(a) Either side of track, both forwards / backwards from each turning point.
(b) One side of track, both forwards and backwards from each turning point.
(c) Either side of track, only forward from each turning point..
Q.883. If heading alterations are kept to within 20 0, track can be regained by the formula, for
each mile off track, alter heading by:-
(a) 100 in the appropriate direction for 6 / (Groundspeed (nm/min) mins.
(b) 50 in the appropriate direction for 6 / (Groundspeed (nm/min) mins.
(c) 10 in the appropriate direction for 6 / (Groundspeed (nm/min) mins.
Q.884. A simple but approximate method of estimating the track is by:-

79
 (a) Progressively halving the angle of the quadrant in which it lies.
(b) Progressively doubling the angle of the quadrant in which it lies.
(c) Progressively halving the distance of the quadrant in which it lies.
Q.885. The solar day is the interval between two:-
(a) Successive transits of the sun over a particular meridian.
(b) Successive transits of the earth over a particular meridian.
(c) Successive transits of the sun over a particular parallel.
Q.886. LMT is the arc of the equator intercepted between the:-
(a) Observer’s anti-meridian and the meridian of the Sun.
(b) Observer’s meridian and the meridian of the Sun.
(c) Observer’s anti-meridian and the anti-meridian of the Sun.
Q.887. GMT is the arc of the:-
(a) Equator intercepted between Greenwich anti meridian and the meridian
of the Sun.
(b) Equator intercepted between Greenwich anti meridian and the anti meridian of
the Sun.
(c) Equator intercepted between Greenwich meridian and the meridian of the Sun.

Q.888. International Date Line is actually the:-

(a) Greenwich anti meridian.
(b) Leg number, track, time and fuel for the leg.
(c) Leg number, heading, time and distance for the leg.
Q.889. On crossing the dateline one day is:-
(a) Added on westerly tracks and subtracted on easterly tracks.
(b) Subtracted on westerly tracks and added on easterly tracks.
(c) Subtracted on southerly tracks and added on northerly tracks.
Q.890. Search is defined as the organized employment of aircraft to:-
(a) Find an objective whose exact position is unknown or uncertain or has
not been located on ETA.
(b) Find an objective whose exact position is known and has been located on
ETA.
(c) Detect enemy presence in a specified area, or movement across a specified
line.
Q.891. Patrol is the organized employment of aircraft to :-
(a) Detect enemy presence in a specified area, or movement across a
specified line.

80
 (b) Find an objective whose exact position is unknown or uncertain or has not
been located on ETA.
(c) Find an objective whose exact position is unknown but has been located on
ETA.
Q.892. Detection Distance is defined as the:-
(a) Maximum distance at which an objective may be located from the aircraft
under any given set of conditions.
(b) Minimum distance at which an objective may be located from the aircraft under
any given set of conditions.
(c) Maximum distance at which an objective may be located from the aircraft when
the airfield state is at least Yellow-I.
Q.893. Coverage Factor is the ratio of:-
(a) Sweep width to track spacing.
(b) Track spacing to Sweep width.
(c) Sweep width to detection distance.
Q.894. Point Searches are based on:-
(a) A datum point.
(b) A datum area.
(c) A given track.
Q.895. GEOREF divides the earth into:-
(a) Quadrangles, the sides of which are specific arc lengths of longitude and
latitude.
(b) Triangles, the sides of which are specific arc lengths of longitude and latitude.
(c) Circles, whose radius are specific arc lengths of longitude and latitude.
Q.896. The first division of earth’s surface is into:-
(a) 24 longitudinal zones, each 15º wide, which are lettered A to Z inclusive
(omitting I and O), commencing eastwards from the 180º meridian.
(b) 24 latitudinal zones, each 15º wide, which are lettered A to Z inclusive (omitting
I and O), commencing eastwards from the 180º meridian.
(c) 12 latitudinal bands, each 15º wide, which are lettered A to M inclusive
(omitting I). In this case, the lettering commences northwards from South Pole.
Q.897. A corresponding division is made of earth’s surface into:-
(a) 12 latitudinal bands, each 15º wide, which are lettered A to M inclusive
(omitting I). In this case, the lettering commences northwards from South Pole.
(b) 24 longitudinal zones, each 15º wide, which are lettered A to Z inclusive
(omitting I and O), commencing eastwards from the 180º meridian.
(c) 12 latitudinal bands, each 15º wide, which are lettered A to M inclusive
(omitting I). In this case, the lettering commences northwards from South Pole.

81
Q.898. Earth is therefore divided into:-
(a) 288 quadrangles, of 15 º sides, each of which is identified by a unique
combination of two letters.
(b) 288 quadrangles, of 15 º sides, each of which is identified by a unique
combination of three letters.
(c) 288 quadrangles, of 30 º sides, each of which is identified by a unique
combination of four letters.
Q.899. The first letter is always that of the:-
(a) Longitude zone or easting and second that of latitude band or northing.
(b) Latitude band or northing and second that of longitude zone or easting.
(c) Longitude zone or westing and second that of latitude band or southing.
(d) Why and when 76% Band of Error (BOE) is used.

Q.900 The 50% BOE for an astro position line for speeds between 120 -220 kts is:-
Ans. 5 NMs.
Q.901. The angular divergence between a straight line and a great circle is given by:-
Ans. ∆ = ½ ch long (sin mean lat –n).
Q.902. According to radius of turn nomogram, the radius of turn for a bank angle of 45º and
rate1turn is:-
Ans. 1.8 NMs
Q.903. Formula for timing by mach no is:-
Ans. New Mach No = (Current Mach No. X Required G/S) / Current G/S.
Q.904. Time lost by using Rate 1 Turn method of losing time is _______. For losing more
time, the procedure is:-
Ans. ¾ minutes. To lose more than ¾ min, subtract ¾ min from the time to be lost
and straighten up between each reverse for half the resultant time.
Q.905 The ratio of sweep width to track spacing is known as:-
Ans. Coverage Factor
Q.906. Increase / Decrease in IAS = ?
Ans. Increase / Decrease in IAS = (IAS X Time late / early on ETA) / Time Required to
ETA
Q.907. If you are 30 secs early & at 240 kts speed, applying the “Rule of Five”, find out the
new required speed to be maintained and for how much time?
Ans. Decrease speed by 20 kts i.e., 220 kts for 6 minutes.
Q.908. If the Mach No is 0.51 at an altitude of 26,000 feet, give the complete procedure for
finding the TAS through mental DR.
Ans. (51 X 6) – (1X2) = 306 – 2 = 304 knots.

82
Q.909. If you are 2˚ off-track towards right at 240 kts, using Simplified Application of One in
Sixty Rule, what correction you will apply and for how much time?
Ans. 20˚ to the left for 1 minute and 30 seconds.
Q.910. The height interval between successive contours is known as :-
Ans. Vertical Interval.
Q.911. Horizontal distance on earth surface b/w successive contours is known as:-
Ans. Horizontal equivalent.
Q.912. Reliability of relief information can be determined by the following methods:-
Ans. Reliability Diagram in the margin, omission of layer tinting in un-surveyed
areas, date of survey in the margin.
Q.913. Contours are superimposed on hachuring. True / False
Ans. False.

Q.914. Significant Elevation Data is depicted by:-

Ans. Highest Elevation, Maximum Elevation Data and Spot Elevation.
Q.915. If the highest contour is not completely contained within the sector of error what
height will you take for the calculation of safety altitude?
Ans. The contour height plus the vertical interval between that and the next highest
contour.
Q.916. Navigation Safety checks include:-
Ans. Heading check, Compass Comparison, Safety Altitude, Altimeter Setting, Fuel
Checks
Q.917. The Last Point of Diversion coincides with PNR. True / False
Ans. True.

Q.918. In the calculation of Last Point of Diversion, a critical point assuming maximum fuel
reserves is constructed. True / False
Ans. False.

Q.919. PNR will invariably lie before CP unless min. reserves are carried. True / False
Ans. False.
Q.920. For en-route flight, the DR sector of error for TAS less than 300 kts is given by:-
Ans. 30 NMs/hr since the last reliable fix.
Q.921. are:-
Ans. Pressure altitude, Air temperature, Speed, AUW, Engine RPM.
Q.923. The advantage of fuel – time howgozit graphs is:-
Ans. It is easily adapted to allow in-flight route changes.

83
Q.924. A fix which dispenses with the transfer of position lines and therefore facilitates
plotting is known as:-
Ans. Sandwich Fix.
Q.925. When a/c position is determined by transferring one or more position lines to cut
another position line at a common time, intersection of such lines is known as:-
Ans. Running Fix.

Q.927. Patrol is defined as:-

Ans. The organized employment of aircraft to detect enemy presence in a specified
area, or movement across a specified line.
Q.928 Air Position is defined as:-
Ans. The calculated position of an aircraft assuming no wind effect.

Q.929. Line of Constant Bearing is defined as:-

Ans. A line from a fixed or moving point to a moving object or fixed point which
retains a constant angular value with respect to a reference line.
Q.930. MPP is defined as:-
Ans. The most accurate estimate of position where an element of doubt exists as to
the true position.
Q.931. Hachuring is defined as:-
Ans. A method of representing relief upon a map or chart by shading in short
disconnected lines drawn in the direction of the steepest slopes.
Q.932. Conversion Angle is defined as:-
Ans. The angle between a great circle bearing and a rhumb line bearing of a pint,
measured at a common origin.

Q.945. Hill shading is defined as the:-

Ans. Simulation of shadows that would be produced if the high ground were actually
standing out in relief on the map, and a light shining across the map surface.

Q.953. In case you are to search for a life raft, at 500 – 800 feet AMSL and the visibility is 10
NMs, the detection distance would be:-
Ans. 0.25 to 0.5 NMs

Q.956. The map reading technique used to resolve a major uncertainty of position (electrical
failure / compass failure undetected for a long time) is known as:-
Ans. Emergency pinpointing.

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Q.970. The Rule of Five states that :-
Ans. Adjust speed by five times the groundspeed in nautical miles per minute, and
the hold the new speed for a number of minutes equal to one fifth the number of
seconds late or early.

1.The earth shape is properly termed as

a. Oblate spheroid
b. Geoid
c. Sphere

2.Ratio between the difference of polar and equatorial diameter of earth

and the equatorial diameter is termed
a. Convergence
b. Compression
c. Declination

3.Satellite image of earth shows greater mass is in

a. Southern hemisphere
b. Northern hemisphere
c. Equator

3.Two poles of earth are distinguished

a. Geometrically
b. Graphically
c. Arbitrarily

4.Only -------great circle may be drawn through two places on the surface
of a sphere, which is not diametrically opposed.
a. One
b. Two
c. Three

5.The Equator is the great circle whose plane is ------------- to the axis of
rotation of the Earth
a. Perpendicular
b. Parallel
c. Offset

6. Great circle joining the poles forms a meridian and its anti-meridian. T/F

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7.All meridians indicate ---------- directions
a. North south
b. East west

8.The -------------of measuring angles is universally employed in navigation.

a. Sexagesimal system
b. Georeff
c. Lat long

9.Spherical distances are measured in terms of

a. Angular
b. Linear

10.Meridians are only parallel to one another where they cross the equator.T/F
11.The shortest distance between any two points on the surface of a sphere is
the smaller arc of the great circle joining them T/F
12.Parallels of latitude are -----------on the surface of the Earth.
a. Great circle
b. Small circle
c. Rhumbline

13.A nautical mile is defined as the length of the arc of a great circle which
subtends an angle of one -------at the center of the Earth.
a. Degree
b. Minute
c. Second

14.One nautical mile is equal to---------- feet

a. 6108
b. 6080
c. 6046
d. 6020

15.One statue mile is equal to ------feet

a. 5280
b. 5380
c. 5480
d. 5580

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16.The kilometer is the length of --------- part of the average distance between
the equator and either poles
a. 1/10,000
b. 1/100,000
c. 1/1,000
d. 1/10,00,000

17.One kilometer is equal to ---------feet

a. 3180
b. 3380
c. 3280
d. 3480

18.Speed is the rate of change of -----------

a. Altitude
b. Position
c. Lat long

19.There are --------main linear units for expression of speed

a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four

20.The most convenient datum is the meridian through the current position,
since it is the North-South line. T/F
21.Magnetic direction continues to be used as an aircraft heading reference
and as the basic direction reference in non-inertial systems. T/F
22.Lines joining these points of equal variation are known as
a. Isogonals
b. Isoclinals
c. Agonals

23.The deviation of a compass will change as its position in the aircraft is

changed. T/F
24.Latitude is defined as the angular distance from the -------- to a point,
measured northward or southward along the meridian through that point.
a. Equator
b. Greenwich meridian

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 c. Latitude through the point

25.The longitude of any point is the ------ angular distance along the equator
between the prime meridian and the meridian through the point
a. Shorter
b. Longer
c. Clockwise

26.The change of latitude (ch lat) between two points is the arc of a meridian
intercepted between their
a. Parallel of latitude
b. Meridians
c. Equator & parallel of latitude

27.The change of longitude (ch long) between two points is the smaller arc of
the equator intercepted by the
a. Meridian through the points
b. Parallels through the points

28.The distance between two given meridians, measured along a stated

parallel and expressed in nautical miles is called
a. Depature
b. Inclination
c. Convergence
d. Declination

29.Departure is defined as the --------component of the rhumb line distance

between two points.
a. North south
b. East west
c. Vertical
d. Horizontal

30.The value of departure between two meridians varies with

a. Longitude
b. Latitude
c. Altitude
d. Ch long

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31.The GEOREF system divides the surface of the Earth into
a. Triangles
b. Quadrangles
c. Rectangles
d. Squares

32.The first division of the Earth's surface in GEOREF is into ---- longitudinal
zones, each 15° wide
a. 24
b. 26
c. 22
d. 28

33.In GEOREF corresponding division is made of the Earth's surface into ----
latitudinal bands, each 15° wide,
a. 12
b. 14
c. 16
d. 18

34.In GEOREF,The earth is therefore divided into ----quadrangles, of 15° sides,

each of which is
a. 282
b. 284
c. 286
d. 288

35.The reference number of any point in GEOREF can be given, to an

accuracy of one ------ of arc, by quoting four letters and four numerals.
a. Minute
b. Second
c. Degree

36.The simplest method of reporting an aircraft's position is

a. Pinpoint
b. Radio fix
c. Position line

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37.The true heading and true airspeed vector carries----- arrow, pointing in the
direction of heading.
a. One
b. Two
c. Three

38.The track and groundspeed vector carries ----- arrows, pointing in the
direction of track.
a. One
b. Two
c. Three

39.The wind velocity vector carries -------arrows pointing in the direction in

which the wind is blowing.
a. One
b. Two
c. Three

40.The speed of an aircraft measured relative to the air mass through which it
is moving is termed
a. IAS
b. TAS
c. EAS
d. CAS

41.Airspeed is independent of wind. T/F

42.If IAS is corrected for the inaccuracies of the ASI - instrument and pressure
(or position) errors - the result is called calibrated airspeed (CAS). T/F
43.The line joining two points between which it is required to fly is known as
a. Track required
b. Track
c. Track made good

44.The rhumb line track maintains a constant direction T/F

45.The angle between the --------- and ------- of an aircraft is called drift
a. Heading & w/v
b. Heading & Track
c. TMG & TR

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46.In triangle of velocities,Knowledge of any ----- of parts enables the
remaining two parts to be found.
a.Three
b.Four
c.Two

47.true airspeed is measured only along

a. true heading
b. magnetic heading
c. compass heading

48.By drawing to scale the appropriate sides of the triangle of velocities on a

chart, aircraft progress in air can be monitored; this technique known as
a. Plotting
b. DR calculation
c. Graphical solution

49.The air plot technique is generally used, where the air position was
determined from
a. Heading & TAS
b. Track & GS
c. W/V

50.A wind velocity found instantaneously or over a comparatively short period

of time is known as a
a. Mean w/v
b. Local mean w/v
c. Instantaneous w/v

51.Usually the most satisfactory period for wind finding is between 18 and 40
minutes T/F
.
52.If the rate of climb is constant throughout the period in which the wind
velocity is found, the wind velocity is said to apply to the
a. Mean height of height band ascending
b. 1/3 of height band ascending
c. 2/3 of height band ascending

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53.If the rate of climb is not constant throughout the period in which the wind
velocity is found, the wind velocity is said to apply to the
a. Mean height of height band ascending
b. 1/3 of height band ascending
c. 2/3 of height band ascending

54.If the aircraft was to climb from 2,000 ft to 27,000 ft at a reducing rate of
climb,w/v would be applied of
a. 18,500
b. 18,000
c. 17,500
d. 14,500

55.A position determined without reference to any former position is called

a. Fix
b. Pinpoint
c. Dr position

56.The rapid fixing facilities are not always available, and in these
circumstances range & bearings are used to determine position.T/F
57.Position lines may be classified according to the observation method
employed into ----types
a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four

58.Position lines can be straight only. T/F

59. Bearings are curved position lines representing the angular relationship
between the aircraft and a known position, or the orientation of a line
feature.T/F
60.Circular position lines represent the aircraft's range from a position, the
radius of the curve being equal to the range. T/F
61.The distance between the last fix and the position line is measured along
the DR track, and so knowing the time that has elapsed the groundspeed
can be calculated. If the position line is within------ of the perpendicular
to track.
a. (± 10°)
b. (± 20°)

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 c. (± 30°)

62.To check track made good, a position line is required which is parallel or
nearly parallel (± 20°) to DR track.T/F
63.Where the true bearing of a terrestrial object (azimuth) is known, it can be
used to obtain a check on the ---------- of the aircraft.
a. True track
b. True heading
c. True air speed

64.--------- forms of fix may be obtained from position lines:

a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four

65.In transfer of position lines,the total alteration of heading should not exceed
-------degrees
a. 10
b. 20
c. 30

66.The angle between the heading and track of an aircraft is called

a. Track error

b. Drift

c. Cross track

67.The percentage of RAS added to RAS to get the TAS at 20,000 feet is
a. 33%
b. 43%
c. 53%
d. 63%

68.The 50% probability area of uncertainty around an air plot DR position is a

circle of radius ________________________ for TAS 250 kts and above.
a. 20nm/hr
b. 10nm/hr
c. 15nm/hr

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 d. 5nm/hr

69.The 50% probability area of uncertainty around an air plot DR position is a

circle of radius ________________________ for TAS upto 250 kts.
a. 2nm/hr
b. 4nm/hr
c. 6nm/hr
d. 8nm/hr

70.The formula for radius of turn is given by:-

a. R = V / g Tanθ.
b. R = V2 / g Tanθ.
c. R = V / g cosθ.
d. R = V2 / g sinθ.

71.Correction Angle is equal to:-

a. (Distance cross Track / Distance to Go) X 60
b. (Distance Off Track / Distance to Go) X 60
c. (Distance Off Track / Distance travelled) X 60
d. (Distance cross Track / Distance travelled) X 60

72.One-in-sixty Rule states:-

a. After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 1 NM off the track
then your track error is 60º.
b. After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 1 NM off the track
then your track error is 10º.
c. After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 1 NM off the
track then your track error is 1º.
d. After flying 60 miles on a particulars track if you are 1 NM off the track
then your track error is 5º.

73.When heading is altered between the times of position lines, the method
used for transfer of position lines is the:-
a. Airplot method
b. Trackplot method
c. Inertial navigation
d. Graphical method

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74.Transit Bearing is defined as the bearing of a great circle projected through
two known points and the observer. T/F
75.Patrol is defined as the organized employment of aircraft to detect enemy
presence in a specified area, or movement across a specified line.T/F
76.Air Position is defined as The calculated position of an aircraft assuming
a. No wind effect
b. Tailwind effect
c. Headwind effect

77.The map reading technique used to resolve a major uncertainty of position

(electrical failure / compass failure undetected for a long time) is known
as Emergency pinpointing.T/F
78.PNR will invariably lie before CP unless min. reserves are carried.T/F
79.Air Navigation is the:-
a. Art and science which deals with the safe conduct of flight
from one place to another.
b. Art and science which deals with the safe conduct of flight on the
aerodrome.
c. Art and science which deals with the safe conduct of flight from
one place to another only in Risalpur Area.

80. Dead Reckoning is the :-

a. Name given to the art of navigating an airplane with the basic
knowledge of its heading, airspeed and time.
b. Name given to the art of navigating an airplane with the basic
knowledge of aircraft type, airspeed and time.
c. Name given to the art of navigating an airplane with the basic
knowledge of aircraft type, airspeed and aircraft altitude.

81. Contact / Visual Navigation is the :-

a. Art of conducting a flight with the help of visual aids.
b. Art of conducting a flight with the help of audiovisual aids.
c. Art of conducting a flight with the help of perception and
audiovisual aids.

82. Astro Navigation is the :-

a. Art of conducting a flight with the help of astronomical
bodies.

95
 b. Art of conducting a flight only with the help of north star.
c. Art of conducting a flight with the help of astronomical bodies
only at night.

83. Inertial Navigation is the :-

a. Art of conducting a flight with the help of a stabilized
platform measuring accelerations in various axis.
b. Art of conducting a flight with the help of an un-stabilized
platform measuring accelerations in various axis.
c. Art of conducting a flight with the help of an un-stabilized
platform measuring g forces in various axis.

84. For navigation purposes, Earth’s shape has been assumed to be:-
a. Almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the equator.
b. Almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the poles.
c. Almost spherical, being slightly flattened at the center

85. Compression Ration is given by the equation:-

a. (Equatorial Diameter – Polar Diameter) / Equatorial Diameter.
b. (Equatorial Diameter – Polar Diameter) / Polar Diameter.
c. (Polar Diameter – Equatorial Diameter) / Polar Diameter.

86. The directions North, South, East and West are known as :-
a. Cardinal directions.
b. Quadrantal directions.
c. True directions.

87. The directions North-East, South-East, South-West and North-West are

known as:-

a. Cardinal directions.
b. Quadrantal directions.
c. Compass directions.

88. A great circle is a circle on the surface of:-

96
 a. A sphere whose center and radius are those of the sphere
itself.
b. The Earth whose center and radius are those of the sphere
itself.
c. Oblate spheroid whose center and radius are those of the
sphere itself.

89. A small circle is a circle on the surface of:-

a. A sphere whose center and radius are not those of the
sphere itself.
b. The Earth whose center and radius are not those of the sphere
itself.
c. Oblate spheroid whose center and radius are not those of the
sphere itself.

90 A Rhumb line is a :-
a. Regularly curved line on the surface of Earth, which
crosses every meridian (line of longitude) at the same
angle.
b. Regularly curved line on the surface of Earth, which crosses
every parallel (line of latitude) at the same angle.
c. Regularly curved line on the surface of Earth, which crosses
every parallel and meridian at the same angle.

91.The advantage of the rhumb line is that its:-

a. Distance is shortest.
b. Heading is constant.
c. Angles are symmetrical.

92.Latitude is defined as :-
a. The angular distance from the Equator to a point, measured
northwards or southwards, along the meridian through that
point.

97
 b. The angular distance from the Poles to a point, measured
northwards or southwards, along the meridian through that point.
c. The angular distance from the Center of the Earth to a point,
measured northwards or southwards, along the meridian through
that point.

93.Longitude is defined as:-

a. The shorter angular distance, along the equator, between
the prime meridian and the meridian through the point.
b. The shorter angular distance, along the poles, between the
prime meridian and the meridian through the point.
c. The larger angular distance, along the poles, between the prime
meridian and the meridian through the point.

94.True Direction is defined as the:-

a. Direction measurement with reference to True North, the
direction of the North geographic pole.
b. Accurate direction measurement with reference to the direction
of the North Star.
c. Exact direction measurement with reference to the direction of
the point latitude 73º N and longitude 100º W on Prince of Wales
Island.

95.Magnetic north is defined as-

(a) The actual direction, in which a freely suspended magnetic

needle points assuming no other influences are acting upon it, is
said to be Magnetic North.
(b) The actual direction, in which a fixed magnetic needle points,
assuming no other influences are acting upon it, is said to be Magnetic
North.

98
 (c) Exact direction measurement with reference to the direction of the
point latitude 68º S and longitude 144º E, on Antarctica.

96.Variation is defined as the:-

(a) Angular difference between the direction of true north and

magnetic north at any given point.
(b) Angular difference between the direction of true north and true
south at any given point.
(c) Angular difference between the direction of magnetic north and
magnetic south at any given point.
97.Airspeed is defined s the speed of the aircraft measured in relation to:-

(a) The air through which it is moving.

(b) The ground over which it is moving.
(c) The air mass of uniform density through which it is moving.

113. Altitude is defined as the vertical distance of :-

(a) A level, a point or an air object considered as a point,

measured from the mean sea level.
(b) A level, a point or any ground object considered as a point,
measured from the mean sea level.
(c) A level, a point or an air object considered as a point, measured
from a specified datum other than the mean sea level.

114. Normally the aircraft position in lat long is reported only to the :-

(a) Nearest degree.

(b) Nearest minute.
(c) Nearest second.

115. In the lat long method of reporting position: -

(a) The longitude is reported first.

(b) The latitude is reported first.
(c) Latitude or longitude either can be reported first as it is always clear
from latitude degrees north / south or longitude degrees east / west.

116. The surest method of reporting position is the:-

99
 (a) Latitude / Longitude method.
(b) Name Place Method.
(c) By bearing and distance to a known place.

116. In the bearing and distance to a known place method:-

(a) The distance is reported first.

(b) The bearing is reported first.
(c) Either way it is correct.

117. The limitations of reporting position by reference to Place Name method

are that the place must be:-

(a) Prominent, well-known, and the place should not cover a large
area.
(b) Prominent, well-known, and the place should cover a large
area.
(c) Prominent, well-known, and the place should very small area.

118. Relief is defined as the representation of:-

(a) High ground as it would appear from the air.

(b) Airports as they would appear from the air.
(c) Sea as it would appear from the air.

119. Contours are lines drawn on maps, joining places of equal:-

(a) Elevation.
(b) Variation.
(c) Deviation.

120. Hill shading is the simulation of shadows that would be produced if the
high ground were actually standing out in relief on the map, and a light
shining:-

(a) Across the map surface.

(b) Below the map surface.
(c) Above the map surface.

100
121. In day map reading, map read from:-

(a) Clock to map to ground.

(b) Map to clock to ground.
(c) Clock to ground to map.

122. Interval of height between successive contour lines is known as:-

(a) The vertical interval.

(b) The horizontal interval.
(c) The horizontal equivalent.

123. Douglas Protractor is an aid to plotting and determining:-

(a) Elevations, tracks and bearing on charts.

(b) Headings, tracks and bearing on charts.
(c) Variation, tracks and bearing on charts.

124. The edge of the Douglas Protractor square is marked off in degrees and
numbered at:-

(a) 100 intervals on two scales, the outer one clockwise and the
inner one, in italics, anti-clockwise.
(b) 50 intervals on two scales, the outer one clockwise and the inner
one, in italics, anti-clockwise.
(c) 100 intervals on two scales, the inner one clockwise and the outer
one, in italics, anti-clockwise.

125. The left side of the protractor, which can be distinguished by the words
DOUGLAS COMBINED PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULE, is used
as:-

(a) The ruling edge.

(b) The bearing edge.
(c) The distance edge.

126. Owing to proximity of the degree marking, it is not recommended that

interpolation to an extent greater than:-

(a) Half a degree be attempted.

101
 (b) One degree be attempted.
(c) One and a half degree be attempted.

127. In the Douglas Protractor, bearing is given by the figure on the:-

(a) Inner scale, where the meridian cuts the edge of the protractor.
(b) Outer scale, where the meridian cuts the edge of the protractor.
(c) Inner scale, where the parallel cuts the edge of the protractor.

128. Track Error is equal to:-

(a) (Distance Off Track /Distance to Fly) X 60.

(b) (Distance Off Track /Distance Flown) X 60.
(c) (Angle Off Track /Distance Flown) X 60.

129. Correction Angle is equal to:-

(a) (Distance Off Track / Distance to Go) X 60.

(b) (Distance Off Track / Distance Flown) X 60.
(c) (Angle Off Track / Distance to Go) X 60.

130. Formula for change in TAS / IAS is given by:-

(a) {(TAS or IAS) X (Time late or early on ETA)} / Actual time to go

to ETA.
(b) {(TAS or EAS) X (Time late or early on ETA)} / Actual time to go to
ETA.
(c) {(TAS or IAS) X (Time late or early on ETA)} / Actual time elapsed.

131. Required Mach No formula is given by:-

(a) {(Current Mach No) X (Required Groundspeed)} / Current

Groundspeed.
(b) {(Current Mach No) X (Required Groundspeed)} / Current TAS.
(c) {(Current Mach No) X (Required TAS)} / Current Groundspeed.

132. Straight Position Lines are:-

(a) Bearing Position Lines.

(b) Range Position Lines.

102
 (c) Both.

135. Radio bearings are:-

(a) Straight position lines.

(b) Circular position lines.
(c) Both.

136. Radar ranges are:-

(a) Straight position lines.

(b) Circular position lines.
(c) Both.

137. Definition of Critical Point is:-

(a) That position in flight from which it takes equal time to

proceed or return.
(b) The maximum distance it can travel outwards from a datum point
before returning to the same or another datum point within a specified
time.
(c) The point farthest removed from base to which an aircraft can fly
and return to base within the safe endurance of the aircraft.

138. Definition of Radius of Action is:-

(a) That position in flight from which it takes equal time to proceed or
return.
(b) The maximum distance it can travel outwards from a datum
point before returning to the same or another datum point within a
specified time.
(c) The point farthest removed from base to which an aircraft can fly
and return to base within the safe endurance of the aircraft.

139. Definition of Point of No Return is:-

(a) That position in flight from which it takes equal time to proceed or
return.

103
 (b) The maximum distance it can travel outwards from a datum point
before returning to the same or another datum point within a specified
time.
(c) The point farthest removed from base to which an aircraft can
fly and return to base within the safe endurance of the aircraft.

140. Formula for distance to CP is given by:-

(a) X = (DH) / (O+H).

(b) X = (DH) / (O+H).
(c) X = (DO) X (O+H).

141. Formula time to PNR is given by:-

(a) T = (PH) / (O+H).

(b) T = (DH) / (O-H).
(c) T = (PO) X (O+H).

142. The 5Cs in lost procedures are:-

(a) Confess, Climb, Communicate, Conserve and Comply.

(b) Confess, Climb, Communicate, Conserve and Coordinate.
(c) Confess, Climb, Communicate, Control and Comply.

143. The radius of DR circle of uncertainty is the circle around DR position,

whose radius is equal to:-

(a) 10% of the air distance flown since last reliable fix.
(b) 20% of the air distance flown since last reliable fix.
(c) 50% of the air distance flown since last reliable fix.

146. For estimation of distances, the formula based on a right angled triangle is
that if the length of the hypotenuse is:-

(a) 60 units, the number of same units in the length of the side
opposite the small angle will be approximately the same as the
number of degrees in the small angle.
(b) 30 units, the number of same units in the length of the side
opposite the small angle will be approximately the same as the number of
degrees in the small angle.

104
 (c) 10 units, the number of same units in the length of the side
adjacent to the small angle will be approximately the same as the number
of degrees in the small angle.

147. Heading correction can be made if 50 Lines have been drawn on:-

(a) Either side of track, both forwards / backwards from each

turning point.
(b) One side of track, both forwards and backwards from each turning
point.
(c) Either side of track, only forward from each turning point..

148. If heading alterations are kept to within 200, track can be regained by the
formula, for each mile off track, alter heading by:-

(a) 100 in the appropriate direction for 6 / (Groundspeed (nm/min)

mins.
(b) 50 in the appropriate direction for 6 / (Groundspeed (nm/min) mins.
(c) 10 in the appropriate direction for 6 / (Groundspeed (nm/min) mins.

149. A simple but approximate method of estimating the track is by:-

(a) Progressively halving the angle of the quadrant in which it lies.

(b) Progressively doubling the angle of the quadrant in which it lies.
(c) Progressively halving the distance of the quadrant in which it lies.

153. International Date Line is actually the:-

(a) Greenwich anti meridian.

(b) Leg number, track, time and fuel for the leg.
(c) Leg number, heading, time and distance for the leg.

154. On crossing the dateline one day is:-

(a) Added on westerly tracks and subtracted on easterly tracks.

(b) Subtracted on westerly tracks and added on easterly tracks.
(c) Subtracted on southerly tracks and added on northerly tracks.

155. Search is defined as the organized employment of aircraft to:-

105
 (a) Find an objective whose exact position is unknown or
uncertain or has not been located on ETA.
(b) Find an objective whose exact position is known and has been
located on ETA.
(c) Detect enemy presence in a specified area, or movement across a
specified line.

157. Detection Distance is defined as the:-

(a) Maximum distance at which an objective may be located from

the aircraft under any given set of conditions.
(b) Minimum distance at which an objective may be located from the
aircraft under any given set of conditions.
(c) Maximum distance at which an objective may be located from the
aircraft when the airfield state is at least Yellow-I.

158. Coverage Factor is the ratio of:-

(a) Sweep width to track spacing.

(b) Track spacing to Sweep width.
(c) Sweep width to detection distance.

159. Point Searches are based on:-

(a) A datum point.

(b) A datum area.
(c) A given track.

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 MAPS AND CHARTS

1. Rhumb line is a straight line on Mercator. T/F

2. Great circle is a straight line on Mercator. T/F

3. On stereographic projection great circle is a straight line. T/F

4. Mercator projector can not cover the polar regions. T/F

5. Scale factor is zero at the parallel of origin. T/F

6. In Gnomonic project light source is placed at the center of reduced

earth.T/F

7. Stereographic projection covers more than one hemisphere. T/F

8. Lambert projection is conformal projection. T/F

9. Stereographic is a non-conformal projection. T/F

10. Polar Gnomonic projection is limited in extent to 90 from the point
of Tangency. T/F

11. The Earth convergence is zero at the poles and increases towards
equator. True/False

12. Great circle should be a straight line on a conformal projection. T/F

13. Scale deviation is always shown in %age. True/False

14. In stereographic projections the meridians are straight lines. T/F

15. Spheroid is generated by rotating an ellipse. True/False

16. Simple geometrical construction is termed as perspective

projections. True/False.

17. Scale is a constant ratio all over the projection. T/F

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18. Scale factor = Chart length T/F
Earth length
19. The difference between Scale Factor and unity is expressed as
Scale Deviation. T/F

20. When scale expansion in all directions from a point is same, it is

called as orthmorphic. T/F

21. In Gnomonic projection light source is placed at the centre of

reduced earth T/F

22. Length of 70 N latitude on Mercator chart is equal to the length of

equator. T/F

23. In conformal projection, the scale expansion at a given point on the

chart should always be same in all direction. T/F

24. It is possible to project all great circle as straight line on a conformal

projection. T/F

25. In conformal projection, it is often possible to use a restricted

section of a projection in which all the great circles are approx straight
line. T/F

26. Rhumb Lines are straight Line on all projection. T/F

27. Meridian’s parallel are required to be straight line on conformal

projection. T/F

28. If meridians are straight lines, then chart convergence will be

constant. T/F

29. Stereographic projections are perspective . T/F

30. In cylindrical projection the apex angle of cone is 90. T/F

31. All straight lines on mercator are Rhumb Lines . T/F

32.Equatorial stereographic is extensively used in Navigation. T/F

108
33. The poles can be shown on mercator. T/F

34. Most of the projection being in use are mathematically desired. T/F

35. Spheroid is the most precise shape of the Earth for map projection. T/F

36.On cylindrical projection, when the great circle of tangency is the equator, the
projection is known as skew cylindrical. T/F

37. Lambert Conformal Projection is a type of ___________ projection

a) Cylindrical
b) Conical
c) Gnomonic

38. In lambert conformal projection there is / are __________

standards parallel.

a) One
b) Two
c) Four

39. Scale factor is ___________ at the center of standard parallel.

a) Maximum (b) Minimum

40. Lambert conformal projection is not good for use in

_______region.

a) Equatorial
b) mid Latitude

41. Rhumb Line is a ___________ line on lambert

a) Curved Line
b) Straight
c) Approximately Straight

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42. Mercator is suitable for __________ region.

(a) Polar (b) Equatorial (c) Mid Latitude

43. In polar region_________ projection is suitable.

(a) Mercator (b) Gnomonic (c) Stereographic

44. Apex angle of a flat sheet is :-

(a) 90 (b) 180 (c) 360

45. A cylinder is surface with an Apex angle of :-

(a) 0 (b) 180 (c) 90

46. The compression of Earth is equal to :

(a) 1/297 (b) 1/300 (c) 1/290

47. In polar Gnomonics the point of tangency is :

(a) Pole (b) Equator

( c) Other than pole and equator

48. In polar Gnomonics the coverage is :

a) More than 90

b) Less than 90
c) Complete globe

49. In Gnomonic projections the scale:

a) Increases away from point of tangency

b) Decreases away from point of tangency
c) Stays constant

50. The stereographic projections cover.

110
 a) More than a hemisphere
b) Whole of a globe
c) Less than a hemisphere

51. Which of the three is plotted on navigation charts :-

(a) Geodetic Lat (b) Astrononic Lat (c) Geometric Lat

52. Advantage of two standard parallel is a ______________ IN scale

error.
a)Increment b)reduction c)no change

53. Mercator is suitable for_________________ region

a) Polar b)Equatorial c)Mid latitude

54. In mid latitude the best suited projection is _

a)Stereographic b)Lambert c)Gnomonic
55. In polar region _______________ projection is suitable

a)Mercator b)Gnomonic c)Stereogrophic

56. For a large area __________________ is the best projection,

a)Mercator b)Stereographic c)Gnomonic

57. The limit of equatorial region for a projection is ____________.

a)24 N/S b)12 N/S c)60 N/S

58. The limit of mid latitude is till _____________________.

a)60 N/S b)74 N/S c)90 N/S

59. For a radius of action around a point the projection best suited is
a)Gnomonic b)Equidistant c)Stereographic

60. Lambert conformal projection is a type of _______________

Projection a)Cylindrical b)Conical c)Gnomonic

61. In lambert conformal projection there is/are __________ standard

parallel a)one b)two c)three d)four

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62. Scale factor is ___________ at the centre of standard parallel
a)Max b)Min

63. Lambert conformal projection is not good for use in __________

region. a)Equatorial b)polar c)Mid latitude
.
64. Rhumb line is a _________ line on lambert.
a)Curved line b)Straight c)Approximately straight

65. Apex angle of a flat sheet is :-

a)90 b)180 c) 360

66. Which one of projection property is better for navigators.

a)Orthomorphism b)Constant scale c)Equidistant d)Equal area

67. When great circle of tangency is equator the projection is known as

a)gnomonic b)stereographic c)conical

68. In Gnomonics Projections scale increases

a)Away from pt of tangency
b)Towards the pt of tangency
c)Along the meridians

69. Apex angle of a flat sheet is :-

a) 90 b) 180 c) 360

70. Cylinder is cone, whose apex angle is ________________.

a)0 b)180 c)90

71. Plane is cone, whose apex angle is ________________.

a)0 b)90 c)180

72. The angle which one meridian makes with another is known as
a)convergence b)departure c)inclination

73.A map projection is a systematic:-

a)Laying down of the meridians and parallels onto a flat sheet in such a way
that the picture displays certain of the features of the actual surface.

112
 b)Laying down of the meridians and ch long onto a flat sheet in such a way that
the picture displays certain of the features of the actual surface.
c)Laying down of the meridians and parallels onto a flat sheet in such a way that
the picture displays three dimensional features of the actual surface.
74.Perspective projections are the:-
a)Actual projections of the graticule of the reduced earth onto
developable surface.
b)Approximate projections of the graticule of the reduced earth onto a
developable surface.
c)Actual projections of the center of the earth of the reduced earth onto a
developable surface.

75. An orthomorphic or conformal projection is one on which:-

a)Angles, and therefore, the shapes of elementary areas are
correct.
b)Angles, and therefore, the areas of elementary areas are correct.
c)Angles, and therefore, the great circles are correct.

96. Three traditional rules for choosing a map projection are :-

a) For low-latitude areas – Cylindrical; for middle-latitude areas – Conical and for
Polar Regions - Azimuthal.
b) For low-latitude areas – Azimuthal; for middle-latitude areas – Conical and for
Polar Regions - Cylindrical.
c) For low-latitude areas – Conical; for middle-latitude areas – Azimuthal and for
Polar Regions - Conical.

76.PAF Chart is basically an International Modified Polyconic (IMP) projection of

scale:-

a)1:1000,000.
b)1:2000,000.
c)1:3000,000.

98.Standard parallel of Mercator used in PAF is

a)46N b)56 N c)66 N d)76 N
99. The point of tangency in oblique Gnomonics are _______________.
a)equator b)poles c)none of these
100.The scale at mercator is reasonably constant b/w

113
 a) 12 N & S b)24 N & S c)70 N & S
77. Lambert Conformal Projection is a type of ___________ projection

d) Cylinderical
e) Conical
f) Four
78. In lambert conformal projection there is / are __________ standards parallel.

d) One
e) Two
f) Four

79. Scale factor is ___________ at the center of standard parallel.

b) Maximum (b) Minimum

80. Lambert conformal projection is not good for use in _______region.

c) Equatorial
d) mid Latitude

81. Rhumb Line is a ___________ line on lambert

d) Curved Line
e) Straight
f) Approximately Straight

82. Mercator is suitable for __________ region.

(a) Polar (b) Equatorial (c) Mid Latitude

83. In polar region_________ projection is suitable.

(a) Mercator (b) Gnomonic (c) Stereographic

84. Apex angle of a flat sheet is :-

(a) 90 (b) 180 (c) 360

85. A cylinder is surface with an Apex angle of :-

(a) 0 (b) 180 (c) 90

86. The compression of Earth is equal to :

114
 (a) 1/295 (b) 1/300 (c) 1/290 (d) 1l297

87. In polar Gnomonics the point of tangency is :

(a) Pole (b) Equator

( c) Other than pole and equator

88. In polar Gnomonics the coverage is :

d) More than 90

e) Less than 90
f) Complete globe

89. In Gnomonic projections the scale:

d) Increases away from point of tangency

e) Decreases away from point of tangency
f) Stays constant

90. The stereographic projections cover.

d) More than a hemisphere

e) Whole of a globe
f) Less than a hemisphere

91. Which of the three is plotted on navigation charts :-

(a) Geodetic Lat (b) Astrononic Lat (c) Geometric Lat

92. Advantage of two standard parallel is a ______________ IN scale error. a)Increment

b)reduction c)no change

93. Mercator is suitable for_________________ region

b) Polar b)Equatorial c)Mid latitude

94. In mid latitude the best suited projection is ___________________ a)Stereographic

b)Lambert c)Gnomonic

95. In polar region _______________ projection is suitable

a)Mercator b)Gnomonic c)Stereogrophic

96. For a large area __________________ is the best projection,

a)Mercator b)Stereographic c)Gnomonic

115
97. The limit of equatorial region for a projection is ____________.
a)24 N/S b)12 N/S c)60 N/S

98. The limit of mid latitude is till _____________________.

a)60 N/S b)74 N/S c)90 N/S

99. For a radius of action around a point the projection best suited is a)Gnomonic
b)Equidistant c)Stereographic

100. Lambert conformal projection is a type of _______________ Projection

a)Cylindrical b)Conical c)Gnomonic

101. In lambert conformal projection there is/are __________ standard parallel

a)one b)two c)three d)four

102. Scale factor is ___________ at the centre of standard parallel

a)Max b)Min

103. Lambert conformal projection is not good for use in __________ region.
a)Equatorial b)polar c)Mid latitude
.
104. Rhumb line is a _________ line on lambert.
a)Curved line b)Straight c)Approximately straight

105. Apex angle of a flat sheet is :-

a)90 b)180 c) 360

106. Which one of projection property is better for navigators.

a)Orthomorphism b)Constant scale c)Equidistant d)Equal area

107. When great circle of tangency is equator the projection is known as

a)gnomonic b)stereographic c)conical

108. In Gnomonics Projections scale increases

a)Away from pt of tangency
b)Towards the pt of tangency
c)Along the meridians

109. Apex angle of a flat sheet is :-

a) 90 b) 180 c) 360

110. Cylinder is cone, whose apex angle is ________________.

a)0 b)45 c)90

111. Plane is cone, whose apex angle is ________________.

116
 a)0 b)90 c)180

112. The angle which one meridian makes with another is known as
a)convergence b)departure c)inclination

39. A map projection is a systematic:-

a)Laying down of the meridians and parallels onto a flat sheet in such a way
that the picture displays certain of the features of the actual surface.
b)Laying down of the meridians and ch long onto a flat sheet in such a way that the
picture displays certain of the features of the actual surface.
c)Laying down of the meridians and parallels onto a flat sheet in such a way that the
picture displays three dimensional features of the actual surface.
40. Perspective projections are the:-
a) Actual projections of the graticule of the reduced earth onto a developable
surface.
b) Approximate projections of the graticule of the reduced earth onto a developable
surface.
c) Actual projections of the center of the earth of the reduced earth onto a
developable surface.
41. An orthomorphic or conformal projection is one on which:-
a)Angles, and therefore, the shapes of elementary areas are correct.
b)Angles, and therefore, the areas of elementary areas are correct.
c)Angles, and therefore, the great circles are correct.

42. Three traditional rules for choosing a map projection are :-

(a) For low-latitude areas – Cylindrical; for middle-latitude areas –

Conical and for Polar Regions - Azimuthal.
(b) For low-latitude areas – Azimuthal; for middle-latitude areas –
Conical and for Polar Regions - Cylindrical.
(c) For low-latitude areas – Conical; for middle-latitude areas –
Azimuthal and for Polar Regions - Conical.
43. PAF Chart is basically an International Modified Polyconic (IMP) projection of scale:-

a)1:1000,000.
b)1:2000,000.
c)1:3000,000.
44.Cylinder is cone, whose apex angle is ________________.
a)0 b)45 c)90 d)180

117
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