Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 15

ROLE OF RELIGION IN MORAL DECISION-MAKING IN

A PLURALISTIC SOCIETY

Vishalachc Balakrishnan
Department of Educational Foundations and Humanities
Faculty of Education University of
Malaya

Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara pelbagai budaya dan agama terdiri

daripada lima kaum yang utama: Melayu, Cina, India, Kadazandusun
dan Iban. Menurut Perlembagaan Persekutuan, agama Islam
adalah agama rasmi di Malaysia. Walau bagaimanapun, Bahagian
2, Artikel 11 Perlembagaan Persekutuan menyatakan setiap orang
berhak mengamalkan agamanya dengan syarat tidak melakukan
apa-apa perbuatan yang berlawanan dengan undang-undang am
tentang ketenteraman awam, kesihatan awam atau akhlak. Agama
yang diamalkan di Malaysia termasuk agama Islam, Buddha, Hindu,
Kristian, Sikh dan Baha'i. Kepercayaan Tao dan Konfucius juga dianuti
oleh masyarakat Cina. Pribumi dan beberapa suku kaum di Sabah dan
Sarawak mengamalkan animisme. Artikel ini memberi satu perspektif
tentang bagaimana masyarakat daripada pelbagai agama dan budaya
menggunakan agama dan kepercayaan masing-masing dalam membuat
keputusan moral.

What is morally right and what is morally wrong can be perceived from various perspectives.
For a child growing in an environment where religion is taken as the fundamental of all
aspects of life, morality is always linked to religious beliefs. In other families where
religion is not the most important aspect but a way of linking life to some principles,
moral decisions take into consideration religious beliefs but at the same time also look
into rationality and practicality. In extreme cases where religion is only seen by name and
nothing more, morality is fully based on reasoning and rational thinking.
Malaysia is a land of diversity. From the way of life to the practice of religions, there
are plenty of differences and similarities. For centuries, the country has been blessed with
exposure to different cultures and religions. Before Islam became the official religion
of the country, there was already the influence of Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity
in Malaysia. The aborigines or Orang Asli practised animism and paganism which was
passed on from generation to generation and are still practising this way of life. However,
there are quite a number who have embraced religions like Islam and changed their faith
and way of life.
16 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

Historical Background

Traders from China, India, the Middle East and other parts of the world came to Malaysia,
which was Malaya then, to trade with the locals. Since traveling was only by sea and these
traders had to stay at least 3 to 6 months due to the change in monsoon winds and weather,
the traders married local women and practised their religion here, and blended with the
local cultures and traditions. Until today, the effects of such practices can be seen in local
communities such as the Malacca chittys who are Hindus by religion but conform to
lifestyles of the local Malays (Narayanasamy, 1976). Even their prayers in their temples
are conducted in the Malay language.
When Parameswara, a Sumatran prince came to Malaya and settled down in Malacca,
he developed Malacca into one of the most prestigious ports at that time. He also married
a local princess and became a Muslim Sultan. Following this, many traders as well as
religious Muslims from Arabia and Persia came to spread Islam in the Malay archipelago.
They were welcomed by the palace to preach to the royal families and communicate with
local village schools. Learning to recite the Quran was the core business of such schools.
Other than that, students were taught martial arts and good behavior.
Christianity was widely spread by missionaries who came to educate the locals.
They started coming after Malaya was conquered by western powers like the Portuguese,
the Dutch and the British. The missionaries started their mission by building schools. In
these missionary schools, chapels were built as places of worship. Students were taught
Catechism and Ethics.
Baha'i being the youngest religion in the world also has about 80,000 followers in
Malaysia (The Spiritual Association of the Baha'i Faith in Malaysia, 2006). The Baha'is
in Malaysia follow the religion closely but keep to the traditions and culture of their
forefathers.

Religion and Morality

Galloway (1914) some nine decades ago defined religion as "man's faith in a power beyond
himself whereby he seeks to satisfy emotional needs and gains stability of life, and which
he expresses in acts of worship and services." This definition is quite applicable to some
as faith in a power beyond man is regarded as the essential feature of religion. In other
words, this power responds to man, accepts his prayers of thanksgiving and helps in his
hours of trouble. What was defined then still has meaning to most while some have suited
religion according to changes in society and their way of life.
Martineau (1886) described religion as a belief in an ever-living God that is a Divine
Mind and Will ruling the universe and holding moral relations with mankind. Here the
definition is more towards morality where faith is seen as a belief and this belief helps to
keep man and moral in balance.
Religion is a holistic response of the individual (Masih, 1971). Apart from the
inwardness of feeling and tranquility of faith, religion of the mind and spirituality, other
aspects include social service and worship. When these acts and intentions are reduced to
some universal rules and principles, then they become morality. Hardly are there religions
in existence without any morals.
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 17

Many people get their ethical or moral views from their religion (MacKinnon,
2001). Although religions include other elements such as rites and practices, most do
have explicit or implicit requirements for moral conduct. In some religions they have
explicit rules or commandments. Others have religious morality found in interpretations
of religious books. Some religions recognize saints or holy people who provide models
and exemplify virtues which should be followed.
All religions and beliefs practiced in Malaysia have morality as one of the larger
components. The other aspects are rites, rituals and practices carried out. Akhlak or morality
in Islam is abiding by the Quran and following strictly the positive virtues and staying
away from the negative. Examples of positive virtues in Islam are charity, tolerance, good
heartedness, and respect. The negative aspects are bribery, adultery and bad mouthing.
In Hinduism, dharma or the 'ought' in ethics is the foundation for all Hindu thought.
It is the thought of oneness with God through selfless actions. The traditional Hindu
approach to morality is found to^xemplifythe kind of ethical and philosophical issues
that the modem experience of a pluralistic society raises.
Dhammapada which is the Holy Scripture of Buddhism focuses on a moderate
way of life through the Eight Fold Path: the right thought, the right understanding, the
right words, the right act, the right effort, the right life, the right realization and the
right meditation. The Eight Fold Path teaches individuals to reflect on their role to hold
responsibilities towards what is said and what is carried out in their lives.
Christianity focuses on love and forgiveness as some of the important values in
life. "Let us love, not in word or speech, but in truth and action" (The Bible, 1 John
3:18 NSRV). Through love and forgiveness, one is able to practise justice, loyalty, self-
discipline and other moral values.
The virtues prioritized in Sikhism are wisdom, honesty, justice, humility, courage
and contentment. These values together with daily life values such as respecting one
another and working together makes the Sikh a moral person.
The essence here that needs to be clarified is that morality is part of religion and to
be a religious person, one needs to have good moral character. However, the continuum
between morality and religion needs further clarification. Individuals, whether they
embrace a religion or not, might well remain as the bearers of moral conscience in the world
but, for the most part, institutions have become moral agents in the world (Tester, 1997).
These institutions are religious based and also moral based or both blended together.

Religions in Malaysia

Islam

Islam is the official religion in Malaysia. In the year 2000, Muslims comprised
approximately 60.4 percent of the population in Malaysia (Library of Congress, 2006).
All Malays in Malaysia are Muslims and anyone who marries a Muslim needs to convert
to Islam unless they denounce the religion, which is considered a great sin. In recent years
Islam Hadhari was introduced in Malaysia. The concept of Islam Hadhari or Civilisational
Islam promotes tolerance and balance as enjoined in Islam. It is a theory of government
based on the principles of Islam as derived from the Quran. It consists of 10 fundamental
principles:
18 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

a) Faith and piety in Allah;

b) Just and trustworthy government;
c) Freedom and independence to the people;
d) Mastery of knowledge;
e) Balanced and comprehensive economic development;
f) Good quality of life for all;
g) Protection of the rights of minority groups and women;
h) Cultural and moral integrity;
i) Protection of the environment; and
j) A strong defence policy.
(Source: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia)

Other than Malays there are Chinese, Indians, Orang Asli, Ibans and Kadazandusuns who
are also Muslims in Malaysia. The Muslims in Malaysia link religion with their daily
chores and way of life. They hold on to the Quran and receive the words of God through
this Holy Scripture. The Hadith which are actually interpretations of the Quran is also
accepted as another source of guidance for the Muslims in Malaysia.

Buddhism

Buddhism has long been in existence in Malaysia. At present, most of the Buddhists
in Malaysia are Chinese, Ceylonese and Indians. The normal practice is to worship in
Buddhist temples, give dhana (donation) and perform charity work. Children of Buddhist
parents are sent to Sunday class where they learn more about Buddhism. The Malaysian
Buddhist celebrates Wesak Day annually to commemorate the birth, the realization and
the death of Gautama Buddha. A moderate way of life is essential for every individual
practicing Buddhism. In principle, Buddhism teaches non-violence although its adherents
in positions of power have waged war in various stages of development (Tong, 2000).
Dhammapada is one of the thirty-one books that comprise the Tipitaka, the three
Baskets which contain the quintessence of the teachings of Buddha (Narada Thera, 1993).
It was originally written in Pali but has been translated into many languages for the use of
Buddhist devotees. It is used by the Buddhists in Malaysia as a guide to a moderate and
moralized Buddhist way of living.

Taoism

Many Chinese in Malaysia are also followers of the Taoist way of life which at times
is blended with Buddhism and Confucianism. Lao Tzu the founder of Taoism created a
complete way of life where nature is seen as an essential part of life and man needs to
be in harmony with nature to avoid any mishaps or unhappiness. The concept of yin and
yang was created to identify that in any aspects of life, there are opposites such as good
and bad, hot and cold, soft and hard. Thus, to live a harmonious life, one needs to balance
the two with nature (Ann Wan Seng, 1995). The pure Taoist in Malaysia practises various
rites and rituals which were passed down by their forefathers from ancient times.
 Masalah Peiididikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 19

Confucianism

Confucianism is another religion or more to a way of life which the Chinese practise
in Malaysia. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism was concerned with the issue of
moral self-cultivation. A main concern of Confucianism is how to learn to be a moralized
human. This concern with the details of life and the effects they can have upon character
formation is an important aspect of Confucian moral self-cultivation (Ivanhoe, 1993).
For most Malaysians practicing Confucianism, one important aspect practised is filial
piety. Every year during Cheng Beng which is similar to All Souls Day for the Christians,
members of families make a trip back home to pay homage to their ancestors (Ann Wan
Seng,1995).

Hinduism

Most Hindus in Malaysia either belong to the Saivites or Vaishanites philosophy of

living. Hindus in Malaysia see their position in this present life as based on their actions
in a previous life. If their behavior before was evil, they might experience tremendous
hardships in this life. A Hindu's goal is to become free from the law of karma, that is, to
be free from continuous reincarnations. There are three possible ways to end this cycle
of karma:
a) be lovingly devoted to any of the Hindu gods or goddesses;
b) grow in knowledge through meditation of Brahman (oneness) and;
c) be dedicated to various religious ceremonies and rites.

Hinduism represents not merely a set of beliefs, but also a definite social organization.
(Sivaswamy Aiyer, 1935). Thus it makes the religion complex. In Hinduism, a person
has the freedom to choose how to work toward spiritual perfection. Hinduism also has a
possible explanation for the suffering and evil in the world. According to Hinduism, the
suffering anyone experiences, whether it is sickness or starvation or a disaster, is due to
that person because of his or her own evil actions, usually from a previous lifetime. Only
the soul matters which will one day be free of the cycle of rebirths and be at rest.

Christianity

Christians in Malaysia comprise two major sects: Roman Catholics and Protestants. They
have their own respective places of worship and practise what is preached accordingly.
They use the Bible as the Holy Scriptures and apply what is preached through their
thoughts and actions. The central figure in Christianity is Jesus Christ whom all Christians
try to emulate in their character and daily lives. Many Christian groups in Malaysia are
involved in social work and serve as a platform for orphans and neglected individuals to
rise and shine. Christmas which celebrates the birth of Christ and Easter which celebrates
the resurrection of Christ, are two celebrations that the Christians in Malaysia cherish.
20 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

Sikhism

Sikhism is a religion based on the teachings of ten Gurus who lived in northern India
during the 16th and 17th centuries. The two main beliefs in Sikhism are the belief in One
God and belief in the teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus. The opening sentence of the Sikh
scriptures is only two words long, and reflects the basic belief of all who adhere to the
teachings of the religion: Ek Onkar or One Creator. The followers of Sikhism are ordained
to follow the teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus and other saints as scripted in the 1430
page Holy Scripture called Guru Granth Sahib. Though the number of Sikhs is small in
Malaysia, they form a closely knit and united community.

Baha'i Faith

The Baha'i Faith community in Malaya was established in 1953. Today, an estimated one
percent of the Malaysian population are of the Baha'i Faith made up of Chinese, Indians,
Ibans, Kadazans, Aslis and other non-Muslim indigenous people. The Spiritual Assembly
of the Baha'is of Malaysia, the national Baha'i council, was first elected in 1964 and
today there are Baha'i Local Spiritual Assemblies all over the country (The Spiritual
Association, 2006). The person who established the Baha'i Faith was Baha'u'llah. The
name is an Arabic word which means "The Glory of God." Another spelling is Baha'u'llah
(without diacriticals). Other transliterations of this Name are Bahaullah and Baha Allah.
The religion established by Baha'u'llah is referred to as the Baha'i Faith and is sometimes
spelled Bahai. It is also occasionally mislabeled Bahaism. Baha'u'llah emphasized the
spiritual and ethical requirements of the 'true seeker' after God (Smith, 1996).
Baha'is in Malaysia are greatly involved in social work and other nation building
activities. The uniqueness of this faith is that it involves members of a multiracial society
who abide by the Baha'i faith but also follow their own racial culture and practices.

Animism

Animism is widely practised by the aborigines in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and

Sarawak. In the Malaysian context, animism refers to their beliefs, culture and practices.
"Animism" was the term used by the anthropologist Sir E. B. Tylor as a proposed theory
of religion in his 1871 book, Primitive Culture. He used it to mean a "belief in spirits"
(i.e. mystical, supernatural, non-empirical or imagined entities). Tylor's use of the term
has since been widely criticized .
In the native belief, animism is used in a number of ways. It includes the belief
that personalized, supernatural beings inhabit ordinary objects as well as animate beings,
and these beings govern their existence. It is a simple belief that everything is alive,
everything is conscious and everything has a soul. It has been further extended to mean
a belief that the world is actually a community of living persons, only some are human
and the rest exist in other forms. These groups of animists with such a belief attempt to
relate respectfully with the persons which include human, rock, plant, animal, bird, and
ancestral spirits who they consider as members of a wider community of life. As such, the
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 21

aborigines are very particular with their actions, their words and thoughts which are in
harmony with their way of living.

Issues in Moral Decision-making in a Pluralistic Society

Everyone is faced with moral dilemmas in their daily lives. They can be adults or children
from different walks of life and from different faiths. The sample and examples for
discussion in this article were specifically chosen to ensure that they consist of people
from Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Hinduism, Christianity, Sikhism and Baha'i faiths. In
the children's category, the informants were merely interviewed and asked to share
their personal experience about God and how God played a role in their moral decision-
making. The adult category informants were given an open-ended question and asked to
answer it accordingly. A comparative analysis was done, comparing the children and adult
moral-decision makings in daily Hfe. Decisions madefy the children varied tremendously
compared with those made by adults even though they belonged to the same faith. Some
other issues also manifested, such as confusion and use of situational ethics to suit their
needs in the adult category.

Moral Decision-making

Children's Category

In the children's category, 8 children were involved in the interviews. They were two
Muslim children, two Buddhist children, two Christian children and two Hindu children.
They were interviewed about what they knew about their faith and how religion played a
role in their moral decision-making.

Adult Category

In the adult category, 6 adults from different faiths were provided with an open-ended
question where they were asked to decide how religion played a role in their daily
moral decision-making. They were allowed to express themselves about their religion,
other religions and how religion played its part when they faced moral decision-making
situations.

Discussion

In the children's category, all children from all faiths interviewed could mention what
faith they belonged to, name their house of worship if there was a specific one and at least
mention two other faiths that they knew their friends followed.

I am a Muslim and I go to observe prayers at the mosque on Fridays with

ayah (father). I have Hindu and Buddhist friends in school.
(9 year old Muslim boy)
22 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

my family goes to temple every Friday. I am a Hindu. Other religion in

Malaysia is Islam, Buddhist and Christian.
(10 year old Hindu girl)

All 8 children interviewed saw God as the most important aspect in their lives. The
Muslim children said they must observe prayers five times a day and attend religious class
regularly. If they ponteng (play truant), the ustazah (lady religious teacher) will inform
their parents or punish them by making them recite more Quranic verses. The two Muslim
children agreed that whatever decisions they made, they always thought of Allah and their
parents. They have great respect for their parents and grandparents.
The two Buddhist children mentioned that God for them is not Buddha but they
worship Buddha as a sign of respect. In fact every time they went to the vihara (Buddhist
house of worship), they pay homage to the Buddha statue by bowing before following
their parents to meditate and listen to chants by the priest.

bow to the Buddha and then sit and meditate. I meditate by chanting
Buddha's name.
(11 year old Buddhist girt)

The Hindu children described God as appearing in different forms and figures. Each
of them had their own isther dewa (favorite god/goddess). One preferred Lord Ganesha
(elephant head god) while the other prayed daily to Mariamman. They saw God in
everything they did and always started and ended each day by praying and saying small
mantras which their parents have taught them. They learnt to sing thevaram (devotional
songs) from their grandparents and attended temple functions at least once a week. When
deciding on any moral issues, they remembered what their parents have taught them about
being good children and always tried to uphold their family names. If they were unsure
about any decisions, they would seek advice from parents or grandparents and elder
siblings at home. Since both the children interviewed were from the same home, they
provided similar responses to the questions asked.

My acclia (father) and amma (mother) always ask my brother and me

to pray. Sometimes I dunno what to pray. But I will ask God to keep
everyone happy.
(10 year old Hindu girt)

The children from the Christian faith saw God as their savior and everything
they did revolved around religion. One child interviewed was a Roman Catholic while
the other belonged to the Methodist denomination. Both accepted Christ as their God
but the Roman Catholic child also prayed to Mother Mary and mentioned that they have
prayer meetings at home and go for rosary sessions in church on Saturday evenings. The
Methodist child shared information about going to church for prayer as well as social
services like helping disabled children or orphans. Both the children said they never miss
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 23

Sunday School where they learnt the Bible and had a lot of friends. When asked about
their moral decisions, they mentioned asking permission from God and asking Mother
Mary to guide them in their decisions. One child is studying in a missionary school and
said her teacher who teaches Catechism has always reminded her to reflect and ensure that
her decisions do not hurt anyone. Both children prayed very hard and never miss saying
prayers daily. They also respected their parents who were strict disciplinarians where
matters of religion were concerned

My mummy made sure my sister and I said our prayers before we eat
our food. I sometimes forget when I get hungry but my sister will always
remind me.
(9 year old Christian boy)

The-adults were very clearabout the role of religion trrtheiriives. They mentioned
much about how moralities exist at different levels in each individual. However, more
than half of the informants admitted that in this materialistic world it was very difficult to
stay morally correct all the time. At times they had to tell white lies to defend their bosses
or get fired. At other times, they had to bribe officers in certain departments to get their
work done faster. When religious rites and rituals were concerned more than four of the
informants assured that they prayed, and made sure that their children also prayed.
Two out of the six informants were new converts. One, who had accepted Christianity
when she came into the university, said receiving Christ has changed a lot of her internal
moral values. Before accepting Christ, she did a lot of immoral acts; nowadays she is very
careful and prayed a lot for God's guidance. She said friends called her antisocial when
she did not go clubbing and do immoral acts nowadays but having a stronger belief in God
gave her strength and she said life is more peaceful and meaningful now.

Let them say what they want. I think I have found God and I don't want
to be shaken up again. Those days, I used to get depressed especially
when I have broken up with my boyfriend but nowadays I pray a lot and
that helps.
(22 year old Christian female adult)

The other convert who belongs to the Baha'i Faith explained that she learnt a lot
about God and self through the faith. Not only did she understand herself better but she
cared more about others and realized how helping others made this world a better place.
She has become more caring and loving towards others and also does more social work.

I enjoy working with others and helping others too. The joy 1 see on faces
of children when we visit homes and hospitals are unexplainable.
(22 year old Baha'i faith follower)

I believe in doing good things to others as that is what my religion has

taught me. I won't even think badly of another cause I'm not perfect. My
religion says that if I do well in this birth, then I will be born at a higher
24 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

level of consciousness in my next birth. If I do immoral things then my

karma will increase and I have to face the consequences.
(41 year old Hindu male adult)

For the above Hindu individual, religion has become one with his daily life. He is
not so concerned about rites and rituals, though he mentioned that his children are given
exposure to the Hindu religion. He sees religion as part of life and all his moral decisions
are based on religion. Aspects like dharma (duty) and karma (actions) are a priority when
he makes any moral decisions. Experiences of other individuals either for the better or for
worse become another source when making moral decisions in daily life.

My faith is very strict about rituals like praying five times a day and
always being honest. But I do see people of my faith doing otherwise.
Maybe they can't link what is mystic and what is reality. I find my religion
complete and perfect but we need a lot of support from friends, parents
and religious leaders to make sure our moral decisions are consistent and
right all the time.
(35 year old Muslim male adult)

In the case of the above Muslim adult, religion is seen as the source for everything
he does. He was brought up in a religious school and found religion as a guide for his life.
He does not find the rituals like praying, paying zakat (tax to help the poor) and fasting
during the Ramadhan month difficult but regards them as opportunities enabling him to
always stay close to Allah. He has no problem making moral decisions because he feels he
is under Allah's guidance always. He also makes sure that all his children go to religious
school after attending normal school to deepen their knowledge in religion.
However, the informants also mentioned the challenges they faced when making
moral decisions even though they were religious in their own way. To avoid sensitivity of
religiosity, their religions are not mentioned.

I pray but when it comes to moral decisions, I will look at the situation.
If my boss wants me to drink during any social outing, I think of my
relationship with my superior. I know my religion does not allow such an
act but I compromise to myself by telling it's between me and God. Let
me face the consequences. Now, I need to please my boss.
(40 year old male executive)

I used to be very religious in my younger days but nowadays I decide

according to situations. If people are rude and humiliate me, I don't care
about religion. I give them a piece of my mind. You need to give respect
to receive respect. Being too religious can make you unpopular.
(38 year old female manager)

You can be religious but sometimes making decision especially dealing

with moral needs creativity. If you have friends who say this is taboo and
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 25

that is taboo because of religions, I always stay away from them. You
need to live life so you can't be too strict with certain aspects.
(27 year old steward)

In these few situations, the informants were aware of their religion and the do's and don'ts
in their respective religions but were thinking of logic and practicality in their moral
decision-making. They were not in favor of abiding by the teachings of religion 100
percent but analyze each situation on its own. One informant mentioned that he would not
want to be a hypocrite by pretending to be a good soul but having thoughts and actions
which were against the religion. However all the informants above said they knew the
consequences of their decisions especially if it was morally wrong and religiously wrong
but were willing to face the consequences.

Conclusion

In a multicultural and multireligious country like Malaysia, everyone respects each

others' religious rites, practices and way of life. Once one recognizes the centrality of
beliefs, claims, and practices to the shared life of one's own community and tradition, one
can reasonably extend such recognition to other communities and traditions. It ensures
a harmonious culture blended with rich diversity and respect. Moral decision-making
becomes an altruistic component which takes into consideration others' feelings and
priorities.

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