ICES Journal of Marine Science, 55: 793–802.

1998
Article No. jm980404

Design and application of a lidar fluorosensor system for remote

monitoring of phytoplankton
R. Barbini, F. Colao, R. Fantoni, C. Micheli,
A. Palucci, and S. Ribezzo

Barbini, R., Colao, F., Fantoni, R., Micheli, C., Palucci, A., and Ribezzo, S. 1998.
Design and application of a lidar fluorosensor system for remote monitoring of
phytoplankton. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 55: 793–802.

A characterization of diVerent phytoplankton cultures has been carried out in the

laboratory in combination with laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) measurements aimed
at investigating the possibility of remote monitoring by means of lidar fluorosensor
systems. Cultures of microalgae characterized by diVerent pigment contents were
analysed in the visible region on near UV laser excitation. The measured spectra
allowed us to obtain a fingerprint of each species and to identify the emission
wavelengths in relation to the main pigment contents. The remote-sensing apparatus
was upgraded with a double-pulse laser source to test the eVectiveness of a LIF
technique based on a pump-and-probe laser excitation scheme suitable for directly
measuring the algal quantum yield. In combination with photosynthetic active
radiation, the electron transport rate of the investigated phytoplankton was obtained
directly in the sea water. The instrumentation for local and remote analysis of
phytoplankton was applied at the ICES/IOC workshop at the Kristineberg Marine
Research Station (Sweden, 9–15 September 1996), where the LIF emission of natural
communities and cultures has been monitored in vivo obtaining information on the
algae species present and on their photosynthetic activity.

? 1998 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

Key words: algal quantum yield, laser remote sensing, phytoplankton monitoring.

R. Fantoni, R. Barbini, F. Colao, A. Palucci, S. Ribezzo: ENEA, INN-FIS-SPET, CR

Frascati, C.P. 65-00044 Frascati, Rome, Italy; C. Micheli: ENEA Environmental Dep.,
Biotic Ecosystem Section, CR Casaccia, via Anguillarese 301, S. Maria di Galeria,
Rome, Italy. Correspondence to R. Fantoni: tel: +39 6 9400 5568; fax: +39 6 9400
5400; e-mail: Fantoni@frascati.enea.it

Introduction toring, in particular, the lidar fluorosensor system

Passive and active remote-sensing systems have been
applied in marine campaigns from diVerent mobile
platforms, such as aircraft (Hengstermann and Reuter,
1992; Borfecchia et al., 1996) or ships (Chekalyuk et al.,
1992; Barbini et al., 1996a). In recent years, active lidar
fluorosensor systems have been widely accepted as
instruments suitable for remotely ascertaining water
quality. They detect the laser-induced fluorescence (LIF)
signal of the diVerent fluorescent particles present in
diVerent compounds upon visible or UV excitation
(Barbini et al., 1992; Reuter et al., 1993; Patsayeva and
Reuter, 1995). Apart from environmental problems
related to the presence of oil slicks and chemical pollut-
ants, field applications of these instruments include the
monitoring of phytoplankton by the remote detection of
the red chlorophyll emission (Bazzani et al., 1992,
Barbini et al., 1995a, 1997). For phytoplankton moni-
combines the advantages of detection of the intense
fluorescence emission from chlorophyll together with
other pigments, thus allowing for the recognition of
diVerent algal taxa over large spatial scales. This is in
contrast to similar in situ measurements performed with
conventional fluorimeters. In fact, the phytoplankton
chlorophyll concentration for each species is related to
the absolute intensity of the red LIF signal, which also
contains information on the biological activity of the
living plant tissue sampled. In order to extract the
additional information on the phytoplankton photo-
synthetic activity in vivo, diVerent techniques have been
proposed and already tested in the field (Chekalyuk
et al., 1992; Barbini et al., 1996b) showing that non-
intrusive fluorescence measurements can supply real
time information in the laboratory and in the field.
Nowadays, phytoplankton monitoring requires
determination of productivity and the early detection of

1054–3139/98/040793+10 $30.00/0 ? 1998 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
794 R. Barbini et al.

Table 1. Classification of the examined algal cultures.
Item Family
Class Dinophyceae
1 Prorocentraceae
2 Prorocentraceae
3 Goniodomataceae
4 Goniodomataceae
Class Chlorophyceae
5 Clamydomonaceae
6 Polyblepharidaceae
7 Clamydomonaceae
Class Bacillarophyceae
8 Phaeodactylinaceae
9 Nitzschiaceae
10 Nitzschiaceae
11 Fragilariaceae
Class Cyanophyceae
12 Chroococcaceae
13 Chroococcaceae
Species
Prorocentrum micans
Prorocentrum minimum
Alexandrium tamarense
Alexandrium lusitanicum
Platymonas suecica
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Clamydomonas spp.
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
Nitzschia closterium
Nitzschia delicatissima
Fragilaria spp.
Synechococcus leopoliensis
(Racib) Komarek
Synechococcus 625
species we used medium F/2 (Guillard, 1975), with
modifications involving glycerophosphate (4.52 mg l "1)
instead of NaH2PO4, and an enhanced vitamin concen-
tration (B12 and Biotin 1.0 mg l "1), while the modified
Erdschreiber medium (M. Parke, pers. comm.) was used
for green algae and diatoms. The medium consists of
natural sea water (Tyrrenian Sea) filtered (0.45 Ïm) and
sterilized at 121)C for 20 min. Then 0.1 g l "1 NaNO3,
0.02 g l "1 Na2HPO4 12H2O · NaHCO3 and 0.2 g l "1
NaHCO3 were added. Finally, 50 ml of soil extract
(50 g l"1) was added to the medium.
Chlorophyll pigments (a, b, c1 +c2) were quantified,
immediately after counting the cells, according to the
spectrophotometric equation originally proposed by
JeVrey and Humphrey (1975). In this procedure, cell
suspensions were filtered (0.45 Ïm Millipore), treated
with acetone solution (90% for green algae and diatoms
and 100% for dinoflagellates), and spun at 6000 rpm for
30 min.

LIF techniques in monitoring phytoplankton

(harmful) algal blooms. A suitable design for a dedicated
lidar fluorosensor system might permit all involved
parameters to be measured remotely, i.e. chlorophyll
concentration together with photosynthetic activity and
the pigment ratios required for (harmful) species
recognition. The results reported here were obtained
during the ICES/IOC workshop at the Kristineberg
Marine Research Station (Sweden, 9–15 September
1996), and are relevant to both laboratory measure-
ments and to the development of in situ growth rate
measurements of dinoflagellates.
Material and methods
Phytoplankton cultures and biochemical
characterization
Classification of all the algal cultures analysed in the
laboratory is summarized in Table 1. Most species listed
have been grown from samples collected by vertical haul
of a phytoplankton net (25 Ïm mesh size) along the
Italian coasts, either in the north-west Adriatic
(Prorocentraceae) or in the northern Tyrrenian Sea
(Chlorophyceae and Bacillarophyceae). Two clonal
cultures of dinophyceae were also tested: A. tamarense
(AT1K) obtained from Plymouth, England (UK) and
A. lusitanicum (AL1V) obtained from Galicia (Spain).
Clonal cultures were grown in climatic rooms with
controlled temperature (T=20)C), irradiance (100 Ïmol
m "2 s "1 PAR) and a light:dark photoperiod of 12:12 h.
Cell counts were carried out using the Neubauer
chamber (Carlo Erba) mounted on a microscope
(Nikon, Diaphot 200). The cell cultures were grown in
enriched media (Micheli et al., 1996). For dinoflagellate
species
Because visible and near-UV laser light excites
chloroplasts in algae, the LIF technique is commonly
used to investigate Chl a and related pigment concen-
trations both locally (Kolber and Falkowsky, 1993;
Hartig and Colijn, 1996) and remotely (Determann
et al., 1994). In the case of phytoplankton monitoring,
the emission spectra collected from a UV-excited water
sample contain, apart from the backscattered laser
radiation at the same wavelength, the water Raman
peak red shifted of 3330 cm "1, which is currently used
for normalizing remotely sensed data (Bristow et al.,
1981; Marshal and Smith, 1990; Reuter et al., 1993). The
visible LIF emission is mostly caused by dissolved
organic matter (DOM), which is present in natural
waters and in some culture media (i.e. Erdschreiber),
and diVerent phytoplankton pigments. The visible algal
emissions show patterns extending from the blue to the
red region which occur in spectral windows suitable for
remote determination (Hoge and Swift, 1981). The most
important phytoplankton fluorescing pigments (Ikeya
et al., 1994) include phycoerythrin (580 nm), phyco-
cyanin (660 nm), and chlorophylls (peaked around
685 nm with a shoulder at 730 nm). By using an UV
excitation source it might also be possible to detect the
blue pigment bands overlapping the DOM emission
These contain contributions due to spectral absorption
and re-emissions from xanthophyll, NaPDH, fucoxantin
(Shreve et al., 1991; Johnsen and Sakshaug, 1996) and
minor light harvesting carotenoids (Mimuro et al.,
1993). In the blue absorption band some patterns have
recently been related to the Peridinin-Chl a Protein
(PCP) characteristics of dinoflagellates (Ogata et al.,
1994).
 A lidar fluorosensor system for monitoring phytoplankton
Table 2. Main characteristics of the laser fluorimeter.
Transmitter Nd-YAG laser
Energy
Pulse length
spot
ppr
Detector OMA III EG&G 1421
Gate Pulser 1304
Monochromator grating and slit (FWHMz5 nm)
Fiber optic Material
Diameter
Length
Filter Dichroic
Cell Volume
Flow by gravity
Computer IBM PC/AT
Here, excitation of phytoplankton cultures and
natural sea water with UV radiation at 355 nm was
chosen because powerful and simple laser sources,
suitable for field application, are available at this wave-
length, where the marine optical transmission window
and the fluorescence yield of main pigments are suYcient
for remote measurements.
LIF equipment
The ENEA lidar fluorosensor is a general purpose
mobile instrument designed to measure both time-
integrated LIF spectra and wavelength-selected range-
resolved signals from solid and liquid targets. The set-up
has recently been upgraded with a double-pulse laser
source to test the eVectiveness of a LIF technique based
on a pump-and-probe laser excitation scheme suit-
able for measuring the algal quantum yield directly
(Chekalyuk et al., 1992).
This mobile equipment has been used in extensive
marine campaigns to monitor the quality of diVerent sea
waters: in particular, diVerent areas of the Adriatic Sea
(Barbini et al., 1995b, 1996a). The complete system,
consisting of a UV (355 nm) lidar fluorosensor and a UV
(266/355 nm) laser fluorimeter, has been used in the
laboratory and on board small ships. On board ship, the
lidar beam has been directly pointed at the marine
surface, with the laser fluorimeter monitoring the sea
water inside a flow-through cell continuously kept full
by a pump from one meter depth. During these previous
marine campaigns, the LIF signals at selected wave-
lengths were recorded by the two devices in order to
monitor the distribution of diVerent species. DOM and
chlorophyll signals were detected on excitation at
Î=355 nm, while organic pollutants and oils were
detected on excitation at Î=266 nm. In both cases,
the corresponding water Raman signal was used for
normalization.
795
Î=355 nm
10 mJ
0.3 ns
0.12 cm2
10 Hz
1024 spectral channels
300 ns gate
HR-320, 147 grooves/mm, 0.5 mm
Quartz
1 mm
10 m
T>90% (΢400 nm)
9.0 cm3
1 l/min
CPU 80286/8 MHz
Laser fluorimeter
A laser fluorimeter was used to record the complete
visible LIF emission spectra of algal cultures in the
laboratory. Algal cultures, after proper dilution, were
analysed in a small volume quartz cuvette during a
non-turbulent fast flow obtained by gravity from a large
reservoir. A laser radiation at Î=355 nm excited the
fluorescence of the algal chloroplasts. The fast flow
allowed for analysing a fresh sample at each subsequent
laser shot, degradation eVects due to possible laser-
induced damages of the cell membrane thus being
avoided. For the same reason no pump was used to
sustain the flow.
The fluorimeter collection optics, mounted near the
cuvette at right angles to the exciting laser beam, include
an appropriate low pass filter to detect fluorescence
while the scattered laser radiation is being cut oV. In
order to record single-shot spectra on a broad visible
range, a time-gated Optical Multichannel Analyser was
chosen as fluorescence detector and coupled to a small
monochromator equipped with a low resolution grating.
Proper optical matching between the fibreglass and each
monochromator was ensured by small lenses which
focused the signal on the respective entrance slit. The
main components of the apparatus with details of the
relevant characteristics are listed in Table 2.
In order to link LIF intensities measured on diVerent
spectral channels with corresponding pigment contents,
the spectra collected on UV excitation at Î=355 nm
were successively processed by integrating (at 10 nm
bandwidth) both the water Raman peak (Î=402 nm)
and the diVerent pigments bands. For Chl a, integration
was performed on the usually sharp peak related to
PS-II always observed near 680 nm. In the case of
overlapping spectral features, a multiple Gaussian
deconvolution was applied in order to take into account
the contribution of nearby spectroscopic lines to each
integral. An example of this deconvolution is given in
796
H2O
Raman
2000
Carotenoids
and DOM
LIF intensity (rel. un.)
1500
Phycoerythrin
1000
Phycocyanin
500
Chlorophylls
0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 1. Gaussian deconvolution of a laboratory LIF spec-
trum obtained from a concentrated solution of Synecochoccus
625. The assignment of the pigments is indicated and diVerent
integration bands are marked.
Fig. 1 for a cyanophycean species containing several
pigments, with the indication of the integration band for
each deconvoluted peak. LIF intensities were expressed
in Raman units after normalization to the water Raman
intensity and calibrated with the diVerent pigment
contents. Spectral ratios were obtained to recognize
various species from the integrated LIF intensities.
Lidar fluorosensor
Our former field and laboratory experience measuring
the photosynthetic activity of algae and higher plants
led us to design a LIF apparatus with simplicity and
flexibility as its key characteristics. A novel laser source
has been designed specifically for the lidar, which is able
to transmit on the same optical line either a probe pulse
alone or a pump pulse followed by a probe pulse with a
properly selected delay (Barbini et al., 1995c).
A coaxial arrangement was adopted between trans-
mitter and receiver, which are assembled on a common
chassis in order to minimize vibrationally induced
optical mismatches (Fig. 2). The laser radiation excites
the fluorescent chloroplasts directly in the sea water
(from either the quay or the boat) or in the mesocosm
(Fig. 2a), while the scattered light and LIF signals are
collected by a Cassegrain telescope focusing on a special
type fiber optic bundle coupled to photomultipliers for
detection (Fig. 2b).
By placing suitable narrowband interference filters in
front of four photomultipliers, spectral channels were
selected, corresponding to water Raman scattering
(402 nm), DOM (450 nm), and phytoplankton pigments
(phycocyanin 650 nm and Chl a 690 nm). The detailed
characteristics of the device are listed in Table 3.
A personal computer controlled the experimental
settings, i.e. the laser operation mode (emitting at each
R. Barbini et al.
trigger signal either single or dual pulses), the high
voltage and the gate of the photomultipliers, the digital
conversion of the signals, and the storing of data.
Dedicated software, allowing for continuous automatic
operation during the campaign, performed the data
acquisition and the preliminary real time data analysis.
Supporting parameters, such as PAR, temperature
and oxygen evolution, were continuously measured by
immersing one of the relevant detectors in the monitored
mesocosm and storing the collected data in the lidar
acquisition system (Fig. 2).
750 Results and discussion
Laser fluorimeter data
Prior to the campaign, diVerent algal cultures were
analysed in the laboratory in order to check the feasi-
bility of their remote field recognition. Band-integrated
spectral contents FÎ at four diVerent wavelengths,
normalized to the total visible intensity Ftot, are
reported in Figure 3 for the algal groups listed in
Table 1.
Because of the wide overlap between carotenoids and
DOM emissions and also the non-negligible medium
contribution, the blue channel intensity F460 is seen not
to provide any unambiguous discrimination among dif-
ferent algal classes, while the red channels intensities
(F580, F660, and F680) appear more useful for this
purpose. Actually, the chlorophyll fluorescence intensity
F680 turns out to be highest for all the Dinophyceae
species, lower for Chlorophyceae, and near the detection
limit for some of the investigated Bacillariophyceae
(Nitzschiaceae). Cyanophyceae species belonging to
the Chroococcaceae family, especially Synecochoccus
625, also show a relatively low Chl a content, although
they can be recognized by the typical phycoerythrin
and phycocyanin emissions (F580 and F660, respect-
ively), which do not occur in any of the other classes.
Red chlorophyll fluorescence intensity is related to the
Chl a content in each family, but the relationship does
depend on the species morphology and on the accessory
pigment contents, since cellular membranes and acces-
sory pigments can be responsible for losses of excitation
energy and for re-absorption. Therefore, laboratory
calibrations are usually performed on dominant cultures
found in the field, where the high sensitivity detection
systems based on gated photomultipliers (Fig. 2b) are
used.
At the beginning of the campaign, instrumental tests
were performed which included monitoring the natural
community with the laser fluorimeter. The collected
spectra were typical of Dinophyceae, which were actu-
ally the dominant taxon, although some Chlorophyceae
were also present, as observed by the other participant
groups. As characteristic red pigment channel, the
 A lidar fluorosensor system for monitoring phytoplankton 797

(a)
Lidar
fluorosensor

PC

Camac
Quay Crate

Oxygen
electrodes
PAR

MESOCOSM
Floating platform

(b)

GATE HV

PMT4 IF4 Telescope

PMT3 IF3 FO

PMT2 IF2 BE
DF

PMT1 IF1 LASER

BS

ADC CAMAC Pulse PC

generator

O2
GPIB-BUS

PAR

Figure 2. Lidar fluorosensor apparatus on the quay during the mesocosm monitoring campaign: (a) sketch of the installation with
PAR detector and two Clark electrodes immersed inside the mesocosm vessel; (b) opto-electronic schematics.

respective chlorophyll emission peak at 680 nm was util-
ized. Natural phytoplankton was sampled with a 25 Ïm
net from the quay; diluted solutions were prepared by
adding natural sea water. The Chl a concentration, as
determined by the fluorimetric method, was used to
calibrate the laser fluorimeter data given in Raman
units. As shown in Figure 4, a linear relationship
between Chl a concentration and the LIF intensity at
680 nm holds for the whole range of the natural com-
munity examined.
Continuous measurements of seawater fluorescence
spectra were taken after the reference cell was filled with
the samples taken from about 3 m depth. Each measure-
ment had a duration of 10 sec (100 shots) at time
intervals of 10 sec. The Chl a concentration profile of
September 9 (Fig. 5) is seen to increase throughout the
798 R. Barbini et al.

Table 3. Main characteristics of the lidar apparatus.

Transmitters Nd-YAG laser Î=355 nm

Pump Energy 30 mJ
Probe Energy 3 mJ
Pulse length 10 ns
ppr 10 Hz
Beam expander Adjustable 1#–20#
Detector Hamamatsu PMT R 3896, R1477, R928 (2 units)
Gated HV 50–200 ns
Filters Dichroic T>90% (΢400 nm)
1. Raman Î=402 nm, FWHM 5 nm BW
2. DOM Î=450 nm, FWHM 5 nm BW
3. Phycocyanin Î=650 nm, FWHM 20 nm BW
4. Chl a Î=690 nm, FWHM 10 nm BW
Telescope Cassegrain Type 40 cm dia. F# 1.5
Focal length 165 cm
Fiber Optic Type Split into four branches
Input diameter 25.4 mm
Output diameter 13 mm
Length 1m
Electronics Camac controller GPIB interface
ADC Lecroy 2249SG
Computer IBM PC Pentium 100 MHz

0.08

0.06
Fλ/Ftot

0.04

0.02

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Dinophyceae Chlorophyceae Bacillarophyceae Cyanophyceae

Sample no.
Figure 3. Spectral ratios at diVerent emission wavelengths for 13 diVerent algal species: 1–4 Dinophyceae, 5–7 Chlorophyceae, 8–11
Bacillarophyceae, 12–13 Cyanobacteria (cf. Table 1).

morning up to noon and to decrease thereafter, possibly Lidar data

because of the rise of a strong easterly wind aVecting
also the sampled subsurface sea water. This decrease
cannot be due to fluorescence saturation at the low
ambient irradiance measured in the afternoon
(PAR<500 Ïmol m "2 sec "1).
Time behaviour of the LIF parameters in the controlled
mesocosm
The mesocosm was continuously monitored by detecting
the photosynthetic activity through measurements of O2
 A lidar fluorosensor system for monitoring phytoplankton 799

100 ETR=PAR*Y*0.5*k (2)

where the factor 0.5 considers the absorption of two

80
quanta for the transport of one electron (Schreiber,
Chl conc. (mg/m )
3

1994), while the constant k=0.9 includes the collecting

60
40
20
0 yield has relative maxima in correspondence to the PAR
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
LIF intensity at 680 nm (Raman un.)
Figure 4. Chl a calibration measurements obtained with
phytoplankton-enriched sea water samples collected from the
quay (Kristineberg, 8 September 1996).
optical eYciency of the harvesting antennas and the
water extinction coeYcient at the used excitation
wavelength.
O2 concentration, lidar data (Y), PAR, and the
derived ETR are compared in Figure 6, as measured on
September 12. It can be seen that the laser fluorescence
maxima around 12:00, 14:00, and 18:00. The ETR
properly accounts for the evening decrease in photosyn-
thesis, while oxygen concentrations hardly decreased in
the first hours of the night.

Monitoring cruise
3.2
The cruise on the afternoon of 12 September started at
2.8 the Kristineberg Marine Research Station, crossed the
Chl conc (mg/m3)

2.4 Gullmar fjord, and reached the Ellöse fjord after passing
2.0 near the open sea at an average speed of 5 knots. During
the survey, the lidar fluorosensor continuously collected
1.6
data on water turbidity (at 402 nm), DOM (at 450 nm),
1.2 Chl a concentrations (at 690 nm), and Chl a fluorescence
0.8 yield Y, the last-mentioned by taking advantage of the
lidar pump-and-probe operation mode.
0.4
Chl a concentrations and remotely sensed ETR are
0.0 reported in Figure 7 (a and b, respectively) vs. the cruise
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time (h:d)
running time. We noticed changes in Chl a concen-
tration from the diVerent fjords to the open sea. The
Figure 5. Continuous Chl a concentration measurements in sea evening increase in the chlorophyll channel, recorded on
water in front of the quay (Kristineberg, 9 September 1996).
the way back, has been ascribed to phenomena of
nocturnal bioluminescence caused by Ceratium (dino-
flagellates) whose presence was detected independently.
evolution and laser pump-and-probe yields (Y), and by Because of afternoon irradiance conditions and
recording PAR data and lidar data of turbidity, DOM, cloudy weather, irradiance changes at the sea-surface
and Chl a. level ranged from 50 to 500 Ïmol m "2 sec "1, which
With this technique, an isolated probe laser pulse in caused a variable ETR measured during the investi-
the dark or in the presence of background illumination gation time interval between 10 and 120 Ïmol electrons
triggers the Chl a fluorescence signal F1 (Î=680 nm) m "2 sec "1.
corresponding to the actual state of closure of the
reaction centres (RCs). An intervening intense laser
pulse (pump) switches all the RCs to the closed state, Conclusions
and the fluorescence response F2 (Î=680 nm) can be
triggered by a second probe pulse, provided the pump- The present data taken on phytoplankton cultures
to-probe delay is kept within the quenchers’ life-time show that their visible emission spectrum measured on
(2100 Ïs). The algal fluorescence yield can be calculated near UV excitation of sea water contains information
as: relevant to the remote identification of various algal
families characterized by diVerent fluorescent pigments.
Y=(F2 "F1)/F2 (1) However, the identification requires a careful laboratory
characterization, in which the fluorescence of the growth
Pump-and-probe yield (Y) and PAR data were used to medium for a lot of diVerent species is taken into
compute the remotely sensed electron transport rate account. Mapping the distribution of various algal
(ETR): species in their natural environment is a prominent task.
800 R. Barbini et al.

10
(a)
8
O2

6
4
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

800 (b)
PAR

400

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

(c)
0.50
Y

0.25

0.00
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

200 (d)
ETR

100

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (h)
Figure 6. Continuous monitoring of the enriched mesocosm (Kristineberg, 11 September 1996): (a) O2 concentration (mg l "1); (b)
PAR (Ïmol quanta m "2 sec "1); (c) laser yield (Y); (d) ETR (mol electrons m "2 sec "1).

4
(a)

3
Chl (mg/m3)

0
14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0

120 (b)

100

80
ETR

60

40

20

0
14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
Time (h:d)
KMF Gullmar Fjord Open sea Ellose Fjord KMF
Figure 7. Lidar data measured during the cruise (Kristineberg, 12 September 1996): (a) Chl a (mg m "3); (b) ETR (Ïmol electrons
m "2 sec "1).
 A lidar fluorosensor system for monitoring phytoplankton
In fact, red pigment can easily be recognized but DOM
dominates the blue emission of sea waters overlapping
other possible algal features.
On the occasion of the Kristineberg Workshop, the
complete LIF system, including almost all of its ancillary
sensors (GPS, PAR, O2 electrodes), designed for phyto-
plankton monitoring in the Ross Sea during the forth-
coming Italian Antarctica mission, was successfully
tested, running in automatic operation from the quay
and from the vessel in spite of adverse meteorological
conditions (strong wind and rain). Chl a daily cycle and
distribution were obtained at the study site, and diVer-
ential measurements of photosynthetic activity were
performed from the quay and from the boat. How-
ever, the methods as presented need comparison with
independent measurements of photosynthetic activity
and pigment composition. If this has been success-
fully completed, these LIF methods can be used as
alternatives for time series and monitoring studies of
phytoplankton activity and composition.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the ICES and the
IOC for logistical and technical support during the
workshop. Participation was financially supported
by the Italian National Research Programme for
Antarctica (PNRA) within the project 5B1.
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