Plain and Reinforced Concrete-I

University of Lahore (Islamabad campus)

• Concrete and Reinforced Concrete: Basic Definition
• Merits and Demerits of Reinforced Concrete Member as a
Structural Material
• Compatibility of Concrete and Steel
• Codes of Practice
• Units of Measurement
• Limit State
• Various Design Methods
• Loads
• Structural Concrete Elements
• Structural Concrete Design
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1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
The design engineer is usually guided by specifications called
the code of practice. There are three closely related terms
namely specifications, standards and codes.
Specifications are set of rules given by individuals or
organizations to carry out design and construction in a safe,
efficient and economic way.
• Include formulas, material quality, construction type etc. that guide the
designer in checking strength, stiffness proportions and other criteria that
may govern the acceptability of the member.
• Based on years of research and experience gained through actual
structural usage.

Standards are generally related with the quality control,

workmanship and testing of different materials.
• Common Examples : BS , ASTM standards
Codes are set of specifications after detailed verifications for
the corresponding performance given by individuals or
organizations (such as AISC, ACI and AASHTO) to carry out
design and construction in a safe, efficient and economic way.
• In United State prior to year 2000, there were three model code. Uniform
Building Code, Basic Building Code and the Standard Building Code. In
2000, these three codes were replaced by the International Building
Code (IBC), which is normally updated every three years.
• The definitive design specifications for reinforced concrete building in
North America is the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
(ACI 318-14) and commentary (ACI 318R-14). Codes and commentary
bound together in one volume. ACI Code has legal status only if adopted
in a local building code. Cities are free to change any provision of model
code. Engineer have to critical look into the Building Code and have to
decide what provisions are satisfactory and which ones are to be
modified. The main objective of a code is usually to eliminate the most
common mistakes, especially those involving safety.
A recommended practice define the best practice that is safe,
easy to implement and economical.
• Include the design assumptions, procedures, construction difficulties and
thumb rules for design.
• ACI Code is written in the form of a code but is not for away from a
recommended practice.

1.6
1.7 Limit States

Limit state is defined as the stage in the loading after which the structure
cannot fulfill its intended function due to strength or serviceability
considerations. The term “limit state” is preferred compared with “failure”
because in most cases of limit states, the actual failure or collapse does not
occur. Limit states are generally divided into two categories, strength and
serviceability limit states. Strength or safety limit states means conditions
of loading corresponding to maximum ductile flexural strength (i.e., plastic
strength), ultimate ductile shear strength, buckling, fatigue, fracture,
progressive collapse, formation of plastic mechanism, overturning, and
sliding, etc. Rupture refers to complete separation of structural member into
two or more pieces causing collapse. Rupture may be due to flexural, shear,
torsional or other types of stresses. Progressive collapse means spreading of
failure once one of the members collapses. Plastic mechanism produces
infinitely large deformations in the structure and fatigue produces reduction
in material strength due to repeated cycles of reversal of loads
Serviceability limit states are those concerned with occupancy of the
building, such as excessive deflections, undesirable vibrations, permanent
deformation, accidental effects like fire, explosions, corrosion of steel,
deterioration of concrete and excessive cracking. More deflections may be
visually unacceptable and may cause disturbance in parts of the structure
resting on the member. Excessive crack widths lead to leakage, corrosion of
the steel and deterioration of concrete.
According to some specifications, serviceability limit states are the limiting
condition affecting the ability of a structure to preserve its appearance,
maintainability, durability, or the comfort of its occupants and function of
machinery under normal usage.
The structure should not cross any strength or serviceability limit for a
perfect design. All the applicable limits are to be checked by using the
available procedures.
1.8 Various Design Methods

There are three main methods of design, namely, allowable stress design,
strength design or LRFD and plastic design. Before discussing these
methods, the basic design equation and the importance of factor of safety in
design are explained.
1.8.1 Basic Design Equation
In design, the applied forces and moments due to external loads are equated
to the maximum resistive forces and moments that can be developed within
the material of the member with a factor of safety which is always greater
than or equal to one. Loads can produce external bending moments, shear
forces, torques and axial forces. Similarly internal stresses are developed
within the material to balance all the above types of forces and moments but
with a maximum resistance value. This concept may be summarized by the
following design equation:
External Forces/Pressures Maximum Resistance
=
due to Loads x Factor of Offered by Material of the
Safety (F OS) Structure/Material Strength
1.8.2 Factor of Safety (FOS)
Factor of safety is defined as the value of the expected failure load divided
by the maximum service load. It is required to bring the structure from the
state of collapse to a usable state. It is defined as the failure load divided by
the maximum service loads. Its value is always greater than or equal to one
to provide reserve strength as a margin of safety. This factor additionally
covers the following aspects:
1. Uncertainties in applied forces or loads. The structure should be able to
withstand the variations in expected loading up to certain extent without
failure of the structure.
2. The deflections should be small at service load conditions.
3. To cover uncertainties in material strengths, particularly when the
material used is under-strength.
4. To cover, in part, poor workmanship.
5. To cover unexpected behavior in case the theory is not fully developed.
 6. To cover natural disasters.
7. The stresses produced during fabrication and erection due to storage of
materials, movement of machinery. Factor of safety may take care of these
loads during construction.
1.8.3 Strength Design
If the major part of factor of safety is applied on the service loads to get
increased loads called Ultimate or Factored Loads, and the material
strengths are divided by the minor remaining part of factor of safety, the
design method is called Strength Design, Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD), Ultimate Design, or Limit State Design. The factor of
safety by which any load is increased for the Strength Design is called
Overload Factor and the reciprocal of factor of safety or reduction factor by
which the material strength is slightly adjusted is called Capacity Reduction
or Resistance Factor (ɸ). Limit state is defined as the limiting stage in the
loading after which the structure cannot fulfill its intended function due to
strength or serviceability considerations.
 Analysis of structures for loads is performed considering the structure to be
within elastic range. However, inelastic behavior, ultimate failure modes
and redistribution of forces after elastic range are considered in this method.
This is more realistic design as compared with the old Allowable Stress
Design.

1.8.4 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

For this method, the FOS is taken on right side of the basic design equation
given earlier. The modified equation is as under:

Forces/Forces per Unit

= Material Resistive Forces Stresses /FOS
Area Due to Loads

If the factor of safety is applied by reducing the material strengths and

service loads are considered as such without any increase, the design
method is called Allowable Stress Design (ASD) or Working Stress Design.
 This method is conservative, giving more safe designs with greater costs
when dead loads are higher in magnitude compared with the other loads.
For the reduced or allowable material strengths, the structure can be
assumed to act perfectly within the elastic range for the most severe
loadings. Elastic analysis for loads and elastic material behavior become
compatible in this procedure.
This method is now gradually replaced by Strength Design or LRFD for the
structures where the behavior near collapse is fully understood. However, it
is still preferred by some engineers for important structures like atomic
reactors and pre-stressed concrete.
1.8.5 Plastic Design
The third method of design is called Plastic Design, which is somewhat
similar to the Strength Design but here the analysis for loads is also
performed considering the collapse mechanism of the structure. Full
reserve strength due to indeterminacy and inner elastic portion of the
structure is utilized. Inelastic material behavior is considered in the analysis
and design. Deflections and other serviceability conditions become more
important along with the strength requirements.
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1.10 Structural Concrete Elements:
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References:
‐ Chapter No. 1, Structural Concrete Theory and Design by M. Nadeem Hassoun
‐‐ Chapter No.1, Design of Reinforced Concrete by J.C- McCormac
‐ Chapter No. 1, Reinforced Concrete by mc gragor_halwan's library
‐ Chapter No. 1, Concrete Structures part I by Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi