Eg1103 PDF

EG1103 Electrical Engineering
Ben M. Chen
Associate Professor
Office: E4-6-7
Phone: 874-2289
Email: bmchen@nus.edu.sg
http://vlab.ee.nus.edu.sg/~bmchen
1 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Lecture Format & Course Outlines

text
book
or
lecture
notes
Electrical Engineering
Well known electrical engineering companies:
• Singapore Telecom (largest in Singapore)

• Creative Technology (largest manufacturer of PC sound boards)
• Disk Drive Companies (largest producer of PC hard disk Drives)
“Yan can Cook”:

• Ingredients + Recipe + (Funny Talk) = Good Food
Electrical Systems:
• Components + Method + (Funny Talk) = Good Electrical System
EG1103 Module:
• To introduce basic electrical components & analysis methods.

Reference Textbooks
• D. E. Johnson, J. R. Johnson and J. L. Hilburn, Electric

Circuits Analysis, 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall, 1992.
• S. A. Boctor, Electric Circuits Analysis, 2nd Ed., Prentice

Hall, 1992.

Lectures
Lectures will follow closely (but not 100%) the materials in
the textbook.
However, certain parts of the textbook will not be covered

and examined and this will be made known during the
classes.
Attendance is essential.
ASK any question at any time during the lecture.

Tutorials
The tutorials will start on Week 4 of the semester. (Week 1 corresponds

to the Orientation Week.)
Although you should make an effort to attempt each question before the
tutorial, it is NOT necessary to finish all the questions.
Some of the questions are straightforward, but quite a few are difficult
and meant to serve as a platform for the introduction of new concepts.
ASK your tutor any question related to the tutorials and the course.

Examination
The examination paper is 2-hour in duration.
You will be provided with a list of important results. This list is given
under “Summary of Important Results” in the Appendix of the textbook.
To prepare for the examination, you may wish to attempt some of the
questions in examinations held in previous years. These papers are
actually the Additional Problems in the Appendix of the textbook (no
solutions to these problems will be given out to the class).
However, note that the topics covered may be slightly different and
some of the questions may not be relevant. Use your own judgement to
determine the questions you should attempt.

Mid-term Test
There will be an one-hour (actually 50 minutes) test. It will be given

some time around mid-term (most likely after the recess week). The
test will consists 15% of your final grade, i.e., your final grade in this
course will be computed as follows:
Your Final Grade = 15% of Your Mid-term Test Marks (max. = 100)
+ 85% of Your Examination Marks (max = 100)

Outline of the Course
1. DC Circuit Analysis
SI Units. Voltage, current, power and energy. Voltage and current

sources. Resistive circuits. Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws. Nodal
and mesh analysis. Ideal and practical sources. Maximum power
transfer. Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuits. Superposition.
Dependent sources. Introduction to non-linear circuit analysis.
2. AC Circuits
Root mean square value. Frequency and phase. Phasor. Capacitor and
Inductor. Impedance. Power. Power factor. Power factor improvement.
Frequency response. Tune circuit. Resonance, bandwidth and Q factor.
Periodic signals. Fourier series.
Outline of the Course (Cont.)
3. Transient
First order RL and RC circuits. Steady state and transient responses.

Time constant. Voltage and current continuity. Second order circuit.
4. Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic flux and mmf. Ampere’s law. Force between surfaces.

Transformers.
5. Electrical Measurement
Current and voltage measurement. Common instruments. Oscilloscope.

Web-based Virtual Labs
are now on-line
Developed by: CC Ko and Ben M. Chen
• Have you ever missed your experiments?

• Do you have problems with your lab schedule?
• Do you have problems in getting results for your report?
Visit newly developed web-based virtual labs available from

5:00pm to 8:00am at http://vlab.ee.nus.edu.sg/vlab/

Chapter 1. SI Units

1.1 Important Quantities and Base SI Units
L e n g th m e tre m
M a ss, m kilo gra m kg
T im e , t se con d s
E lectric cu rren t, i am pere A
T he rm o d yn a m ic te m p e ra tu re ke lvin K
P lane angle radia n rad

Chapter 2. DC Circuit Analysis

2.1 Voltage Source
Two common dc (direct current) voltage sources are:

Dry battery (AA, D, C, etc.)
Lead acid battery in car
Regardless of the load connected and the current drawn, the above sources
have the characteristic that the supply voltage will not change very much.
The definition for an ideal voltage source is thus one whose output voltage
does not depend on what has been connected to it. The circuit symbol is

Basically, the arrow and the value signifies that the top terminal has a
potential of v with respect to the bottom terminal regardless of what has
been connected and the current being drawn.
Note that the current being drawn is not defined but depends on the load
connected. For example, a battery will give no current if nothing is
connected to it, but may be supplying a lot of current if a powerful motor
is connected across its terminals. However, in both cases, the terminal
voltages will be roughly the same.

Using the above and other common circuit symbol, the following are
identical:
+
+
1.5 V − 1.5 V 1.5 V
1.5 V
− −
Note that on its own, the arrow does not correspond to the positive
terminal. Instead, the positive terminal depends on both the arrow and
the sign of the voltage which may be negative.

2.2 Current Source
In the same way that the output voltage of an ideal voltage source does
not depend on the load and the current drawn, the current delivers by an
ideal current source does not depend on what has been connected and
the voltage across its terminals. Its circuit symbol is
Note that ideal voltage and current sources are idealisations and do not
exist in practice. Many practical electrical sources, however, behave like
ideal voltage and current sources.

2.3 Power and Energy
Consider the following device,
Power Consumed p = vi
v Device by Device
In 1 second, there are i charges passing through the device. Their electric
potential will decrease by v and their electric potential energy will decrease
by iv. This energy will have been absorbed or consumed by the device.
The power or the rate of energy consumed by the device is thus p = i v.

Note that p = v i gives the power consumed by the device if the voltage
and current arrows are opposite to one another. The following
examples illustrate this point:
2A
Power consumed/
= 3W
absorbed by source
1.5 V Energy absorbed
= 300 W hr
in 100 hr
= 0.3 kW hr
= 0.3 unit in PUB bill
2A −2A
1.5 V 1.5 V
Power supplied Power absorbed

= 3W = −3W
by source by source
2.4 Resistor
The symbol for an ideal resistor is i
v R
Provided that the voltage and current arrows are in opposite directions,
the voltage-current relationship follows Ohm's law:
v = iR
The power consumed is
v 2
p = vi = i 2
R =
R
Common practical resistors are made of carbon film, wires, etc.

2.5 Relative Power
Powers, voltages and currents are often measured in relative terms

with respect to certain convenient reference values. Thus, taking
p ref = 1 mW
as the reference (note that reference could be any value), the power
p = 2 W
will have a relative value of

p 2W 2W
= = - 3
= 2000
p ref 1mW 10 W
The log of this relative power or power ratio is usually taken and given
a dimensionless unit of bel. The power p = 2 W is equivalent to
⎛ p ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log(2000) = log(1000) + log(2) = 3.3 bel
⎜p ⎟
⎝ ref ⎠
As bel is a large unit, the finer sub-unit, decibel or dB (one-tenth of a
Bel), is more commonly used. In dB, p = 2W is the same as
⎛ p ⎞
10 log ⎜ ⎟ =10 log (2000 )=33dB
⎜p ⎟
⎝ ref ⎠
As an example:
Reference Actual power Relative Power

p ref p p pref 10 log( p pref )
1mW 1mW 1 0 dB
1mW 2 mW 2 3dB
1mW 10 mW 10 10dB
1mW 20 mW 20 = 10 × 2 13 dB = 10 dB + 3 dB
1mW 100 mW 100 20dB
1mW 200 mW 200 = 100 × 2 23 dB = 20 dB + 3 dB

Although dB measures relative power, it can also be used to measure
relative voltage or current which are indirectly related to power.
For instance, taking

v ref = 0 .1V
as the reference voltage (again reference voltage could be any value),
the power consumed by applying vref to a resistor R will be
2
v ref
p ref =
R
Similarly, the voltage
v =1V
v2
will lead to a power consumption of p =
R

The voltage v relative to vref will then give rise to a relative power of
v2 2
p ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞2
= R =⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 100
pref vref 2 ⎜v ⎟ ⎝ 0.1⎠
⎝ ref ⎠
R
or in dB:
2
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜
10log⎜ ⎟ ⎜
dB = 10log⎜ ⎟ ⎜
dB = 20log⎜ ⎟dB = 20log⎜ ⎟dB = 20dB
⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎝ 0.1⎠
⎝ pref ⎠ ⎝ vref ⎠ ⎝ vref ⎠
This is often used as a measure of the relative voltage v vref .
Key point: When you convert relative power to dB, you multiply its log
value by 10. You should multiply its log value by 20 if you are converting
relative voltage or current.
As an example:
Reference Actual voltage Relative Voltage

v ref v v v ref 20 log (v v ref )
0.1 V 0.1 V 1 0dB
0.1 V 0.1 2 V 2 3dB
0.1 V 0. 2 V 2= 2 × 2 6dB=3dB+3dB
0.1 V 0.1 10 V 10 10dB
0.1 V 0.1 20 V 20 = 10 × 2 13dB=10dB+3dB
0.1 V 1V 10 = 10 × 10 20dB=10dB+10dB
The measure of relative current is the same as that of relative voltage and
can be done in dB as well.

The advantage of measuring relative power, voltage and current in
dB can be seen from considering the following voltage amplifier:
Amplifier
v Voltage 2v
gain
2 = 6 dB
The voltage gain of the amplifier is given in terms of the output voltage
relative to the input voltage or, more conveniently, in dB:
2v
g= = 2 = 20 log (2 ) dB = 6 dB
v

If we cascade 3 such amplifiers with different voltage gains together:
Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
v Voltage 2v Voltage 2.8v Voltage 28v

gain gain gain
2 = 6 dB 1.4 = 3 dB 10 = 20 dB
the overall voltage gain will be

gtotal = 2 ×1.4 ×10 = 28
However, in dB, it is simply:
g total = 6dB + 3dB + 20dB = 29dB

Under dB which is log based, multiplication's become additions.

Frequently Asked Questions
Q: Does the arrow associated with a voltage source always point at the
+ (high potential) terminal?
A: No. The arrow itself is meaningless. As re-iterated in the class, any

voltage or current is actually characterized by two things: its direction
and its value. The arrow of the voltage symbol for a voltage source could
point at the - terminal (in this case, the value of the voltage will be
negative) or at the + terminal (in this case, its value will be positive).
Q: What is the current of a voltage source?
A: The current of a voltage source is depended on the other part of circuit

connected to it.

Q: Does a volt source always supply power to other components in a circuit?
A: NO. A voltage source might be consuming power if it is connected to a

circuit which has other more powerful sources. Thus, it is a bad idea to pre-
determine whether a source is consuming power or supplying power. The
best way to determine it is to follow the definition in our text and computer
the power. If the value turns out to be positive, then the source will be
consuming power. Otherwise, it is supplying power to the other part of the
circuit.
Q: Is the current of a voltage source always flowing from + to - terminals?
A: NO. The current of a voltage source is not necessarily flowing from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal.

Q: What is the voltage cross over a current source?
A: It depends on the circuit connected to it.
Q: Is the reference power (or voltage, or current) in the definition of the

relative power (or voltage, or current) unique?
A: No. The reference power (voltage or current) can be any value.

Remember that whenever you deal with the relative power (voltage or
current), you should keep in your mind that there are a reference power
(voltage or current) and an actual power (voltage or current) associated
with it.

2.6 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
As demonstrated by the following examples, this states that the

algebraic sum of the currents entering/leaving a node/closed surface
is 0 or equivalently to say that the total currents flowing into a node is
equal to the total currents flowing out from the node.
i1 i5 i1 i5
i4 i4
i2 i2
i3 i3
i1 + i 2 + i 3 + i 4 + i 5 = 0 for both cases.
Since current is equal to the rate of flow of charges, KCL actually

corresponds to the conservation of charges.

2.7 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
As illustrated below, this states that the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops around any close loop in a circuit is 0.
v2
v1 +v2 +v3 +v4 +v5 =0

v1 v3
(note that all voltages are in the

v5 v4 same direction)
Since a charge q will have its electric potential changed by qv1, qv2,
qv3, qv4 , qv5 as it passes through each of the components, the total
energy change in one full loop is q ( v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 + v5 ). Thus, from
the conservation of energy: v 1 + v 2 + v 3 + v 4 + v 5 = 0

2.8 Series Circuit
Consider 2 resistors connected in series:

v
v1 v2
By KVL: - v + v1 + v2 = 0
i
R1 R2
v1 = i R1 v2 =i R2 v = v1 + v 2
the voltage-current relationship is v = i (R1 + R2 )
Now consider
v
i
the voltage-current relationship is v = i (R1 + R2 )
R1 + R2
Since the voltage/current relationships are the same for both circuits,
they are equivalent from an electrical point of view. In general, for n
resistors R1, ..., Rn connected in series, the equivalent resistance R is
R = R1 +L+ R n
Clearly, the resistance's of resistors connected in series add (Prove

it).

2.9 Parallel Circuit
Consider 2 resistors connected in parallel:

v
v
i1 i1 =
R1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
R1 i i = i1+ i2 = v ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
v
i2
i2 =
R2
R2
Clearly, the parallel circuit is equivalent to a resistor R with voltage/current

relationship
v 1 1 1
i= with = +
R R R1 R2

In general, for n resistors R1, …, Rn, connected in parallel, the equivalent
resistance R is given by
1 1 1
= +L +
R R1 Rn
Note that 1/R is often called the conductance of the resistor R. Thus,
the conductances of resistors connected in parallel add.

2.10 Voltage Division
Consider 2 resistors connected in series:
v ⎛ R1 ⎞
R1 v1 i= v1 =iR1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ v
R1 + R2 ⎝ R1 + R 2 ⎠
v
⎛ R2 ⎞
R2 v2 v 2 =iR 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ v
⎝ R1 + R 2 ⎠
The total resistance of the circuit is R1 + R2. Thus,
v1 R1
=
v2 R2

2.11 Current Division
Consider 2 resistors connected in parallel:

⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
i1=
v
= ⎜
R1 ⎟ i = ⎛⎜ R2 ⎞⎟ i
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ R +R ⎟
R1 + ⎝ 1 2⎠
i i1 i2 ⎜R ⎟
⎝ 1 R2 ⎠
v R1 R2
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
i2 =
v
= ⎜
R2 ⎟ i = ⎛⎜ R1 ⎞⎟ i
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ R +R ⎟
R2 ⎝ 1 2⎠
⎜R + R ⎟
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Thus,
1 1 1
The total conductance of the circuit is = +
R R1 R2 i1 R2
=
i i2 R1
while the equivalent resistance is v= i R =
1 1
+
R1 R2

2.12 Ladder Circuit
Consider the following ladder circuit: 5 4+(3 || 2)
4 2
5 3
5 || [4+(3||| 2)]
The equivalent resistance can be

determined as follows:
4 The network is equivalent to a
resistor with resistance
R = 5 || [4+(3 || 2)] =
1 1
5 3 || 2 =
1 1 1 1
+ +
5 4+(3 || 2) 5 4+ 1
1 1
+
3 2
2.13 Branch Current Analysis
Consider the problem of determining the equivalent resistance of the following

bridge circuit:
4 2
3
2 4
Since the components are not connected in straightforward series or parallel

manner, it is not possible to use the series or parallel connection rules to
simplify the circuit. However, the voltage-current relationship can be
determined and this will enables the equivalent resistance to be calculated.
One method to determine the voltage-current relationship is to use the branch

current method.
Branch Current Analysis: Example One
i i1
1. Assign branch currents (with
i − i1
4(i − i1 ) 4 2 i1 2
any directions you prefer so
i2 3 that currents in other branches
v i − i1 − i2 i1 + i2 can be found)
3 i2
2. Find all other branch currents
2(i −i1 −i2) 2 4
4 ( i1 + i2 )
(with any directions you prefer)
(Use KCL to find them)
v
= Equivalent Resistance 3. Write down branch voltages
i 4. Identify independent loops
KVL: v = 2i1 + 4(i1 + i2 ) = 6i1 + 4i2 Eliminate i1 and i2,
KVL: 4(i − i1 ) + 3i2 = 2i1
7i i 17
KVL: 4(i1 + i2 ) + 3i2 = 2(i − i1 − i2 ) i1 = i2 = − v= i
12 6 6

Branch Current Analysis: Example Two
4i1 2i2 1. Assign branch currents

2 4 i1 2 i2 (so that currents in other
2 − i1 i1 − i2 branches can be found).
2A 2 − i1 1 3(i − i )
1 2
3 1V
2. Find all other branch

currents (KCL)
3. Write down voltages across components
4. Identify independent loops
KVL: 2 − i1 = 4i1 + 3(i1 − i2 ) (ex. 2A branch)
KVL: 1 + 2i2 = 3(i1 − i2 )
This implies:
−1
3i1 − 5i2 = 1 ⎡3 − 5⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ i1 ⎤ ⎡3 − 5⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 7 ⎤
⇒ ⎢8 − 3⎥ ⎢i ⎥ = ⎢2⎥ ⇒ ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢2⎥ = 31 ⎢ − 2⎥
8i1 − 3i2 = 2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣
i 8 − 3⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

2.14 Mesh (Loop Current) Analysis
i
ia − i ia 1. Assign fictitious loop currents.
4
ia
2 2ia
4(ia − i ) 2. Find branch currents (KCL)
3 ib − ia
v i 3(ib − ia ) ib 3. Write down branch voltages
2 ib 4 4ib 4. Identify independent loops

ib −i 2(ib − i )
5. Simplify the equations
KVL: v = 2 i a + 4 ib obtained, we get
KVL: 4 ( i a − i ) − 3 ( i b − i a ) + 2 i a = 0
KVL: 2(ib − i ) + 4ib + 3(ib − ia ) = 0

17i 17
v= ⇒ Requivalence =
6 6

2.15 Nodal Analysis
Va − Vb 1 − Vb 2. Find branch voltages (KVL)
4 2
2 A B
Vb 1 − Vb
Va Va V a − Vb Vb 2
3. Determine
4 3 branch currents
2A 1 3 1V
4. Apply KCL to Nodes A & B

1. Assign nodal voltage w.r.t. the reference node
Node A:
⎡5 − 1 ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ 8 ⎤ 5Va − Vb = 8 Va − Vb
2 = Va +
⎢3 −13⎥ ⎢V ⎥ = ⎢− 6⎥ ⇐ 3V − 13V = −6 ⇐ 4
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ b⎦ ⎣ ⎦ a b
Node B:
Va − Vb 1 − Vb Vb
⇒ Va =
55
31
Vb =
27
31 4
+
2
=
3
2.16 Practical Voltage Source
i
An ideal voltage source is one whose

terminal voltage does not change v R load
with the current drawn. However, the

terminal voltages of practical sources
usually decrease slightly as the Practical voltage source
currents drawn are increased.
A commonly used model for a

i
practical voltage source is:
R in
To represent it as a series of an ideal voc v R load
voltage source & an internal
resistance.
voc = v + iRin ⇐ Model for voltage source
When Rload = 0 or when the source is short circuited so that v = 0 :
voc
i=
R in
R in
voc Short circuit
v=0 R load = 0
When Rload = ∞ or when the source is open circuited so that i = 0 :
i=0
R in
voc Open circuit
v = voc
R load = ∞

Graphically:
v
Slope = R in
voc
voc
Rin
i
0
Good practical voltage source should therefore have small internal

resistance, so that its output voltage will not deviate very much from the
open circuit voltage, under any operating condition.
The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is therefore zero so that v

does not change with i.
To determine the two parameters voc and Rin that characterize, say, a
battery, we can measure the output voltage when the battery is open-
circuited (nothing connected except the voltmeter). This will give voc .
Next, we can connect a load resistor and vary the load resistor such
v
that the voltage across it is oc . The load resistor is then equal to Rin :
2
voc
2
i
R in
voc voc
v= R load = R in
2

2.17 Maximum Power Transfer The power absorbed by the
load resistor is
Consider the following circuit: 2
v R
pload =i 2 Rload = oc load 2
i (Rin +Rload )
R in This is always positive. However, if
voc v R load Rload = 0 or Rload = ∞, Pload = 0.
pload
Model for voltage source
The current in the load resistor is

0 R load
voc
i=
Rin + Rload

Differentiating:
dpload ⎡ 1 2 Rload ⎤ 2 ⎡ Rin − Rload ⎤
= voc2 ⎢ − 3⎥
= voc ⎢ 3⎥
dRload ( R +
⎣ in load
R )2
( Rin + Rload ) ⎦ ( + )
⎣ in load ⎦
R R
The load resistor will be absorbing the maximum power or the source will be
transferring the maximum power if the load and source internal resistances
are matched, i.e., Rin =Rload . The maximum power transferred is given by
v 2
R voc2
pload =i 2 Rload = oc load 2 ⇒ pmax load =
(Rin +Rload ) 4 Rin
pload
voc
2
When the load absorbs the maximum
4Rin
power from the source, the overall
power efficiency of 50%, which is too
low for a usual electric system.
0 Rin Rload
Why is the electric power transferred from power stations to local stations
in high voltages?
resistance in wire
Power Rw
Station
v load
P = 300 KW i = 300 KW
v
Power loss in the transmission line:
Ploss = i 2 Rw =
(300 KW ) Rw
2
v2
The higher voltage v is transmitted, the less power is lost in the wire.

2.18 Practical Current Source
An ideal current source is one which delivers a constant current regardless

of its terminal voltage. However, the current delivered by a practical
current source usually changes slightly depending on the load and the
terminal voltage.
A commonly used model for a current source is:
v
i sc R in v R load ⇒ i sc = + i
R in
Model for current source

When Rload = 0 or when the source is short-circuited so that v = 0 :
i = i sc
0
i sc Short circuit
R in v=0 R load = 0
Graphically: Good practical current source should therefore

v
have large internal resistance so that the current
Slope = R in delivered does not deviate very much from the
short circuit current under any operating
0
condition.
i
The internal resistance of an ideal current source is
i sc
therefore infinity so that i does not change with v.
2.19 Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit
i
Complicated circuit
Key points:
Complicated circuit
with
withlinear
linear elements
elements 1. The black box
v voc = v + i R in
such
suchas
asresistors,
resistors, (i.e., the part of the
voltage/current sources
voltage/current sources circuit) to be
simplified must be
linear.
i
2. The black box
R in
must have two
voc v voc = v + i R in
terminals
connected to the
rest of the circuit.
Thevenin's equivalent circuit
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (An Example)
6 − 3i 4i
i
3 2−i 4
1 2 v
Applying KVL: 1 + (6 − 3 i) = 4 i + v ⇒ 7 = v + 7i
The circuit is equivalent to: 7i

i
voc = 7 Rin = 7 ⇐ 7 v

Alternatively, note that from the Thevenin's
equivalent circuit:
6 0
2 0
3 4
R in
1 2 voc=77
voc Open circuit voltage= voc
Short Circuit ⇒
R in
Resistance seen with 3 4
source replace by= R in
internal resistance
Rin= 7
7

2.20 Norton's Equivalent Circuit
It is simple to see
i
that if we let
R in
voc v voc = v + i R in voc = isc Rin
then the
Thevenin's equivalent circuit relationships of
if voc = i sc R in if voc = i sc R in
voltage/current for
i both Thevenin’s
and Norton’s
i sc = v + i
R in
i sc R in v equivalent circuits
i sc R in = v + i R in
are exactly the
same.
59 Norton's equivalent circuit Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

From the Norton's equivalent circuit, the two parameters isc and Rin
can be obtained from:
i = i sc
i sc R in v=0 Short circuit current = i sc
Open Circuit
Resistance seen with

R in source replace by = R in
internal resistance

Example: Reconsider the circuit The Norton's equivalent
circuit is therefore:
3 4
1 2
1 7
6−3isc 4 isc
2 − isc isc
3 4
1 2 0
And the Thevenin's equivalent
circuit is:
1 + 6− 3isc = 4 isc or isc = 1
3 4 7
R in = 7

Summary on how to find an equivalent circuit:
Step 1. Identify the circuit or a portion of a complicated circuit that is to be

simplified. Be clear in your mind on which two terminals are to be
connected to the other network.
Step 2. Short-circuit all the independent voltage sources and open-circuit

all independent current sources in the circuit that you are going to simplify.
Then, find the equivalent resistance w.r.t. the two terminals identified in
Step 1.
Step 3. Find the open circuit voltage at the output terminals (for Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit) or the short circuit current at the output terminals (for
Norton’s equivalent circuit).
Step 4. Draw the equivalent circuit (either the Thevenin’s or Norton’s one).

More Example For Equivalent Circuits:
R1 R
ii11
R v
R2 R11 RR
i R RR vv
R
2
v
2
ii11
R RR11 RR
2
iR R v v2
i1
R R1 R
2
v
iR 2

2.21 Superposition 1/7
3 4
Consider finding isc in the circuit: 1
isc
Open circuit
3 4
24/7 24/7
1 2 2(4/7) 2(3/7)
3 4
Short circuit
By using the principle of super-
position, this can be done by finding
the components of isc due to the 2
isc = 2(3/7) + (1/7) = 1
independent sources on their own
3 4
(with the other sources replaced by 1 2
their internal resistances):

Linear Systems and Superposition
in1
(the definition of the
Linear System Out = 6 in1 + 7 in2
in2 linear system)
16
Note that:
Linear System 6 (16) = 96
0 Linear system: linear
relationship between
0
Linear System 7 (27) = 189 inputs and outputs
27
Superposition:
16 Applicable only to
Linear System 96 + 189 = 285 linear systems
27

2.22 Dependent Source
Consider the following system:
CD
Amplifier
Player
This may be represented by
300 2
1 vd 3k 2 vd 2 v
CD Player Amplifier Loudspeaker

Note that the source in the Amplifier block is a dependent source. Its
value depends on vd , the voltage across the inputs of the amplifier. Using
KCL and KVL, the voltage v can be easily found:
1 5
3300 11
300 2
1 vd = 10 3k 2 vd = 20 2 v = 10
11 11 11
However, if we use the principle of superposition treating the dependent

source as an independent source (which is wrong !), the value of v will be 0:

1
3300 0
300 2
1 vd = 10 3k 0 2 0
11
0 0
300 2
0 vd = 0 3k 2 vd = 0 2 0
Dependent sources, which depend on other voltages/currents in the circuit

and are therefore not independent excitations, cannot be removed when
the principle of superposition is used. They should be treated like other
passive components such as resistors in circuit analysis.
Topics Skipped
• Nonlinear Circuit
• Delta Circuit
• Star Circuit
• All these topics are not examinable in test and examination.

Reading Assignment
• Appendix C.1. Matrix Algebra
• Appendix C.2. Complex Number
• Appendix C.3. Linear Differential Equation

Chapter 3. AC Circuit Analysis

Appendix Materials: Operations of Complex Numbers
Coordinates: Cartesian Coordinate and Polar Coordinate

⎛ 5 ⎞
j tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
12 + j5 = 13 e j 0.39 = 12 2 + 52 e ⎝ 12 ⎠
real part imaginary part magnitude argument
Euler’s Formula: e jθ = cos(θ ) + j sin(θ )
Additions: It is easy to do additions (subtractions) in Cartesian coordinate.
( a + jb) + ( v + jw) = ( a + v ) + j (b + w)
Multiplication's: It is easy to do multiplication's (divisions) in Polar coordinate.
re jθ r j (θ − ω )
re jθ • ue jω = ( ru )e j (θ + ω ) jω
= e
ue u
3.1 AC Sources
Voltages and currents in DC circuit are constants and do not change with
time. In AC (alternating current) circuits, voltages and currents change with
time in a sinusoidal manner. The most common ac voltage source is the
mains: 1
50
θ = phase = 0.4rad
230 2
f = frequency = 50Hz
t
− 0.4
2π ( 50 ) ω =2πf =angular frequency =100π =314rad s
1 1
T= = period = = 0.02s
f 50
2πt ⎞
v (t ) = 2r cos(2πft+θ ) = 2r cos(ωt+θ ) = 2r cos⎜⎛ +θ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠ 2r=peak value=230 2=324V
= 230 2 cos(100πt+0.4 )
r=rms (root mean square) value=230V
How to find the phase for a sinusoidal function?
r 2
−a t
v (t ) = r 2 cos(ω [t + a ])
v (t ) = r 2 cos(ω t )
= r 2 cos(ω t + ω a )
⎛ 0 .4 ⎞
Phase θ = ω a θ = ω a = 314⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.4
⎝ 2π ( 50 ) ⎠
− π ≤ θ ≤ π for previous example.

Euler’s Formula: e jω = cos(ω ) + j sin(ω )
3.2 Phasor
A sinusoidal voltage/current is represented using complex number format:
[
v (t ) = 2r cos(ωt+θ ) = 2r Re e j (ω t+θ ) = Re re jθ ] [( )( 2e jω t )]
The advantage of this can be seen if, say, we have to add 2 sinusoidal
voltages given by:
π π
v1 (t ) = 3 2 cos⎜⎛ ωt + ⎞⎟ v2 (t ) = 5 2 cos⎜⎛ ωt − ⎞⎟
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
⎡ ⎛ π
⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ − j π ⎞ ⎤
⎛ π⎞ ⎜
⎜
j
v1 (t )=3 2 cos⎜ ωt+ ⎟=Re ⎢ 3e ⎟ 2e jωt
6
⎟
( )
⎥
⎛ π⎞
⎜ ⎟
(
v2 (t )=5 2 cos⎜ ω − ⎟=Re ⎢⎜ 5e 4 ⎟ 2e jωt )⎥
⎝ 6⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ j π π
−j ⎞ ⎤
(
v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) = Re ⎢⎜ 3e 6 +5e 4 ⎟ 2eωt
⎜ ⎟
) [(
⎥ = Re 6.47e
− j 0.32
)( )]
2e jωt = 6.47 2 cos(ωt−0.32 )
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
Note that the complex time factor 2e jω t appears in all the expressions.
If we represent v1 (t ) and v2 (t ) by the complex numbers or phasors:
π
π
representing v1 (t ) = 3 2 cos⎜⎛ ωt + ⎞⎟
j
V1 = 3 e 6
⎝ 6⎠
π
π
representing v2 (t ) = 5 2 cos⎛⎜ ωt − ⎞⎟
−j
V2 = 5e 4
⎝ 4⎠
then the phasor representation for v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) will be
π π
−j
representing v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) = 6.47 2 cos(ωt − 0.32 )
j
V1 + V2 = 3e 6 + 5e 4 = 6.47e − j 0.32
π π
j −j ⎛ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎞
3e 6
+ 5e 4
= 3⎜ cos⎜ ⎟ + j sin⎜ ⎟ ⎟ + 5⎜ cos⎜ − ⎟ + j sin⎜ − ⎟ ⎟ = 6.14 − j 2.03 = 6.47e − j 0.32
⎝ ⎝6⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠
Euler’s Formula: e jω = cos(ω ) + j sin(ω )

By using phasors, a time-varying ac voltage
[( )(
v (t ) = 2r cos(ωt+θ ) = Re re jθ 2e jωt )]
becomes a simple complex time-invariant number/voltage V = re jθ = r θ
r = V = magnitude/modulus of V = r.m.s. value of v (t )

θ = Arg[V ] = phase of V
Graphically, on a phasor diagram:
Imag
V Using phasors, all time-varying ac quantities
become complex dc quantities and all dc circuit
r
analysis techniques can be employed for ac
θ circuit with virtually no modification.
0 Real
Complex Plane
i ( t)
Example:
4
5 2cos (ω t − 0.2) 6 3 2cos (ω t + 0.1)
4
j 0.2 6 j 0.1
5 e- 3e
6 4
j 0.2 j 0.1
30 e- 3e
Thevenin's equivalent circuit

78 for current soure and 6 Ω resistor Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
− 3e
j 0.2 j 0.1
30 e-
I = = 2.64 − j 0.63 = 2.71 e - j 0.23
10
6 4
30 e- j 0.2 3 e j 0.1
30e − j 0.2 − 3e j 0.1

I =
10
= 3 [cos( −0.2) + j sin( −0.2)] − 0.3 [cos 0.1 + j sin 0.1]
= ( 2.940 − j 0.596) − (0.299 + j 0.030) = 2.641 − j 0.626
⎛ − 0.626 ⎞
j tan − 1 ⎜ ⎟
= 2.6412 + 0.6262 e ⎝ 2.641 ⎠
= 2.71e − j 0.23
⇒ i (t ) = 2.71 2 cos(ω t − 0.23)

3.3 Root Mean Square (rms) Value
T
For the ac voltage
v( t )
r 2
2πt
v (t ) = 2r cos(2πft + θ ) = 2r cos⎛⎜ + θ ⎞⎟
⎝ T ⎠ −θ T t
2π
cos(2 x )=2 cos 2 ( x )−1

v 2( t)
2 ⎛ 2πt ⎡ 4πt ⎤
v (t ) = 2 r cos ⎜ + θ ⎞⎟ = r 2 ⎢1 + cos⎛⎜ + 2θ ⎞⎟⎥
2
2 2 2r
⎝ T ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ T ⎠⎦
t
The average or mean of the square value is
1 1 T 2 1 T 2⎡ ⎛ 4πt + 2θ ⎞⎤ dt = 1 T r 2 dt = r 2
∫ v (t ) dt = ∫0 v (t )dt = ∫0 ⎢
2 r 1 + cos⎜ ⎟⎥ ∫
1 period 1 period T T ⎣ ⎝ T ⎠⎦ T 0
The square root of this or the rms value of v (t) is rms value of 2r cos(ωt + θ ) = r
Side Note: rms value can be defined for any periodical signal.
3.4 Power
Consider the ac device:

i ( t ) = ri 2cos (ω t + θi )
v ( t ) = rv 2cos (ω t + θv ) Device
Using 2 cos( x1 ) cos( x2 )=cos( x1− x2 )+cos( x1+ x2 ,) the instantaneous power
consumed is
p (t ) = i (t )v (t ) = 2 ri rv cos(ωt + θ i ) cos(ωt + θ v ) = ri rv [cos(θ i − θ v ) + cos(2ωt + θ i + θ v )]
The average power consumed is
1
( ) ri rv T ⎡
( ) ⎛ 4πt + θ + θ ⎞⎤ dt
pav = ∫ p t dt = ∫0 ⎢ cos θ i −θ v + cos⎜ i v ⎟⎥ = ri rv cos(θ i − θ v )
1 period 1 period T ⎣ ⎝ T ⎠⎦

T
rv 2
In phasor notation:
v( t )
jθ v − jθ v
− θv T
2π
t V =rv e , V =rv e
*
ri 2
jθ i − jθ i
i ( t)
, I =ri e
*
I =ri e
− θi T t
2π
j (θ i −θ v )
v( t ) i ( t )
V I = rv ri e
*
r i rv cos ( θ i − θ v )
j (θ v −θ i )
t
VI = rv ri e
*
[ ] [ ]
pav = rv ri cos(θ v − θ i ) = rv ri cos(θ i − θ v ) = Re rv ri e j (θ v −θi ) = Re V * I = Re VI * [ ]
Note that the formula pav =Re[I ∗V ] is based on rms voltages and currents.
Also, this is valid for dc circuits, which is a special case of ac circuits with
f = 0 and V and I having real values.
2.7 e - j 0.23
Example: Consider the ac circuit,
6 4
30e − j 0.2 − 3e j 0.1 30 e- j 0.2 3e

j 0.1
I= = 2.7148e − j 0.2327
4+6
⎢⎣
( )(
∗
3e j 0.1source : Re ⎡ 2.7e − j 0.23 3e j 0.1 )⎤⎥⎦ = Re[8.1e ]= 8.1cos(0.33) = 7.66
j 0.33
⎢⎣
( ∗
)( )
30e − j 0.2 source : Re ⎡ − 2.7e − j 0.23 30e − j 0.2 ⎤ = − 81cos(0.03) = − 80.96
⎥⎦
=0
⎢⎣
( )(
6 Ω resistor : Re ⎡ 2.7e − j 0.23 6 × 2.7e − j 0.23
*
)⎤⎥⎦ = 6(2.7) 2
= 43.74
⎢⎣
( )(
4 Ω resistor : Re ⎡ 2.7e − j 0.23 4 × 2.7e − j 0.23
*
)⎤⎥⎦ = 4(2.7) 2
= 29.16
3.5 Power Factor Ignoring the phase difference between
V and I, the voltage-current rating or
Consider the ac device: apparent power consumed is
I = ri e j θ i Apparent power=voltage - current rating=V I =rv ri VA
V = rv e j θ v Device However, the actual power consumed is
[ ]
Actual power=Re V ∗ I =rv ri cos(θ i −θ v )W
The ratio of the these powers is the power factor of the device:
Actual power
Power factor = = cos(θ i −θ v )
Apparent power
This has a maximum value of 1 when Unity power factor ⇔ I and V in phase ⇔θ i =θ v
The power factor is said to be leading or lagging if

Leading power factor ⇔ I leads V in phase⇔θ i >θ v
Lagging power factor ⇔ I lags V in phase⇔θ i <θ v
Consider the following ac system: rv = 230 r r = 2300 ⇒ r = 10
i v i
0.1 Ω
AC 230 V, 2300 VA
Electrical
Generator Electrical Machine
Cables
0.1 10 e j θ i Unknowns
e jθ i
230 e j θ v
AC Electrical Electrical
Generator Cables Machine
The power consumed by the machine and power loss at different power factors are:
Voltage- 2300 VA 2300 VA 2300 VA

current
rating
Voltage 230 V 230 V 230 V
across
machine
Current 10 A 10 A 10 A
Power 0.11 leading 1 0.11 lagging

factor
θi − θ v cos− 1 (0.11) = 1.4 rad 0 − cos − 1 (0.11) = −1.46rad
Power
consumed (2300)(0.11) = 232 W (2300)(1) = 2300W (2300)(0.11) = 232W
by machine
Power loss (0.1)(10)2 = 10W (0.1)(10)2 = 10W (0.1)(10)2 = 10W

in cables

3.6 Capacitor
A capacitor consists of parallel metal plates for storing electric charges.
Conducting plate
with area A
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ ++ + + Insulator
+
−− − − −−−
+ +
−−− − −− −− with a dielectric

d
− − − −− − constant ε
(permittivity)
The capacitance of the capacitor is given by C = ε A F or Farad

d
Area of metal plates required
Cd 1F × 0.0001m
to produce a 1F capacitor in A = = = 11 . 3 (km) 2
ε 8.85 × 10− 12 F/m
the free space if d = 0.1 mm is
The circuit symbol for an ideal For dc circuits:
capacitor is:
dv (t )
v (t ) = constant ⇒ = 0 ⇒ i (t ) = 0
i (t) dt
v (t) C and the capacitor is equivalent to

an open circuit:
i (t) = 0 i (t) = 0
v (t) = constant C
Provided that the voltage and current
arrows are in opposite directions, the
voltage-current relationship is:
This is why we don’t consider the
dv (t )
i (t ) = C
capacitor in DC circuits.
dt
Consider the change in voltage, In general, the total energy stored in
current and power supplied to the the electric field established by the
capacitor as indicated below: charges on the capacitor plates at
v( t)
time is
Cv 2 (t )
vf
e(t ) =
2
0 1 t Proof.
t t
i ( t) e(t ) = ∫ p ( x )dx = ∫ v ( x )i ( x )dx
−∞ −∞
Cvf t dv ( x )
= ∫ v ( x )C dx
−∞ dx
0 1 t t C 2 t
= C ∫ v ( x )dv ( x ) = v ( x )
2 −∞
−∞
p ( t) = v ( t) i ( t) = Instantaneous power supplied
[ ]
consumed
C
2
= v 2 (t ) − v 2 ( −∞ )
Cvf 2 Cvf 2
Area = Energy stored =
2
Cv 2 (t )
= , if v ( −∞ ) = 0.
0 1 t 2
Now consider the operation of a capacitor in an ac circuit:
dv (t )
i (t ) = C = −ωCrv 2 sin(ωt + θ v )
dt
v (t ) = rv 2 cos(ωt + θ v )
π
= ωCrv 2 cos(ωt + θ v + )
2
In phasor format:
π
j2
= j ωC rv e θ v = j ω C V
I
I = ω C rv e θ v e
j j
V 1 1
jθ v = V j ωC
V = rv e C
I jω C
With phasor representation, the capacitor behaves as if it is a resistor

with a "complex resistance" or an impedance of
⎡ I2 ⎤
ZC =
1
jω C
[ ]
∗
pav = Re I V = Re I IZ C [ ∗
] = Re ⎢ ⎥=0
⎢⎣ jω C ⎥⎦
An ideal capacitor is a non-dissipative but energy-storing device.

Since the phase of I relative to V that of is
⎡ 1 ⎤
Arg[I ]−Arg[V ]=Arg ⎡⎢ ⎤⎥= Arg ⎢ ⎥=Arg[ jω C ]=900
I
⎣V ⎦ ⎣ ZC ⎦
the ac current i(t) of the capacitor leads the voltage v(t) by 90°.
− sin(ω t )
sin(ω t )
−a −π
2
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
− sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = cos(ωt ) = sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ cos(ω t )
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Example: Consider the following ac circuit:
1
-6 = − 10
j
319 μF j 2π(50) (319) 10
230 V 30 Ω
50 Hz
230 e j 0 = 230 30
In phasor notation (taking the source

to have a reference phase of 0):
− j 10 230
= 7.3 e
j 0.32
30 − j10
230 30

Total circuit impedance Z = (30 − j10) Ω
Total circuit reactance X = Im[Z ] = Im[30 − j10] = − 10 Ω
Total circuit resistance R = Re[Z ] = Re[30 − j10] = 30 Ω
Current (rms) I = 7.3A
Current (peak) 2 I = 7.3 2 = 10A
Source V-I phase relationship I leads by 0.32rad
Power factor of entire circuit cos(0.32) = 0.95 leading
Power supplied by source [ ( )]

Re (230)∗ 7.3e j 0.32 = (230)(7.3) cos(0.32) = 1.6 kW
Power consumed by resistor ( )(

∗
Re⎡ 7.3e j 0.32 30 × 7.3e j 0.32
⎢⎣
)⎤⎥⎦ = (7.3) 30 = 1.6 kW
2

Impedance, Resistance, Reactance,
Relations?
Admittance, Conductance, and Susceptance
Impedance: Z = R + jX
1 1 R − jX
Admittance: Y = = =
Z R + jX (R + jX )(R − jX )
R − jX R −X
= 2 = 2 +j 2
R +X 2
R +X 2
R + X2
= G + jB
Conductance Susceptance
3.7 Inductor
For dc circuits:
An inductor consists of a coil of wires
di (t )
for establishing a magnetic field. The i (t ) = constant ⇒ = 0 ⇒ v (t ) = 0
dt
circuit symbol for an ideal inductor is:
and the inductor is equivalent to a
i (t)
short circuit:
v (t) L
i (t) = constant
v (t) = 0 L v (t) = 0
Provided that the voltage and current

arrows are in opposite directions, the
voltage-current relationship is:
That is why there is nothing
di (t ) interesting about the inductor in DC

v (t ) = L
dt circuits.

Consider the change in voltage,
In general, the total energy stored
current and power supplied to the
in the magnetic field established
inductor as indicated below:
by the current i(t) in the inductor
i ( t)
at time t is given by
if
Li 2 (t )
e(t ) =
2
0 1 t
t t
v( t) e(t ) = ∫ p ( x )dx = ∫ v ( x )i ( x )dx
−∞ −∞
L if t di ( x )
= ∫ i( x) L dx
−∞ dx
0 1 t t L 2 t
= L ∫ i ( x )di ( x ) = i ( x )
2 −∞
p ( t) = v ( t) i ( t) =Instantaneous power consumed −∞
L if 2
Area = Energy stored =
L if 2
L
2
[
= i 2 (t ) − i 2 ( −∞ ) ]
2
Li 2 (t )
0 1 t = , if i ( −∞ ) = 0.
2
Now consider the operation of an inductor in an ac circuit:
i (t) i (t ) = ri 2 cos(ωt + θ i )
di (t )
v (t) L v (t ) = L = −ωLri 2 sin(ωt + θ i )
dt
π
= ωLri 2 cos(ωt + θ i + )
2
In phasor:
i (t) I = ri e jθ i I
jω L V
v (t) L V ZL = = jωL
I
V = ωLri e jθ e jπ / 2 = jωLri e jθ = ( jωL) I
i i
ZL is the impedance of the inductor. The ave. power absorbed by the inductor:
[ ] [ ] [
pav = Re I ∗V =Re I ∗ Z L I = Re jω LI ∗ I = Re jω L I ] [ 2
]= 0
Since the phase of I relative to that of V is
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
Arg[I ] − Arg[V ] = Arg ⎡⎢ ⎤⎥ = Arg ⎢ ⎥ = Arg ⎢
I
⎥ = − 900
⎣V ⎦ ⎣ZL ⎦ ⎣ jωL ⎦
the ac current i(t) lags the voltage v(t) by 90º.
As an example, consider the following series ac circuit:
3Ω
319 μ F
230 V
31.9 mH
50 Hz
We can use the phasor representation to convert this ac circuit to a ‘DC’

circuit with complex voltage and resistance.
3
− j10
-3
= j 10
Summary of the circuit:
230 j 2π(50) (31.9)10
Total circuit
impedance Z = 3 − j10 + j10 = 3Ω
X = Im[Z ] = Im[3] = 0 Ω
230 Total circuit reactance
= 77
3 − j10 + j10
R = Re[Z ] = Re[3] = 3 Ω
Total circuit resistance
3
− j 10
230 j 10 Current (rms)
I = 77A
Current (peak)
2 I = 77 2 =108 A
0 (in phase)
Source voltage-current
phase relationship
− j 770
230
cos(0) =1
Power factor of entire
circuit
[ ]
77
Re (77)∗ (230) = 18 kW
− j 10 3 Power supplied by
source
230 j 10 j 770
Re [ (77) (3 × 77)]= 18 kW
∗
Power consumed by
resistor

Note that the rms voltages across the inductor and capacitor are larger
than the source voltage. This is possible in ac circuits because the
reactances of capacitors and inductors, and so the voltages developed
across them, may cancel out one another:
Voltage Voltage Voltage

Source
across across across
voltage = capacitor + resistor + inductor
230
− j 770 230 j 770
In dc circuits, it is not possible for a passive resistor (with positive

resistance) to cancel out the effect of another passive resistor (with
positive resistance).

3.8 Power Factor Improvement
Consider the following system: Due to the small power
I0 factor, the machine

50 Hz cannot be connected to
230 V
Mains V = 230 2.3 kW standard 13A outlets even
0.4 lagging power factor
though it consumes only
Electrical Machine
2.3 kW of power.
The current I0 can be found as follows:
2300W
= 0 .4 ⇒ I 0 =
2300
= 25 Can we improve it?
(230V )( I 0 A ) (230)(0.4 )
cos{Arg[I 0 ] − Arg[V ]}= 0.4 ⎫

⎬ ⇒ Arg[I 0 ] = − cos (0.4 ) = − 1.16
−1
I 0 = I 0 e jArg [ I ]=25e − j1.16
0
Arg[I 0 ] − Arg[V ]< 0 ⎭

EG1103 Mid-term Test
• When? The time of your tutorial class in the
week right after the recess week.
• Where? In your tutorial classroom.
• Why? To collect some marks for your final
grade for EG1103.
• What? Two questions cover materials up to
DC circuit analysis.

To overcome this problem, a parallel capacitor can be used to improve
the power factor:
I 25 e − j1.16
Z old = 230
25 e − j1.16
1 C
Mains V = 230 ZC = j 2 π(50)C = 9.2e j1.16
Original
Machine
New Electrical Machine
V
I= + 25e − j1.16 = j 23000πC+10 − j 23 = 10 + j (23000πC−23)
ZC
Thus, if we choose 23000πC = 23 ⇒ C = 0.32mF then I = 10A and
Power factor of new machine = cos[Arg ( I ) − Arg (V )] = 1
By changing the power factor, the improved machine can now be connected to
standard 13A outlets. The price to pay is the use of an additional capacitor.

To reduce cost, we may wish to use a capacitor which is as small as possible.
To find the smallest capacitor that will satisfy the 13A requirement:
I = 102 + (72200C −23) = 132 132 =102 +(72200C−23)2

2 2
0 = 102 − 132 + (72200C − 23) = (72200C − 23) − 8.32

2 2
0 = (72200C − 23 − 8.3) (72200C − 23 + 8.3)
C = 0.2 mF or 0.44 mF
There are 2 possible values for C, one giving a lagging overall power factor,
the other giving a leading overall power factor. To save cost, C should be
C = 0.2 mF
Chapter 4. Frequency Response

4.1 RC Circuit
Consider the series RC circuit:
2Ω
v(t) = vC (t) =
160 mF
a 2cos ( 2π f t + θ ) b 2cos ( 2π f t + φ )
Input: V = I ( 2 + Z C ) Output: VC = IZ C
I
2
V = a e jθ VC = b e jφ
1 1
ZC = -3 =
j 2π f (160)10 j f
1
VC be jφ b j (φ −θ ) ZC 1 Frequency
H ( f ) = = jθ = e
jf
= = = Response
V ae a 2 + ZC 2 + 1 1+ j2 f
jf
The magnitude of H ( f ) is The phase of H ( f ) is
Arg[H ( f )] = Arg ⎡⎢ C ⎤⎥ = Arg[VC ] − Arg[V ]

V
V V b
H( f ) = C = C = ⎣V ⎦
V V a
⎡ 1 ⎤
1 1 = φ − θ = Arg ⎢ ⎥
= = ⎣1 + j 2 f ⎦
1 + (2 f )2 1+ 4 f 2
= − Arg[1 + j 2 f ] = − tan −1 (2 f )
and is called the magnitude response. and is called the phase response.
The physical significance of these responses is that H ( f )

gives the ratio of output to input phasors, |H ( f )| gives the
ratio of output to input magnitudes, and Arg[H ( f )] gives the
output to input phase difference at a frequency f.

v(t ) = 3 2 cos[2π (5)t+7] π
Input v(t ) = r sin[2π (4)t ] = r cos⎡⎢2π (4)t− ⎤⎥
⎣ 2⎦
V = 3e j 7 r − jπ 2
V= e
2
Frequency f =5 f =4
1 1
H (5) = H (4) =
Frequency
response
1+ j10 1+ j8
1 1
H (5) = H (4) =
Magnitude
response
101 65
Arg[H (5)] = − tan−1 (10) Arg[H (4)] = − tan−1 (8)

Phase
response
vC (t ) =
r
[
sin 2π (4)t−tan−1 (8) ]
vC(t) =
32
101
[
cos 2π (5)t +7− tan−1(10) ] 65
π
cos⎡⎢2π (4)t−tan−1 (8)− ⎤⎥
Output r
=
3 j [7−tan−1 (10)] 65 ⎣ 2⎦
VC = e
e j [−tan (8)−π 2]
101 r −1
VC =
130

Due to the presence of components such as capacitors and inductors
with frequency-dependent impedances, H ( f ) is usually frequency-
dependent and the characteristics of the circuit is often studied by
finding how H ( f ) changes as f is varied. Numerically, for the series
RC circuit:
H( f ) =
1 Arg[H ( f )] = − tan−1 (2 f )
(1 + 4 f )
f 2
0 1 = 20 log(1) = 0 dB 0 rad = 00
π
= 20 log⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = − 3dB
1 1 1
0.5 = − tan−1 (2 × 0.5) = − rad = − 450
1 + 4(0.5)2 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 4
π
→∞ → 0 = − ∞dB − tan−1 (∞) = − rad = − 900
2

H(f)
1 = 0 dB
0.7 = − 3 dB
High
0 0.5 f Frequency
Arg [ H ( f ) ]
0 0.5
f
o
− 45
o
− 90
Input
Low High
f f
Output
Low Frequency Input
Output

At small f, the output approximates the input. However, at high f, the output
will become attenuated. Thus, the circuit has a low pass characteristic (low
frequency input will be passed, high frequency input will be rejected).
The frequency at which |H ( f )| falls to –3 dB of its maximum value is called

the cutoff frequency. For the above example, the cutoff frequency is 0.5 Hz.
To see why the circuit has a low pass characteristic, note that at low f, C has
large impedance (approximates an open circuit) when compare with R (2 in
the above example). Thus, VC will be approximately equal to V :
V
Low f ZC ∝ 1 = ∞ (open circuit ) VC ≈ V
f

However, at high f, C has small impedance (approximates a short circuit)
when compare with R. Thus, VC will be small:
V
High f ZC ∝ 1 = 0 (short circuit) VC ≈ 0 ( small )
f
Key Notes: The capacitor is acting like a short circuit at

high frequencies and an open circuit at low frequencies. It is
totally open for a dc circuit.

An Electric Joke
Q: Why does a capacitor block DC but allow AC to pass

through?
A: You see, a capacitor is like this −−−| |−−− , OK. DC

Comes straight, like this −−−−−, and the capacitor stops
it. But AC, goes up, down, up and down and jumps
right over the capacitor!

4.2 RL Circuit
Consider the series RL circuit:
5Ω vL (t)
v(t)
f Hz 160 mH f Hz
sinusoid sinusoid
Input: V=I ( 5 + ZL ) Output: VL=I ZL

I
5
V
VL
f Hz
-3
Z L = j 2π f (160)10 = j f
VL ZL jf
= H( f ) = = Frequency Response
V 5 + Z L 5 + jf
The magnitude response is The phase response is
⎡ jf ⎤
2
f f 2 Arg[H ( f )] = Arg ⎢ ⎥
H( f ) = = ⎣ 5+ jf ⎦
52 + f 2 25+ f 2 = Arg[ jf ] − Arg[5+ jf ]
π
− tan −1 ⎜⎛ ⎞⎟
f
=
2 ⎝5⎠
Numerically:
f2 π
− tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
f
f H( f ) = Arg[H ( f )] =
25+ f 2 2 ⎝5⎠
π
0 0 = 20 log(0) = − ∞ dB rad = 900
2
52 ⎛ 1 ⎞ = − 3dB π 5 π
− tan−1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = rad = 450
1
5 = = 20 log⎜ ⎟
25+52 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝5⎠ 4
π
→∞ → 1 = 0 dB − tan−1 (∞ ) = 0 rad = 00
2

Physically, at small f, L has small impedance (approximates a short circuit)
when compare with R (5 in the above example). Thus, VL will be small:
R
V
Low f Z L ∝ f ≈ 0 (short circuit) VL ≈ 0 ( small )
However, at high f, L has large impedance (approximates an open

circuit) when compare with R. Thus, VL will approximates V :
R
V
Z L ∝ f ≈ ∞ (open circuit) VL ≈ V
High f
Due to these characteristics, the circuit is highpass in nature.

4.3 Series Tune Circuit
L = 0.64 H R = 0.067 Ω
v(t) vC (t)
f Hz C = 1.4 F f Hz
sinusoid sinusoid
The total impedance is

Z = R+Z L +Z C
Input Output
2 1
= + j4 f + Z L = j 2π f (0.64) = j 4 f 2
30 I
30 j9 f
2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + j⎜ 4 f − ⎟ 1
30 ⎝ 9f ⎠ V ZC = j 2π f (1.4) = j 91f VC
f Hz
2
=
30
1 1 1 1
f0 = = ⇔ f0 = =
Resonance Frequency
(4 )(9 ) 6 (2πL )(2πC ) 2π LC
Q factor Reactance of inductor at f 0 23 2πf 0 L

Q= = = 10 ⇔ Q =
Resistance 2 30 R
The frequency response is
1
VC Z C 1
H( f ) =
j9 f
= = =
V Z 2
+ j4 f +
1 1 − 36 f 2
+ j 0.6 f
30 j9 f
The magnitude response is
H( f ) =
1
=
1 x 2 − bx + c
(1−36 f ) +(0.6 f )
2 2 2
(36 f ) −(72−0.6 ) f
2 2 2 2
+1 2
= x − 2⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ x + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
2 b b
1 ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
= 2 2 2
2 ⎛ 0.62 ⎞ ⎛ 0.62 ⎞ ⎛ 0.62 ⎞
(36 f ) (
2 2
)
−2 36 f ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎟ +1− ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎟ −⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + c
b
⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝2⎠
2 2
= ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ + c − ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1 b b
=
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
2
⎡ 2 ⎛ 0.6 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 0.6 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.6 2 ⎞
⎢36 f − ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎟⎥ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2− ⎟⎟
⎣ ⎝ 72 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 72 ⎠⎝ 72 ⎠
Since f only appears in the [•]2 term in the denominator and [•]2 >= 0, |H ( f )|
will increase if [•]2 becomes smaller, and vice versa.
The maximum value for |H ( f )| corresponds to the situation of [•]2 or at a
frequency f = fpeak given by:
0.62 1
36 2
f peak =1− ≈1 ⇔ f peak ≈ ⇔ f peak ≈ f 0
72 6
At f = fpeak , [•]2 and the maximum value for |H ( f )| is
H ( f peak ) = H ( f peak ) ≈ Q
1 1
≈ = 10 ⇔
⎛ 0. 6 2
⎞⎛ 2
0. 6 ⎞ ⎛ 0.6
2
⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2 − ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(2 )
⎝ 72 ⎠⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝ 72 ⎠
H( f)
The series tuned circuit has a
H( fpeak ) ≈ Q = 10 bandpass characteristic. Low- and
high-frequency inputs will get
attenuated, while inputs close to the
resonant frequency will get amplified
0 f by a factor of approximately Q.
fpeak ≈ f0 = 1
6
The cutoff frequencies, at which |H ( f )| decrease by a factor of 0.7071
or by 3 dB from its peak value |H ( fpeak)| , can be shown to be given by
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ Very roughly, the
f lower ≈ f 0 ⎜1 − ⎟ f upper ≈ f 0 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2Q ⎠ ⎝ 2Q ⎠
circuit will pass inputs
H( f) with frequency
H(fpeak ) ≈ Q = 10
between flower and fupper.
H( fpeak ) Q The bandwidth of the

≈ = 7.07
2 2
fbandwidth ≈ f0 = 0.1 circuit is
Q 6
f0
f bandwidth = f upper − f lower ≈
Q
0 f
and the fractional
f0 0.95
flower ≈ f0 −
2Q = 6 bandwidth is
fpeak ≈ f0 = 1 f bandwidth 1
≈
6
f0 1.05 f0 Q
fupper ≈ f0 +
2Q = 6

The larger the Q factor, the sharper the magnitude response, the bigger
the amplification, and the narrower the fractional bandwidth:
H( f)
Large Q
Small Q
0 f
In practice, a series tune circuit usually consists of a practical inductor or

coil connected in series with a practical capacitor. Since a practical
capacitor usually behaves quite closely to an ideal one but a coil will
have winding resistance, such a circuit can be represented by:

Equivalent circuit for coil or practical inductor
L R
V C VC
f Hz
The main features are:
1
Circuit impedance Z = R + j 2πfL +
j 2πfC
1
Resonance frequency f0 =
2π LC
2πf 0 L
Q factor Q=
R
1 1
Frequency response H( f ) = =
1 − 4π f LC + j 2πfCR
2 2
⎛ f ⎞
2
j⎛ f ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ f0 ⎠ Q ⎝ f0 ⎠
For the usual situation when Q is large:
Magnitude response Bandpass with H ( f ) decreasing as f → 0 and f → ∞
Response peak H ( f ) peaks at f = f peak ≈ f 0 with H ( f peak ) ≈ Q
H ( f peak ) Q
Cutoff frequencies H( f ) = ≈ at
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
f = f lower , f upper ≈ f 0 ⎜1 − ⎟, f 0 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2Q ⎠ ⎝ 2Q ⎠
f0
Bandwidth f bandwidth = f upper − f lower ≈
Q
f bandwidth 1
Fractional bandwidth ≈
f0 Q

The Q factor is an important parameter of the circuit.
2πf 0 L Inductor reactance at f 0

Q= =
R Circuit resistance
However, since R is usually the winding resistance of the practical coil

making up the tune circuit:
Reactance of practical coil at f 0

Q=
Resistance of practical coil
As a good practical coil should have low winding resistance and high
inductance, the Q factor is often taken to be a characteristic of the practical
inductor or coil. The higher the Q factor, the higher the quality of the coil.

Due to its bandpass characteristic, tune circuits are used in radio and
TV tuners for selecting the frequency channel of interest:
Channel 5 Channel 8
f5 f8
L
Amplifier
Practical inductor or coil and
C VC
Other
Circuits
To tune in to channel 5, C has to

H( f)
be adjusted to a value of C5 so
that the circuit resonates at a
frequency given by
1
f5 =
2π LC5 0 f5 f8 f
To tune in to channel 8, C has to be adjusted to a value of C8 so that
the circuit resonates at a frequency given by
1
f8 =
2π LC8
and has a magnitude response of:
H( f)
0 f5 f8 f

Additional Notes on Frequency Response
Frequency response is defined as the ratio of the phasor of the output
to the phasor of the input. Note that both the input and output could be
voltage and/or current. Thus, frequency response could have
V (output ) V (output ) I (output ) I (output )

, , , .
I (input ) V (input ) I (input ) V (input )

Chapter 5. Periodic Signals

5.1 Superposition
In analyzing ac circuits, we have assumed that the voltages and currents

are sinusoids and have the same frequency f. When this is not the case
but the circuit is linear (consisting of resistors, inductors and capacitors),
the principle of superposition may be used. Consider the following system:
i (t)
0.0025 F
5 2cos (4t − 0.2) 6 3 2cos (40 t + 0.1)
The current i(t) can be found by summing the contributions due to the two
sources on their own (with the other sources replaced by their internal
resistances).
i1( t )
0.0025 F
5 2 cos ( 4 t − 0.2 ) 6
1 − 100 j
I1 j 4 (0.0025) =
5 e − j 0.2 6

5 e − j 0.2 (6) = 0.3 e j 1.3
I1 =
6 − 100 j
− 100 j
5 e − j 0.2 6
i 1 ( t ) = 0.3 2 cos ( 4 t + 1.3 )
0.0025 F
5 2 cos ( 4 t − 0.2 ) 6

i 2( t )
0.0025 F
6 3 2 cos ( 40 t + 0.1 )
1 = − 10 j
I2 j 40 (0.0025)
6 3e j 0.1

− 3 e j 0.1
I2 = = − 0.26 e j 1.1
6 − 10 j
− 10 j
6 3e j 0.1
i 2 ( t ) = − 0.26 2 cos ( 40 t + 1.1 )
0.0025 F
6 3 2 cos ( 40 t + 0.1 )

Lastly, the actual current when both sources are present:
i ( t ) = i1( t ) + i2 (t )
= 0.3 2cos (4 t +1.3)
− 0.26 2cos (40 t +1.1)
0.0025 F
5 2cos (4t − 0.2) 6 3 2cos (40 t + 0.1)

5.2 Circuit Analysis using Fourier Series
Using superposition, the voltages and currents in circuits with sinusoidal

signals at different frequencies can be found.
Circuits with non-sinusoidal but periodic signals can also be analyzed by

first representing these signals as sums of sinusoids or Fourier series.
The following example shows how a periodic square signal can be

represented as a sum of sinusoidal components of different frequencies:

Original periodic square waveform: v (t)
π
4
Any periodic signal can be
0 1
represented as an infinite
t
sum of sine signals.
Fundamental component: sin( 2 π t )

sin (6πt ) sin (10πt )
v (t ) = sin (2πt ) +
1
+ +L
3 5
0 1 t
Same freq. Fundamental + third harmonic:

as the orginal. sin( 2 π t ) + sin( 6 π t )
3
Third harmonic: sin( 6 π t )
3
1
3
t t
Freq. is triple.

sin( 2 πt )
2Ω
v (t ) v (t) 160 mF vC (t)
sin( 6 πt)
3
2Ω
s (t)
f Hz 160 mF sC (t)
2Ω Sinusoid
sin( 2 πt)
Fourier sin( 6 πt)

representation 3 vC (t)
160 mF
for
v (t )
sin(10 πt) 2
5
S SC
f Hz
1 1
=
j2 πf (0.16) j f
The frequency response:
1
SC 1
H( f ) =
jf
= = Side Notes:
S 2 + 1 1+ j 2 f
jf
Superposition for
From superposition, if the input is the periodic square signal
infinite series will
sin (6πt ) sin (10πt )
v (t ) = sin (2πt ) + + +L not be examined.
3 5
then the output will be
Topic on Fourier
vC (t ) = 0.44 sin (2πt−1.1) + 0.05 sin (6πt−1.4 ) + L Representation of

periodic signal is
=
[
sin 2(1)πt−tan (2 × 1)] sin[2(3)πt−tan (2 × 3)]
−1
+
−1
+ L skipped and
(1) 1+(2 × 1)2
(3) 1+(2 × 3)2
hence ...
=
∞
∑
[
sin 2nπt−tan −1 (2n ) ]
n =1, 3,5,L n 1+(2n )2
Chapter 6. Transient Circuit Analysis

C.3 Linear Differential Equation
General solution:
n th order linear d n x (t ) d n − 1 x (t )
differential equation +a n − 1 +L+a0 x (t )=u (t )
dt n dt n − 1
General solution x (t )= xss (t )+ xtr (t )
Steady state response x ss (t )=particular integral obtained from assuming

with no arbitrary constant solution to have the same form as u (t )
Transient response with xtr (t )=general solution of homogeneous equation

n arbitrary constants d n xtr (t ) d n − 1 xtr (t )
+a n − 1 +L+a0 xtr (t )=0
dt n dt n − 1

General solution of homogeneous equation:
n th order linear d n xtr (t ) d n − 1 xtr (t )

homogeneous equation n
+a n − 1 n −1
+L+a0 xtr (t )=0
dt dt
Roots of polynomial Roots : z1 ,L ,zn

from homogeneous given by (z − z1 ) L (z − zn )= z n +a n − 1 z n − 1 +L+a0
equation
General solution xtr (t )=k1e z1t +L+kn e z n t

(distinct roots)
General solution xtr (t )=(k1 +k 2 t +k 3t 2 )e13t +(k 4 +k5t )e 22 t +k 6 e 31t +k 7 e 41t

(non-distinct roots) if roots are 13, 13, 13, 22 , 22 , 31, 41

Particular integral:
x ss (t ) Any specific solution (with no arbitrary constant)

of
d n x (t ) d n − 1 x (t )
+a n − 1 +L+a0 x (t )=u (t )
dt n dt n − 1
Method to determine Trial and error approach: assume x ss (t ) to have

x ss (t ) the same form as u (t ) and substitute into
differential equation
Example to find x ss (t ) for Try a solution of he 3t

dx (t ) dx (t )
+2 x (t )=e 3t + 2 x (t ) = e 3t ⇒ 3he 3t +2he 3t =e 3t ⇒ h=0.2
dt dt
x ss (t ) = 0 . 2 e 3 t
Standard trial solutions u (t ) trial solution for x ss (t )

eαt heαt
t ht
teαt (h1 +h2 t )eαt
a cos(ω t )+b sin (ω t ) h1 cos(ω t )+h2 sin (ω t )

6.1 Steady State and Transient Analyses
So far, we have discussed the DC and AC circuit analyses. DC analysis can be

regarded as a special case of AC analysis when the signals have frequency f = 0.
Using Fourier series, the situation of having periodic signals can be handled using
AC analysis and superposition. These analyses are often called steady state
analyses, as the signals are assumed to exist at all time.
In order for the results obtained from these analyses to be valid, it is necessary for
the circuit to have been working for a considerable period of time. This will ensure
that all the transients caused by, say, the switching on of the sources have died
out, the circuit is working in the steady state, and all the voltages and currents are
as if they exist from all time.
However, when the circuit is first switched on, the circuit will not be in the steady
state and it will be necessary to go back to first principle to determine the
behavior of the system.
6.2 RL Circuit and Governing Differential Equation
Consider determining i(t) in the following series RL circuit:
i (t)
t=0 5Ω
3V 7H v(t)
where the switch is open for t < 0 and is closed for t ≥ 0.
Since i(t) and v(t) will not be equal to constants or sinusoids for all time,
these cannot be represented as constants or phasors. Instead, the
basic general voltage-current relationships for the resistor and inductor
have to be used:

5 i (t)
i (t) For t < 0

t =0 5
d i(t)
3 7 v(t)t =< 70
dt 5 i (t)
i (t) = 0
5
3 7 d i(t)
v(t) = 7
dt
3 5 i (t) = 0
i (t) = 0
voltage cross 5
over the switch d i(t)
3 KVL 7 v(t) = 7 =0
dt

t ≥0
0 5 i (t)
i (t)
5
3 7 d i (t)
v(t) = 7
dt
Applying KVL: Mathematically, the above d.e. is often

written as
di (t )
7 + 5 i (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0 di (t )
dt 7 + 5 i (t ) = u (t ), t ≥ 0
dt
and i(t) can be found from determining the where the r.h.s. is u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
general solution to this first order linear
and corresponds to the dc source or
differential equation (d.e.) which governs
excitation in this example.
the behavior of the circuit for t ≥ 0.
6.3 Steady State Response
3
Since the r.h.s. of the governing d.e. iss (t ) = , t ≥ 0
5
di (t )
7 + 5i (t ) = u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
dt
diss (t )
+5iss (t ) = 7 ⎛⎜ ⎟⎞ + 5⎛⎜ ⎟⎞ = 3, t≥0
Let us try a steady state solution of d 3 3
7
dt dt ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
iss (t ) = k , t ≥ 0
and is a solution of the governing d.e.
which has the same form as u(t), as a
possible solution.
In mathematics, the above solution is
diss (t ) called the particular integral or solution

7 + 5iss (t ) = 3 and is found from letting the answer to
dt
⇒ 7(0 ) + 5(k ) = 3
have the same form as u(t). The word
"particular" is used as the solution is only
3
⇒k= one possible function that satisfy the d.e.
5
In circuit analysis, the derivation of iss(t) by letting the answer to have
the same form as u(t) can be shown to give the steady state response
of the circuit as t → ∞.
t →∞
Using KVL, the steady state
response is
i (t) = k
3 = 0 + 5k + 0 = 5k
5
3 7 d i(t)
v(t) = 7
dt
3
⇒k=
5
3
5 i (t) = 5 k
⇒ i (t ) = , t → ∞
5
i (t) = k This is the same as iss(t).
5
3 d i(t)
7 v(t) = 7 =0
dt

6.4 Transient Response
To determine i(t) for all t, it is necessary to find the complete solution of

the governing d.e.
di (t )
7 + 5i (t ) = u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
dt
From mathematics, the complete solution can be obtained from summing
a particular solution, say, iss(t), with itr(t): i (t ) = iss (t ) + itr (t ), t ≥ 0
where itr(t) is the general solution of the homogeneous equation
di (t )
5
− t
7 + 5i (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0 itr (t ) = k1e z1t = k1e 7 , t ≥0
dt
ditr (t )
7 + 5itr (t ) where k1 is a constant (unknown now).
dt ditr (t )
replaced by z 5
dt − t
= 7 z1 + 5 z 0 = 7 z + 5 itr (t ) = k1e 7 → 0, t→∞
5 Thus, it is called transient response.

z1 = −
151
6.5 Complete Response
To see that summing iss(t) and itr(t) gives the general solution of the governing d.e.
di (t )
7 + 5i (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
dt
note that
3 d ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
iss (t ) = , t ≥ 0 satisfies 7 ⎜ ⎟ + 5⎜ ⎟ = 3, t ≥ 0
5 dt ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
5
− t ⎛ −
5
⎞ ⎛ −
5
t⎞
itr (t ) = d t
k1e 7 , t ≥0 satisfies 7 ⎜ k1e ⎟ + 5⎜ k1e ⎟ = 0, t ≥ 0
7 7
dt ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
3
5
− t ⎛ − t⎞
5
⎛ − t⎞
5
iss (t ) + itr (t ) = + k1e 7 , t ≥ 0 satisfies 7 ⎜ + k1e 7 ⎟ + 5⎜ + k1e 7 ⎟ = 3
d 3 3
5 dt ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟ ⎜5
⎠ ⎝
⎟
⎠
5
3 − t
i (t ) = iss (t ) + itr (t ) = + k1e 7 , t ≥ 0 is the general solution of the d.e.
5
3
5
i ss ( t )
0 Steady State
t <0 t ≥0 Response
Switch
close
k1
−5t
i tr ( t ) = k 1e 7 , t≥0
k1 Transient Response
e
0
t =0 t = 7 (Time constant)
5
k1 is to be
determined later
k1 + 3
5
i ss ( t ) + i tr ( t )
Complete Response
3
5
0
153 Complete response Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Note that the time it takes for the transient or zero-input
response itr(t) to decay to 1/e of its initial value is
7
Time taken for itr(t) to decay to 1/e of initial value =
5
and is called the time constant of the response or system.
We can take the transient response to have died out after a

few time constants.

i L( t )
6.6 Current Continuity for

2
Inductor 1
0 1 2 4 t
To determine the constant k1 in
d i L( t )
the transient response of the RL vL( t ) = 7
dt
circuit, the concept of current To ∞
continuity for an inductor has 7

to be used.
t
−7
Consider the following example:
i L( t ) vL( t ) =Instantaneous power supplied
i (t ) To ∞
v (t ) L =7 7
155
− 14 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Due to the step change or discontinuity in iL(t) at t = 2,
and the power supplied to the inductor at t = 2 will go
to infinity. Since it is impossible for any system to
deliver an infinite amount of power at any time, it is
impossible for iL(t) to change in the manner shown.
In general, the current through an inductor must be

a continuous function of time and cannot change in a
step manner.

Now back to our RL Circuit: Using current continuity for an
inductor at t = 0:
i( t)
3 3
t=0 5Ω i (t = 0) = + k1 = 0 ⇒ k1 = −
5 5
3V 7H v(t)
⎧0, t<0
⎪
i (t ) = ⎨ 3 3 − 5 t
−
⎪⎩ 5 5 e 7 , t ≥0
k1 + 3
5
3
5
3
5
0
0
i( t) = 0, t < 0 i ( t ) = i ss ( t ) + i tr ( t )
i( t) = 0, t < 0 i ( t ) = i ss ( t ) + i tr ( t ) Switch
Switch 3 −5t
−5t
t≥0
close = 3 − 5 e 7 , t≥0
close = 3 + k1 e 7, 5
5
t<0
6.7 RC Circuit 5 500
Consider finding v(t) in the following d v(t)

i (t) = 7
dt
RC circuit: 3 2
v(t) 7
t=0
5Ω 500 Ω
i (t)
3V 2V Taking the switch to be in this

7F v(t)
position starting from t = −∞, the
voltages and currents will have
settled down to constant values
where the switch is in the for practically all t < 0.
position shown for t < 0 and is
in the other position for t ≥ 0. dv (t ) d (constant )
i (t ) = 7 =7 = 0, t < 0
dt dt
t ≥0
t <0
5 500 d v(t)
5i (t) = 35
dt
500
d v (t)
i (t) = 7
dt 5
=0
3 2 d v (t)
7 i (t) = 7
v(t) dt
3 2
v(t) 7
500 i (t) = 0
5
Applying KVL:
500
dv (t )
i (t) = 0 35 + v (t ) = u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
3 2 dt
v(t) = − 2 7
which has a solution
v (t ) = vss (t ) + vtr (t ), t ≥ 0
(1) Steady State Response (2) Transient Response
u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0 dvtr (t )
35 +v tr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt
vss (t ) = k , t ≥ 0 dvtr (t )
35 + vtr (t )
dt dvtr (t )
replaced by z
dt
dv (t ) = 35 z1 + z 0 = 35 z + 1
35 ss + vss (t ) = 3
dt
1
⇒ 0+k =3 ⇒ k = 3 z1 = −
35
t
−
v ss (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0 vtr (t ) = k1e z1t = k1e 35 , t ≥0
⎧− 2, t<0 ⎧⎪− 2, t<0

v (t ) = ⎨ =⎨ t Complete Response
⎩vss (t ) + vtr (t ), t≥0 ⎪⎩3 + k1e 35 , t ≥ 0
−

6.8 Voltage Continuity for Capacitor
To determine k1 in the transient response of the RC circuit, the concept

of voltage continuity for a capacitor has to be used.
Similar to current continuity for an inductor, the voltage v(t) across a

capacitor C must be continuous and cannot change in a step manner.
Thus, for the RC circuit we consider, the complete solution was derived as:
⎧− 2, t < 0 ⎧⎪− 2, t<0

v (t ) = ⎨ =⎨ t
⎩vss (t ) + vtr (t ), t ≥ 0 ⎪⎩3 + k1e 35 , t ≥ 0
−
At t = 0,
⎧⎪− 2, t<0
v (0 ) = 3 + k1 = − 2 ⇒ k1 = − 5 v (t ) = ⎨ −
t
⎪⎩3 − 5e 35 , t ≥ 0
6.9 Transient with Sinusoidal Source
Consider the RL circuit with the dc source changed to a sinusoidal one:
i (t)
t=0 5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) 7
For t < 0 when the switch is open:
t<0
i (t) = 0
5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) d i (t)

7 7 =0
dt

For t ≥ 0 when the switch is closed:
t ≥0 5 i (t)
i (t)
5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) d i (t)
7 7
dt
The governing d.e. is
d i (t ) Looking for general solution

7 + 5 i (t ) = u (t ), t ≥ 0
dt i (t ) = iss (t ) + itr (t ), t ≥ 0
with
[ ]
u (t ) = 3 2 cos(ω t+0.1) = Re 3 2e j (ω t+0.1) = Re 3e j 0.1 [( )( )]
2e jω t , t ≥ 0

Since u(t) is sinusoidal in nature, a trial solution for the steady state
response or particular integral iss(t) may be
[( )(
iss (t ) = r 2 cos(ω t + θ ) = Re re jθ )]
2e jω t , t ≥ 0
7
diss (t )
+ 5iss (t ) = 7
[( )(
d Re re jθ 2e jω t )]
+ 5 Re re jθ[( )( 2e jω t )]
dt dt
[( ) ( )]
= 7 Re re jθ ( jω ) 2e jω t + 5 Re re jθ [( )( 2e jω t )]
[( )
= Re re jθ ( jω 7 + 5) 2e jω t ( )]
[(
= Re 3e j 0.1 )( )]
2e jω t = u (t )
This is Method One: ( jω 7+5) re jθ =3e j 0.1

Method Two: t ≥0 5 i (t)
i (t)
5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) 7 v(t) = 7 d
i (t)
dt
5I
I = r e jθ
5
3 e j 0.1 j ω7 j ω7I
( j ω 7 + 5) I = ( j ω 7 + 5) r e j θ = 3 e j 0.1
(1) Steady State Response (2) Transient Response
( jω 7+5)re jθ = 3e j 0.1 ditr (t )

7 + 5itr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt
3e j 0.1
⇒ re jθ =
5+ jω 7 itr(t) will have the same form as the dc
j 0.1 source case:

3e 3
r= = 5
− t
5 + jω 7 52 +7 2 ω 2 itr (t ) = k1e 7 , t≥0
[ ]
θ = Arg e j 0.1 − Arg[5+ jω 7]
−1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞
= 0.1−tan ⎜ ⎟ Complete Response
⎝ 5 ⎠
3 2 ⎡ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞⎤
iss (t ) = r 2 cos(ω t+θ ) = cos ⎢ω t+0.1 − tan ⎜ ⎟⎥ , t ≥ 0
25 + 49ω 2
⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎦

Complete Response
i (t ) = iss (t ) + itr (t ), t ≥ 0
−1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤
5
3 2 ⎡ − t
= cos ⎢⎣ω t + 0 .1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ +
⎥⎦ 1k e 7 , t ≥0
25 + 49ω 2
⎝ 5 ⎠
To determine k1, the continuity of i(t), the current through the inductor, can be used.
⎡ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤
i (t ) = 0, t < 0 i (0) = iss (0) + itr (0) =
3 2
cos ⎢⎣ 0. 1 − tan ⎜ ⎟⎥ + k1
25 + 49ω 2
⎝ 5 ⎠⎦
3 2 ⎡ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞⎤
k1 = − cos ⎢⎣ 0.1 − tan ⎜ ⎟⎥
25+49ω 2
⎝ 5 ⎠⎦
⎧0, t<0
⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎡ − t⎫
−1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤
5
i (t ) = ⎨ 3 2 ⎡ 7 ⎪, t ≥ 0
⎨ ⎢
cos ω t + 0.1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ − cos 0 .1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ e ⎬
⎪ 25 + 49ω 2
⎩ ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
An FAQ: Can we apply KVL to the rms values of voltages in AC circuits?
Answer: No. In an AC circuit, KVL is valid for the phasors of the voltages
in a closed-loop, i.e., the sum of the phasors of voltages in a closed-loop is
equal to 0 provided that they are all assigned to the same direction. KVL
cannot be applied to the magnitudes or rms values of the voltages alone.
For example, a closed-loop circuit containing a series of an AC source, a
resistor and a capacitor could have the following situation: The source has
a voltage with a rms value of 20V, while the resistor and the capacitor have
their voltages with the rms values of 9V and 15V, respectively. All in all, if
you want to apply KVL in AC circuits, apply it to the phasors of its voltages.
By the way, KVL is valid as well when the voltages are specified as functions
of time. This is true for any type of circuits.

6.10 Second Order RLC Circuit
Consider determining v(t) in the following series RLC circuit:
t =0
i (t) t=0
3Ω 5H 500 Ω
11 V 2V
7F v(t)
Both switches are in the position shown for t < 0 & are in the other positions for t ≥ 0.
i (t) = 0
For t < 0
3 5 500
d v (t)
7
dt
11 2
7 v(t)

Taking the switches to be in the positions shown starting from t = − ∞, the
voltages and currents will have settled down to constant values for
practically all t < 0 and the important voltages and currents are given by:
3 5 500
d v (t)
7 =0
dt
11 2
7 v(t) = 2
Mathematically:
v (t ) = 2, t < 0 & i (t ) = 0, t < 0

dv (t) d 2 v (t)
For t ≥ 0 21 35 di d ⎛ dv (t ) ⎞ d 2 v (t )
dt dt2 v L (t ) = L = L ⎜ C ⎟ = LC
dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠ dt 2
3 5 500
d v (t)
7
dt
11 2
7 v(t)
Applying KVL:
d 2 v (t ) dv (t )
35 2
+ 21 + v (t ) = u (t ) = 11, t ≥ 0
dt dt
Due to the presence of 2 energy storage elements, the governing d.e. is a
second order one and the general solution is
v (t ) = vss (t ) + vtr (t ), t ≥ 0
(1) Steady State Response
u (t ) = 11, t ≥ 0 vss (t ) = k , t ≥ 0
d 2 vss (t ) dvss (t )
35 2
+ 21 + vss (t ) = 0 + 0 + k = 11 vss (t ) = 11, t ≥ 0
dt dt
(2) Transient Response

d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t )
35 2
+ 21 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt dt
35 2
+ 21 + vtr (t ) = 35 z 2 +21z1+ z 0 = 35 z 2 +21z+1
dt dt dvtr (t )
replaced by z
dt
− 21 ± 212 − 4(35)(1) − 21 ± 17
z1 , z2 = = = − 0.54, − 0.06
2(35) 2(35)
vtr (t ) = k1e z1t + k 2 e z2t = k1e −0.54 t + k 2 e −0.06t , t ≥ 0

Complete Solution (Response) To be determined
⎧2, t<0 ⎧2, t<0

v (t ) = ⎨ =⎨
⎩ ss
v (t ) + v tr (t ), t ≥ 0 ⎩11 + k1e −0.54 t
+ k 2 e −0.06 t
, t≥0
dv (t ) ⎧0, t<0
i (t ) = 7 =⎨ −0.54 t −0.06 t
dt ⎩7 ( − 0 . 54 k1 e − 0 . 06 k 2 e ), t ≥ 0
To determine k1 and k2, voltage continuity for the capacitor and current
continuity for the inductor have to be used.
The voltage across the capacitor at t = 0:
v (0) = 11 + k1 + k2 = 2 ⇒ k1 + k 2 = −9
k1 = 9
8
The current passing through the inductor at t = 0:
k 2 = − 81
i (0) = −0.54k1 − 0.06k2 = 0 ⇒ 0.54k1 + 0.06k2 = 0 8
t ≥0
General RLC Circuit: d v ( t) d 2 v tr ( t )
21 tr
RC 35
LC
dt dt2
for t ≥ 0
5 dv (t )
R3 L i (t ) = C500 tr
dt
0
C7 v tr ( t )
By KVL: LC 2
+ RC + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt dt
LC 2
+ RC + vtr (t ) = LCz 2 +RCz1+1 = 0
dt dt dvtr (t )
replaced by z
dt
− RC ± ( RC ) 2 − 4 LC
z1 , z2 =
174 2 LC Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Recall that for RLC circuit, the Q factor is defined as
2πf 0 L 2πL 1 L LC
Q= = = =
R R 2π LC R LC RC
Thus,
LC
− RC ± RC 1 − 4
− RC ± ( RC ) 2 − 4 LC ( RC ) 2 − R ± R 1 − 4Q 2
z1 , z2 = = =
2 LC 2 LC 2L
two real roots if 1− 4Q2 > 0 or Q2 < 1/4 or Q < 1/2
= two complex conjugate roots if 1− 4Q2 < 0 or Q > 1/2
two identical roots if 1− 4Q2 = 0 or Q = 1/2

6.11 Overdamped Response
Reconsider the previous RLC example, i.e.,

t ≥0
d v ( t) d 2 v tr ( t )
21 tr 35
dt dt2
3 5 500
0 2
7 v tr ( t )
d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t ) LC 35
35 2
+ 21 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0 Q= = = 0.2817 < 1
2
dt dt RC 21
− 21 ± 212 − 4(35)(1) − 21 ± 17
z1 , z2 = = = − 0.54, − 0.06
2(35) 2(35)
vtr (t ) = k1e z1t + k2 e z2t = k1e −0.54 t + k2 e −0.06t , t ≥ 0
k1
− 0.54 t
k1e , t≥0
Due to its exponentially decaying

0 t
nature, the response itr(t) and the RLC
k2
− 0.06 t
k2 e ,t≥0 circuit are said to be overdamped.
Typically, when an external input is
0 t
suddenly applied to an overdamped
system, the system will take a long time
k1 + k2
− 0.06 t
v tr ( t ) = k 1e
− 0.54 t
+ k2e ,t≥0
to move in an exponentially decaying
manner to the steady state position.
The response is slow and sluggish, and

the Q factor is small.
177 0 t Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
6.12 Underdamped Response
t ≥0
vtr (0) = 2
d v tr ( t ) d 2 v tr ( t )
0.21 35
dt dt2
0.03 5 500
0 2
7 v tr ( t )
5 d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t )
Q= = 28 > 1 35 + 0.21 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
0.03 7 2 dt 2
dt
− 0.21 ± 0.212 − 4(35)(1) − 0.21 ± − 139.96

z1 , z2 = = = − 0.003 ± j 0.17
2(35) 2(35)

vtr (t ) = k1e z1 t + k 2 e z2 t = k1e ( −0.003 + j 0.17 ) t
+ k 2 e ( −0.003 − j 0.17 ) t
vtr (0) = k1 + k 2 = 2
itr (t ) = 7k1 ( −0.003 + j 0.17)e ( −0.003 + j 0.17 ) t + 7k 2 ( −0.003 − j 0.17)e ( −0.003 − j 0.17 ) t
= −0.042 + j1.19( k1 − k 2 ) = 0
= −0.021( k1 + k 2 ) + j1.19( k1 − k 2 )
itr (0) = 7k1 ( −0.003 + j 0.17) + 7k 2 ( −0.003 − j 0.17)
k1 − k 2 = − j 0.0353

vtr (t ) = k1e z1 t + k 2 e z2 t= k1e ( −0.003 + j 0.17 ) t
+ k 2 e ( −0.003 − j 0.17 ) t
(
= e −0.003t k1e j 0.17 t + k 2 e − j 0.17 t )
= e −0.003t {k1 [cos(0.17t ) + j sin (0.17t )] + k2 [cos(0.17t ) − j sin (0.17t )]}
= e −0.003t [(k1 + k 2 ) cos(0.17t ) + j (k1−k 2 )sin (0.17t )]
= e −0.003t [2 cos(0.17t ) + 0.0353 sin (0.17t )] , t ≥ 0
⎡ 2 0.0353 ⎤
= e −0.003t 2 2 + 0.03532 ⎢ 2 cos (0 .17 t ) + sin (0. 17 t )⎥
⎣ 2 + 0.03532 2 2 + 0.03532 ⎦
[
= 2e −0.003t cos1o cos(0.17t ) + sin 1o sin(0.17t ) , t ≥ 0 ]
(
= 2e −0.003t cos 0.17t − 1o , t ≥ 0 )
When an external input is applied to an
− 0.003 t
2e ,t≥0 underdamped system, the system will
2
oscillate. The oscillation will decay expon-
Frequency = 0.17
entially but it may take some time for the
system to reach its steady state position.
0 t Underdamped systems have large Q

factors and are used in systems such as
tune circuit. However, they will be not be
suitable in situations such as car
− suspensions or instruments with moving
v tr ( t ) = 2 e 0.003 t cos (0.17 t _ 1 ) , t ≥ 0
o
pointers.
It will take too long for the pointer to

Since this is an exponentially decaying
oscillate and settle down to its final position
sinusoid, the response vtr(t) and the RLC
if the damping system for the pointer is
circuit are said to be underdamped.
highly underdamped in nature.
6.13 Critically Damped Response
t ≥0
d v tr ( t ) d 2 v tr ( t )
140 35
dt dt2
5 1
Q= =
20 7 7 2 5
20 500
7 d v tr ( t )
7
dt
0 2
7 v tr ( t )
d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t ) z1 , z2 = −
1
35 + 140 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt 2
dt 35
t
−
vtr (t ) = (k1 + k2t ) e z1 t = (k1 + k2t ) e 35
⇒ vtr (0) = k1 = 2
itr (0) d
t t
− ⎛ kt ⎞ −
= (k1 + k2t ) e
k 2
35
= ⎜ k 2 − 1 − 2 ⎟e 35
= 0 ⇒ k2 =
7 dt
t =0
⎝ 35 35 ⎠ t =0
35
Example: The switch in the circuit shown in the following
circuit is closed at time t = 0. Obtain the current i2(t) for t > 0.
A 10 Ω B C
t≥0 i2
5Ω
100 V 0.01 H 5Ω
i1
F E D
After the switch is closed, the current passing through the source
or the 10Ω resistor is i1 + i2. Applying the KVL to the loops,
ABEFA and ABCDEFA, respectively, we obtain
10(i1 + i2 ) + 5i1 + 0.01 = 100
di1
dt
10(i1 + i2 ) + 5i2 = 100 i2 = (100 − 10i1 ) / 15
di1
+ 833i1 = 3333
dt
i1 (∞ ) = 3333 / 833 = 4.0A i1 (t ) = α e −833t + 4.0
i1 (0 ) = 0 α = − 4 .0 i1 (t ) = 4.0(1 − e −833t )
i2 (t ) = 4.0 + 2.67e −833t

Chapter 7: Magnetic Circuit

7.1 Magnetic Field and Material
In electrostatic, an electric field is formed by static charges. It is described in

terms of the electric field intensity. The permittivity is a measure of how easy
it is for the field to be established in a medium given the same charges.
Similarly, a magnetic field is formed by moving charges or electric currents.

It is described in terms of the magnetic flux density B, which has a unit of
tesla(T) = (N/A)m. The permeability μ is a measure of how easy it is for a
magnetic field to be formed in a material. The higher the μ, the greater the
B for the same currents.
−7
In free space, μ is μ0 = 4π × 10 H m. The relative permeability μr is
μ Most "non-magnetic" materials such as air and wood have

μr =
μ0 μr ≈ 1. However, "magnetic materials" such as iron and steel
may have μr ≈ 1000.
7.2 Magnetic Flux ---- Consider the following magnetic system:
Magnetic material
Permeability μ If μ is large, almost
the entire magnetic
i
field will be
Cross sectional area A
N turns concentrated inside
Average length l the material and
there will be no flux
leakage.
The distribution of flux density B or field lines will be
Field lines
form closed paths
Since the field lines form
closed paths and there
i
Total flux Φ
is no leakage, the total
N turns flux Φ passing through
any cross section of the
material is the same.
Assuming the flux to be uniformly distributed so that the flux density B have
the same value over the entire cross sectional area A:
Total flux Φ
Cross sectional area A
Φ
Same flux density B =
A
Φ weber (Wb)
B= with units tesla (T ) =
A m2
7.3 Ampere's Law
The values of Φ or B can be calculated using Ampere's law:

B
Line integral of along any closed path = current enclosed by path
μ
Permeability μ
i Cross sectional area A
Path length l
N turns
B Bl ⎛ l ⎞
Line integral of along dotted path = = ⎜ ⎟Φ
μ μ ⎝ μA ⎠ ⎛ l ⎞
Ni = ⎜ ⎟ Φ
= Current enclosed by dotted path Ni ⎝ μA ⎠

Note that the ratio H = B/μ is called the magnetic field
intensity and Ampere's law is usually stated in terms of
H. Stating the law in terms of H has the advantage that
the effects of magnetic materials, which influence μ, is
not in the main equation. In a certain sense,
characterizes the magnetic field due to only current
distributions. By multiplying H with μ to end up with the
most important flux density B, the effect of the medium is
taken into consideration.
⎛ l ⎞ Φ NiμA ⎛ N ⎞
B
Ni = ⎜ ⎟ Φ H= = = =⎜ ⎟i
⎝ μA ⎠ μ μA lμA ⎝ l ⎠
B Saturated
H
0
Saturated B
H=
μ
⎛ N⎞
H = ⎜ ⎟ i, which is propotional to the current i.
192
⎝ l ⎠ Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
7.4 Magnetic and Electric Circuits --- A more complicated example:
Assuming no flux
i
leakage and Total flux Φ
Area A2
uniform flux N turns Flux density B2 = Φ
A2
distribution, the
field lines, total
flux and flux
densities are: Total flux Φ
Area A1
Flux density B1 = Φ
A1
i Average length l 2
Ampere’s Law:
Area A2
B
N turns Line integral of μ
Permeability μ2 along any closed
path = current
enclosed by path
Average length l 1 Area A1 Permeability μ1
Averagelength
Average lengthl 2 l2Area Area
A2 A2
Permeability μ2 Flux densityB2
i
),
Permeability μ2l 2 BFlux density
l2 B2
+ . Φ
2
Line integral = μ =
2 μ2 A2
l B l
N turns
Line integral =
2 2
= 2
Φ
μ2 μ 2 A2
⎛ l l ⎞
Ni = ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟⎟Φ
Average length l Area A1
⎝ μ1 A1 μ 2 A2 ⎠
Average length 1l1 Area A1 Same total flux Φ
Permeability μ1 Flux densityB 1
Line integralμ=1 μ
B1 density
l 1Flux l1 ),
Permeability
1
=
μ1 A1+ .
ΦB1
l12B12 l1l2
Line integral = == ΦΦ
μ12 μμ12AA12 = Current enclosed by path = Ni
B B1l1 B2l2 ⎛ l1 l2 ⎞
Line integral of along entire path = + = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟Φ
μ μ1 μ2 ⎝ μ1 A1 μ 2 A2 ⎠
Note that the above process of calculation magnetic flux is the same
as the calculation of current in the following electric circuit:
ℜ1 = l1 ℜ2 = l2
μ1 A1 μ2 A2
Φ Φ
Φℜ1 Φℜ2
Ni
From KVL, the same equation can be obtained:
⎛ l1 l2 ⎞
Ni = Φ ℜ1+ Φ ℜ2 = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟Φ
⎝ μ1 A1 μ 2 A2 ⎠
This is not surprising because the two basic laws in electric circuits are
equivalent to the two basic laws in magnetic circuits and the following
quantities are equivalent:
Electric circuits Magnetic circuits
KCL: Flux lines form closed path:

total current entering a closed total flux entering a closed surface
surface equals total current equals total flux leaving the surface
leaving the surface
KVL: Ampere's law:

sum of voltages along a closed integral or sum of B μ ("magnetic
path equals zero voltage drops") along a closed path
equals currents enclosed ("magnetic
voltage sources")
Voltage Ni (magnetomotive force or mmf)
Current Φ (flux)
l1
Resistance ℜ= (reluctance)
μ1 A1

Thus, provided there is no flux leakage and uniform distribution of flux across
any cross section, the parallel magnetic circuit with reluctances as indicated:
ℜ2 ℜ4
equivalent one to the other N turns Φ1 ℜ6 Φ2

ℜ1 ℜ7
ℜ3 ℜ5
ℜ2 ℜ4
Φ1 Φ2
ℜ1 You can use the DC
ℜ6 ℜ7 circuit techniques to
Ni
solve this problem.
ℜ3 ℜ5

7.5 Inductance --- Consider the magnetic circuit:
Permeability μ
i (t )
Area A
N turns
Average length l
Assuming no flux leakage and uniform flux distribution, the reluctance and
the flux linking or enclosed by the winding is
l mmf Ni (t )
ℜ= and Φ (t ) = =
μA reluctance ℜ

From Faraday's law of induction, a voltage will be induced in the winding
if the flux linking the winding changes as a function of time. This induced
voltage, called the back emf (electromotive force) will attempt to oppose
the change and is given by
Flux linking winding
Ni ( t)
Φ ( t) =
d Φ (t ) N 2 di (t ) ℜ
v (t ) = N =
dt ℜ dt
i ( t)
d Φ (t ) N22 di(t )
Voltage induced
An equivalent inductor: vv((t t))== N ),
d Φ ( t) = N d i ( t)
i (t)
N dt
dt +. = ℜ dt
ℜ dt
N turns
d i (t) N2
v (t) = L L= ℜ
dt
The inductance
The following summarize the main features of an ideal magnetic
system with no flux leakage:
Num ber of turns N
Current at tim e t i (t )
Reluctance ℜ
MMF at tim e t Ni (t )
Ni (t )
Flux at tim e t Φ (t ) =
ℜ
d Φ (t )
Back em f at tim e t v (t ) = N
dt
N2
Inductance L=
ℜ
Li 2 (t ) [Ni (t )]2 ℜ Φ 2 (t )
e (t ) =
Energy stored in
= =
m agnetic field at 2 2ℜ 2
tim e t
7.6 Force --- Consider the magnetic relay:
Air gap permeability μ0
With no flux
0.1 cm
leakage and
2
2 cm
Movable armature
5A
held stationary
uniform flux
by spring distribution
300 turns Permeability 7 cm
4000 μ0 (even in air
gaps)
8 cm
3 10 10.375
Reluctance of entire magnetic material Total reluctance = ℜ = 8μ + μ = μ0
0 0
2(7cm+8− 0.1cm ) 0.298m 2.98
= = =
4000 μ 0 (2cm 2 ) 4000 μ 0 (2 × 10 −4 m 2 ) 8μ 0 Flux
Reluctance of two air gaps mmf 300(5)
2(0.1cm )
Φ= =
= =
0 .1
=
10 ℜ 10.375 μ0
( )
μ0 2cm 2 μ0 (1cm ) μ0
201
( )
= 145 4π × 10−7 = 0.182 × 10−3 Wb
Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Due to the much smaller permeability, the reluctance of the air gaps is much
larger than that of the entire magnetic material. The inductance and energy
stored in the system are
(no. of turns )2 (300)2

Inductance: L= = = 10.9mH
ℜ 10.375 μ0
ℜΦ
=
(
10.375 0.182 × 10
2
)
−3 2
= 0.137J
Energy stored in magnetic field = 2 2 μ0
To determine the force of attraction f on the armature, suppose the

armature moves in the direction of f by δl so that the total reluctance
changes by δℜ. Also, suppose the current is changed by δi but the flux is
not changed:

2 cm2
0.1 cm − δ l
Work done by armature = f (δl)
5+ δi
Same flux Φ as before
300 turns Force f

Increase in energy stored in magnetic field
=
(ℜ+δ ℜ ) Φ 2
−
ℜ Φ2 δ ℜ Φ2
=
2 2 2
From energy conservation:
As there is no change in flux
δ ℜ Φ2 ⎛ Φ2 ⎞ δ ℜ
linkage (which will be the case if f (δ l ) = − ⇒ f = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ δl
the magnetic system is close to
For our example
saturation), there is no back emf
⎡ 0.1cm−δ l 0.1cm ⎤ 104 δ l
δ ℜ = 2⎢ − =−
and there is no energy supplied (
⎣ μ0 2cm
2
) 2 ⎥
μ0 2cm ⎦ ( )
μ0
by the electrical system. Then
⎛ Φ 2 ⎞ δ ℜ 104 Φ 2 104 0.182 × 10−3
f = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
( ) 2
= 132N
203
⎝ 2 ⎠ δ l 2 μ 0 2 4π × 10 −7
( ) Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
7.7 Mutual Inductor
Reluctance ℜ
i 1 (t) i 2 (t)
The two dots are
associated with the N1 v 2 (t)
v 1 (t) N2
directions of the
windings. The fields Primary Secondary
winding Flux Φ (t) winding
produced by the two
windings will be
constructive If the Total mmf = N1i1 (t ) + N 2i2 (t )
currents going into total mmf N1i1 (t ) + N 2i2 (t )

Total flux = Φ (t ) = =
the dots have the ℜ ℜ
same sign.
dΦ (t ) ⎛ N12 ⎞ di1 (t ) ⎛ N1 N 2 ⎞ di2 (t )
v1 (t ) = N1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ +⎜ ⎟
dt ⎝ ℜ ⎠ dt ⎝ ℜ ⎠ dt
N1N 2 N12 N 22
= •
ℜ ℜ ℜ dΦ (t ) ⎛ N1N 2 ⎞ di1 (t ) ⎛ N 22 ⎞ di2 (t )
v2 (t ) = N 2 =⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dt ⎝ ℜ ⎠ dt ⎝ ℜ ⎠ dt
N12
Inductance of primary winding on its own = L1 =
ℜ
N2 2
Inductance of secondary winding on its own = L2 =
ℜ
di1 (t ) di2 (t ) di1 (t ) di2 (t )
( )
v1 t = L1 + L1L2 = L1 +M
dt dt dt dt
di1 (t ) di (t ) di (t ) di (t )
v2 (t ) = L1L2 + L2 2 = M 1 + L2 2
dt dt dt dt
where M = L1L2 is called the mutual inductance between the two
windings. Graphically, M
i 1 (t) i 2 (t)
d i 1 (t) d i (t) d i 1 (t) d i (t)

v 1 (t) = L1 +M 2 L1 L2 v 2 (t) = M + L2 2
dt dt dt dt
N12 , N22
L1 = L2 = , M 2 = L1 L2 for no flux leakage and perfect coupling
ℜ ℜ
In an ac environment when the currents i1(t) and i2(t) are given by:
i1 (t ) = I1 2 cos[ω t + Arg ( I1 )] = Re I1 [ ( 2e jω t )] i2 (t ) = Re I 2[ ( 2e jω t )]
v1 (t ) = L1
di1 (t )
+M
di2 (t )
= L1
[ (
d Re I1 2e jω t
+M
)]
d Re I 2 2e jω t [ ( )]
dt dt dt dt
[ ( )]
= L1 Re jω I1 2e jω t + M Re jω I 2 [ ( 2e jω t )]
[
= Re ( jω L1 I1 + jω MI 2 ) 2e jω t ( )] V1 = jω L1 I1 + jω MI 2
[
v2 (t ) = Re ( jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2 ) 2e jω t ( )] V2 = jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2
M
I1 I2
V1 = j ω L 1 I 1 + j ω M I 2 L1 L2 V2 = j ω M I 1 + j ωL 2 I 2

7.8 Transformer
Now consider connecting a mutual inductor to a load with impedance ZL

M
N12 I1 I2
L1 =
ℜ
V1 = j ω L 1 I 1 + j ω M I 2 L1 L2 V2 = j ω M I 1 + j ωL 2 I 2 ZL ZL I 2
N2 2
L2 =
ℜ M = L1L2
V2 = − Z L I 2 = jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2
V2 MI1 + L2 I 2 L1L2 I1 + L2 I 2
= = − jω MI1 = ( jω L2 + Z L ) I 2
V1 L1 I1 + MI 2 L1 I1 + L1L2 I 2
L2 ( L1 I1 + L2 I 2 ) I1
=−
jω L2 + Z L
≈−
jω L2
=
L1 ( L1 I1 + L2 I 2 ) I2 jω M jω M
L2 L
L2 N 22 ℜ N 2 =− = − 2 = −n
= = = = n, turn ratio L1L2 L1
L1 Ν 1 ℜ N1
2
if | jω L2 | >> Z L
I1
I1 1: n n
Voltages and currents of the primary
and secondary windings of the ideal
transformer with | jω L2 | >> Z L V1 nV1 ZL
I1
I1 n
1: n
I1 V1 Z L
V1 nV1 nV1 = Z L ⇒ = 2
n I1 n
Equivalent Load: A load connected I1
to the secondary of a transformer

can be replaced by an equivalent ZL
V1
n2
load directly connected to the primary
Annex G.7. A Past Year Exam Paper
Appendix C.4 will be attached to this year’s paper!

Q.1 (a) Using nodal analysis, derive (but DO NOT simplify or solve) the
equations for determining the nodal voltages in the circuit of Fig. 1(a).
10
10
8 10
v2
40
v3
v1
84 20 2
Fig. 1(a)
Numbering the nodes in the circuit by 1, 2 and 3 from left to right, and
applying KCL:
v1 − 84 v1 − v2 v1 − v3 − 10 v v −v v −v
+ + = 0 2 + 2 1 + 2 3 = 0 v3 − v2 + 2 + v3 − v1 +10 = 0
8 10 10 20 10 40 40 10
(b) Using mesh analysis, derive (but DO NOT solve) the matrix
equation for determining the loop currents in the circuit of Fig. 1(b).
Note that the circuit has a dependent source.
9
15 i1 v 12 i2 6 i3 v
Fig. 1(b)
Relating loop to branch currents and applying KVL:
15 = v = 12(i1 − i2 )
⎡1 0 0 − 1⎤ ⎡ v ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
6(i2 − i3 ) + 9i2 + 12(i2 − i1 ) = 0 ⎢0 − 12 27 − 6⎥ ⎢ i ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⇒ − 12i1 + 27i2 − 6i3 = 0 ⎢1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢i2 ⎥ ⎢15⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢i ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 12 − 12 0 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣15⎦
i3 = v
(c) Determine the Thevenin or Norton Replacing all independent sources
equivalent circuits as seen from with their internal resistances, the
terminals A and B of the network of resistance across A and B is
Fig. 1(c). What is the maximum power R = 20 || 20 = 10

that can be obtained from these two
Using superposition, the open
terminals?
circuit voltage across A and B is
⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
v AB = 120⎜ ⎟ + 25⎜ ⎟20
⎝ 20 + 20 ⎠ ⎝ 20 + 20 ⎠
20
= 310
A 10
120 25 20 A
B
310
Fig. 1(c) B
3102
The maximum power p =
212
4(10) Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Q.2 (a) A 5 kW electric motor is operating at a lagging power factor of 0.5.
If the input voltage is
(
v(t ) = 500 sin ωt + 100 )
determine the apparent power, and find the phasor and sinusoidal
expression for the input current.
Letting V and I to be the voltage and current phasors, the apparent power is
5000
= 10000VA = VI = | V | | I |
0. 5
where V =
500
e j (10 0
− 90 0
) =
500
e − j 80 0
and I =
10000 10000 2
= = 20 2
V 500
2 2
arg(I ) − arg(V ) = − cos −1 (0.5)
i (t ) = 20 2 2 cos(ωt − 80 0 − cos −1 0.5)
= 40 cos(ωt − 80 0 − cos −1 0.5) I = 20 2e ( j −800 −cos−1 0.5 )

(b) In the circuit of Fig. 2(b), the Using phasor analysis
current i(t) is the excitation and the ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 ⎜ 0.1 + jω
H( f )= =
voltage v(t) is the response. V ⎟
I jω ⎜ 0.1 + jω + 1 ⎟
Determine the frequency response ⎜ jω ⎟
⎝ ⎠
of the circuit. Derive (but DO NOT 0.1 + jω
=
solve) an equation for finding the 1 + j 0.1ω − ω 2
"resonant" frequency at which the

The phase response is
frequency response becomes
⎛ω ⎞ −1 ⎛ 0.1ω ⎞
purely real. arg[H ( f )] = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ − tan ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 0 . 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 − ω ⎠
1 The resonant frequency is therefore given by

i (t) 1 v(t)
⎛ 0.1ω ⎞
0.1 tan −1 (10ω ) = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 1 − ω ⎠
214 Fig. 2(b) Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

(c) A series RLC resonant circuit is to be designed for use in a communication
receiver. Based on measurements using an oscilloscope, the coil that is
available is found to have an inductance of 25.3mH and a resistance of 2 Ω.
Determine the value of the capacitor that will give a resonant frequency of
1.kHz. If a Q factor of 100 is required, will the coil be good enough?
2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
f0 = ⇒ C = ⎜⎜ ⎟ =⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎟ = 1μF
⎟
2π LC ⎝ 2π L f 0 ⎠ ⎝ 2π 25 . 3 × 10 −3
1000 ⎠
ω0 L2π 1000(25.3)10 −3
Q= = = 79.5
R 2
Since this is less than 100, the coil is not good enough.

Q.3 (a) In the circuit of Fig. 3(a), the switch has been in the position shown
for a long time and is thrown to the other position for time t ≥ 0. Determine
the values of i(t), vC(t), vR(t), vL(t), and di(t)/dt just after the switch has been
moved to the final position? vR (t) vL (t)
t =0
L
Taking all the voltages i (t) R
and currents to be vC (t) C

1 2
constants for t < 0:
dvC (t )
i (t ) = C =0 Fig. 3(a)
dt
Applying continuity for i(t) and vC(t):
vR (t ) = Ri (t ) = 0
i (0 ) = 0 vR (0 ) = Ri (0 ) = 0 vC (0 ) = 1
di (t )
vL (t ) = L =0 vC (0) + vR (0 ) + vL (0) = 2 ⇒ vL (0) = 1
dt
vC (t ) + vR (t ) + vL (t ) = 1 ⇒ vC (t ) = 1 di (t ) di (t ) vL (0 ) 1
vL (t ) = L ⇒ = =
216 dt dt t =0 L LCopyrighted by Ben M. Chen
di (t )
(b) For vS(t) = cos(t+1), derive vL (t ) = L
dt
(but DO NOT solve) the
dvC (t ) dvL (t ) d 2i (t )
differential equation from which iC (t ) = C =C = CL
dt dt dt 2
i(t) can be found in the circuit of
d 2i (t )
Fig. 3(b). Is this differential iR (t ) = iC (t ) + i (t ) = CL 2
+ i (t )
dt
equation sufficient for i(t) to be
d 2i (t )
determined? vR (t ) = RiR (t ) = RCL 2
+ Ri(t )
dt
Applying KVL:
R
vS (t ) = vR (t ) + vL (t )
i (t)
vS (t)
d 2i (t ) di (t )
C
( ) = cos(t + 1)
L
= RCL 2
+ Ri t + L
dt dt
Fig. 3(b) This is not sufficient for i(t) to be determined.

(c) The differential equation characterizing the current i(t) in a certain RCL
circuit is d 2i (t ) 1 di (t ) i (t )
+ + = e jt
dt 2 CR dt CL
Determine the condition for R, L and C such that the circuit is critically
damped.
The characteristic equation for the transient response is
z 1 1 1 4
z +
2
+ =0 − ± 2 2
−
CR CL z1, 2 = CR C R CL
2
Thus, the circuit will be critically damped if
1 4
2 2
=
C R CL
Q.4 (a) Determine the mean and rms values of the voltage waveform in
Fig. 4(a). If this waveform is applied to a 20 Ω resistor, what is the power
absorbed by the resistor?
Volt
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 second
Fig. 4(a)
⎛ 2 3
⎞
One period of the waveform is 400⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(20t ) dt
2
∫
2
vms = 0
= ⎝ 3 ⎠ = 800
⎧20t , 0 ≤ t < 2
v(t ) = ⎨
4 4 3
⎩0, 2≤t <4
2
⎛2 ⎞ 800 v 800 40
p = rms = =
2
vrms =
20⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 3(20 ) 3
2
∫
vm = 0
20 tdt
= ⎝
2 ⎠ = 10
3 20
219
4 4 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(b) In the circuit of Fig. 4(b), a transformer is used to couple a loudspeaker
to a amplifier. The loudspeaker is represented by an impedance of value
ZL=.6 + j 2, while the amplifier is represented by a Thevenin equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source in series with an impedance of ZS = 3 + j a.
Determine the voltage across the loudspeaker. Hence, find the value of a
such that this voltage is maximized. Will maximum power be delivered to the
loudspeaker under this condition?
ZS
1: 2
10 ZL
Amplifier Loudspeaker
Fig. 4(b)
If V is the voltage across the loudspeaker, the currents in the primary & secondary
windings are V 2V
I2 = I1 = 2 I 2 =
ZL ZL
V
The primary voltage is V1 =
2
2VZ S V
Applying KVL to the primary circuit: 10 = I1Z S + V1 = +
ZL 2
10 20 20(6 + 2 j )
V= = =
2Z S 1
+ ⎛ 3 + aj ⎞ 18 + j (4a + 2)
1 + 4⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ZL 2 ⎝6+2 j ⎠
For the magnitude of this to be maximized, the denominator has to be minimized:
⎡ 20(6 + 2 j ) ⎤
⎥ = min[18 + j (4a + 2 ) ]
2 1
max ⎢ a=− =−
⎣ 18 + j (4a + 2 ) ⎦ 4 2
Maximum power will be delivered since power is proportional to |V |2.
Method 2: The given circuit is equivalent to the following one,
3+ja
6+j2
10 V1
4
Then, we have
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 10 ⎟ ⎛3 1⎞ 10(3 + j )
V1 = ⎜ + j ⎟=
⎜ ⎛3 ⎟
1⎞ ⎝2 2 ⎠ 9 + j (2a + 1)
⎜ (3 + ja ) + ⎜ + j ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝2 2⎠⎠
20(3 + j )
⇒ Vload = V2 = nV1 =
9 + j (2a + 1)
The rest follows …...

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EG1103 Electrical Engineering

1 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

2 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

• Singapore Telecom (largest in Singapore)

“Yan can Cook”:

4 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

• D. E. Johnson, J. R. Johnson and J. L. Hilburn, Electric

• S. A. Boctor, Electric Circuits Analysis, 2nd Ed., Prentice

5 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

However, certain parts of the textbook will not be covered

ASK any question at any time during the lecture.

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The tutorials will start on Week 4 of the semester. (Week 1 corresponds

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There will be an one-hour (actually 50 minutes) test. It will be given

+ 85% of Your Examination Marks (max = 100)

9 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

SI Units. Voltage, current, power and energy. Voltage and current

First order RL and RC circuits. Steady state and transient responses.

Magnetic flux and mmf. Ampere’s law. Force between surfaces.

Current and voltage measurement. Common instruments. Oscilloscope.

11 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Developed by: CC Ko and Ben M. Chen

• Have you ever missed your experiments?

Visit newly developed web-based virtual labs available from

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Two common dc (direct current) voltage sources are:

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18 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

19 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Consider the following device,

The power or the rate of energy consumed by the device is thus p = i v.

20 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Power supplied Power absorbed

The symbol for an ideal resistor is i

22 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Powers, voltages and currents are often measured in relative terms

will have a relative value of

Reference Actual power Relative Power

1mW 100 mW 100 20dB

1mW 200 mW 200 = 100 × 2 23 dB = 20 dB + 3 dB

24 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

For instance, taking

25 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

This is often used as a measure of the relative voltage v vref .

Reference Actual voltage Relative Voltage

27 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

28 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier

v Voltage 2v Voltage 2.8v Voltage 28v

the overall voltage gain will be

g total = 6dB + 3dB + 20dB = 29dB

29 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

A: No. The arrow itself is meaningless. As re-iterated in the class, any

Q: What is the current of a voltage source?

A: The current of a voltage source is depended on the other part of circuit

30 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen

Q: Does a volt source always supply power to other components in a circuit?