Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286

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Building and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Review of water-heating systems: General selection approach based

on energy and environmental aspects
Oussama Ibrahim a, c, Farouk Fardoun a, Rafic Younes b, *, Hasna Louahlia-Gualous c
a
University Institute of Technology, Department GIM, Lebanese University, Saida, Lebanon
b
Faculty of Engineering, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
c
Université de Caen Base Normandie, LUSAC, IUT de Cherbourg Manche, 50000 Saint Lô, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water heating contributes an important proportion of residential energy consumption all around the
Received 29 June 2013 world. Different kinds of domestic hot-water production systems exist. The operational cost, environ-
Received in revised form mental effect and performance of these systems differ according to various energy sources, climates,
20 September 2013
system types and system designs. Hence, the proper choice of a domestic hot-water system could save
Accepted 21 September 2013
energy, protect nature and reduce operational costs, significantly. This paper illustrates, to the best of the
author’s knowledge, the existing water-heating systems all along with the principle, advantages, dis-
Keywords:
advantages and state-of-the-art for each. Six different categories were presented, namely wood, oil/gas,
Water-heating systems
Energy performance
electric, heat pump, solar and instantaneous systems. The heat-pump systems were further classified
Environment into several groups, namely air source, ground source, solar assisted, ground source-solar assisted,
Hybrid systems photovoltaicethermal and gas-engine driven systems. In addition, concerning solar water heating,
Selection approach different types of systems and collectors were presented and reviewed. Principal conclusions from the
review are outlined and a general approach to recommend the appropriate water-heating system is
proposed.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction exist. The operating cost, environmental effect and performance of

Energy demand is continuously increasing due to global popu-
lation growth and improved living standards. However, fossil fuels,
the current primary energy source, are being consumed in a
random increasing manner, even though they are non-renewable
and their global quantity is limited. Consequently, environmental
pollution and global warming are fearfully increasing. Based on this
fact, worldwide governments are working hard to raise the share of
renewable energy sources, reduce energy consumption and
accordingly reduce environmental pollution. Different energy ap-
proaches have been proposed for various cases such as energy
conservation building codes, low energy buildings, ultra-low en-
ergy buildings, zero energy buildings and energy-plus buildings.
Water heating is a major energy consumer all around the world.
For instance, its share of the total residential energy consumption is
about 11% in USA [1], 14% in Europe [2], 22% in Canada [3], 25% in
Australia [4], 29% in Mexico [5], 27% in China [6], 32% in South Africa
[7], etc. Different kinds of domestic hot-water production systems
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ961 3316864.
E-mail addresses: oibrahim@etu.unicaen.fr (O. Ibrahim), ffardoun@ul.edu.lb
(F. Fardoun), ryounes@ul.edu.lb, rafic.younes@lsis.org (R. Younes), hasna.gualous@
unicaen.fr (H. Louahlia-Gualous).
these systems differ according to energy source, climate, system
type, and system design. Hence, the proper choice of a domestic
hot-water system could significantly save energy, protect the
environment and reduce operating costs. Thus, a comprehensive
review of various water-heating systems is a prerequisite to
recommend the proper choice among the existing systems or
suggest new designs and approaches that would enhance re-
ductions in energy consumption, environmental pollution and
operating cost.
Few studies have been carried out on the review of domestic-
scale water-heating systems. Hepbasli and Kalinci [8] presented a
review on heat-pump water-heating systems in terms of energetic
and exergetic aspects. Jaisankar et al. [9] made a comprehensive
review on solar water heaters. This study reviewed various tech-
niques able to enhance the thermal efficiency in a solar water
heater and conducted a detailed discussion on the limitations of
existing research. Furthermore, it suggested possible modifications
that would improve the overall efficiency of the system. Shukla
et al. [10] conducted a review on solar water heaters with phase
change materials used as thermal energy storage media. Their
study demonstrated that for better thermal performance of a solar
water heater, a phase change material with high latent heat and

0360-1323/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.09.006
260 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286

Nomenclature GWH gas water heater

HFO heavy fuel oil
A area [m2] HGCHP hybrid ground-coupled heat-pump system
Cb synthetical conductance [W/m K] HP heat pump
COP coefficient of performance [e] HPWH heat-pump water heater
COPp/t comprehensive coefficient of thermal and electrical HPGHP hybrid-power gas-engine driven heat-pump system
performance [e] HTF heat transfer fluid
ES engine speed (rpm) HVAC heating, ventilation and air conditioning
F heat-exchange area per unit of cooling capacity [m2/ HVACSIMþ heating, ventilation and air-conditioning simulation
kW] plus other systems
f solar fraction [%] HR heat recovery
F0 collector efficiency factor [e] ICSSWH integrated collector storage solar water heater
FR collector heat removal factor [e] ISAHP integral-type solar-assisted heat-pump water heater
h heat transfer coefficient [W/m2 K] LPG liquefied petroleum gas
I intensity of solar radiation [W/m2 or kJ/m2] MDATR mean daily ambient temperature range
k thermal conductivity [W/m k] MFGSHP multi-function ground source heat pump
l length [m] min/max minimum/maximum
m _ mass flow rate [kg/s or L/min] NiAL nickelealuminum
n compressor speed [rpm] PCM phase change material
Nu Nusselt number [e] PEC primary energy consumption
PBP payback period [years] PER primary energy ratio
Q capacity [W or kJ] PP paraffin and palmitic acid
T temperature [K or  C] PS paraffin and stearic acid
UL collector overall heat loss coefficient [W/m2  C] PTC parabolic-trough collector
~
V volume flow rate [m3/h] PV photovoltaic
h efficiency [%] PV/T photovoltaicethermal
hf energy-saving efficiency [%] RUWCT reversibly used water cooling tower
h*R characteristic heat removal efficiency [%] [132] SA solar assisted
h*s system characteristic efficiency [%] [132] S-AV surface area availability
h0 modified efficiency ð ¼ h*R $h*s Þ [%] SAHP solar-assisted heat pump
sa transmittanceeabsorptance product [e] SAHPWHsolar-assisted heat-pump water heater
F latitude of the studied location ( ) SAS solar-air source
b collector slope ( ) SDHW solar domestic hot-water system
z PV cell covering factor [e] SE mean daily solar energy
s transmissivity [e] SM stearic acid and myristic acid
ε exergy efficiency [%] SMAV shape memory alloy valve
εc thermal storage efficiency [e] SPF seasonal performance factor
SWHS solar water-heating system
Abbreviations TMY typical meteorological year
AMDAT Average minimum daily ambient air temperature in TRNSYS transient system simulation program
the cold season V volume
ANN artificial neural networks WH water heater
ASHP air-source heat pump WLHPS water-loop heat-pump system
ASHPWHair-source heat-pump water heater w.r.t. with respect to
a-Si amorphous silicon ZNEH zero-net-energy homes
bp balance point
c-Si crystalline silicon Subscripts Explanation
DHW domestic hot water a air
DSF direct solar floor avg average
DX direct expansion c space cooling
E energy/electric back-up cw space cooling and water heating
EEV electronic expansion valve cl collector
EHP electric driven heat pump dhn daily hot-water need
EWH electric water heater dp(sp)-stSWH double (single) pass sheet-and tube-solar water
ETC evacuated-tube collector heater with external recycle
EVA ethylene vinyl acetate E engine
FPC flat-plate collector e evaporator, electric
G gas back-up h heating
GEHP gas-engine driven heat pump HP heat pump
GHC gas heat consumption hp heat pipe
GHG greenhouse gas hs heat store
GIS geographic information system HTF heat transfer fluid
GSHP ground source heat pump i inlet
GSHPWHground source heat-pump water heater k condenser
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
L load
m reflector
o outlet
PV photovoltaic
R reservoir
ref refrigerant
SP solar pump
large heat transfer surface area is required. Chow [11] presented a
review on photovoltaic/thermal hybrid solar technology. In this
study, some sections were dedicated to the review of water-type
PV/T systems, which are used for water heating and electricity
generation. Other sections reviewed PV/T integrated heat pumps,
where one of their applications is water heating.
The main objective of this study is to carry out a comprehensive
review of different domestic-scale water-heating systems, where
six different categories are presented; namely wood, oil/gas, elec-
tric, heat pump, solar and instantaneous systems. The principle,
advantages and disadvantages of these systems are illustrated.
Moreover, the state-of-the-art of the studied systems is presented
in detail, where categorization according to the type of study
(electric water heaters), energy source (heat pumps) or system type
(solar systems) is adopted when necessary. In addition, for some
cases, summary tables of results for the state-of-the-art are
developed to reduce the content of the paper and illustrate
important results of different studies in an explicit, abbreviated
form. Furthermore, the paper discusses a general methodology to
select the appropriate water-heating system according to different
parameters. Noting that the review sections present studies that
are mainly dedicated for domestic water heating and others that
illustrate multi-function systems where domestic water heating is
one of their applications.
2. Review of water-heating systems
2.1. Wood water heater
2.1.1. Principle
A wood-fired water heater is a heating appliance that uses wood
as an energy source. Wood stoves are less used nowadays for water
heating. They are usually used for cooking and space heating.
2.1.2. Types
Two basic types of wood-fired domestic water-heating systems
exist: direct and indirect. The direct type consists of a water tank
that is heated directly by the fire produced through burning wood.
The indirect type uses heat exchangers to transfer heat from the
wood stove to the water in a storage tank. Exchangers can be
mounted inside the stove, in the stovepipe, or around the stove-
pipe. Water circulates through the exchanger whenever a fire is
burning, either naturally using the thermosyphon principle or by
means of a small circulating pump [13].
2.1.3. Advantages
 The operating cost is much lower than that of conventional gas,
oil or electric water heaters as wood is significantly less
expensive than competing fossil fuels
 Wood is considered a renewable energy source because it can be
continually replenished, which leads to a sustainable and
dependable supply [14]
 It is a clean energy source, since the net greenhouse gas emis-
sions are almost null, as the CO2 generated during combustion of
261
sph single phase
st storage tank
sys system
t total
th thermal
w water
wh water heating
wood nearly equals CO2 consumed during the lifecycle of the
tree [14]
 Using wood as an energy source helps reduce the dependence
on non-renewable fossil fuel energy sources as well as increases
the energy security of countries that depend on fuel imports to
meet their energy needs.
2.1.4. Disadvantages
 Locally, it produces dangerous fumes
 It is difficult to control the water temperature
 The energy content of wood is lower than that of traditional
fuels (19 MJ/kg) [16]
 The problem of back drafting exists in wood stoves that use a
natural draft to get rid of the combustion gases [15]
 Thermosyphon, indirect wood stove water heating induces the
problem of air pockets in the piping which blocks the water
circulation and imposes the presence of a special design to get
rid of the air particles [12].
Johansson et al. [16] compared the emissions related to resi-
dential old-type wood boilers, modern-type wood boilers and
pellet boilers. Their results revealed that old-type wood boilers
cause substantially high emissions of particles and un-oxidized
gaseous compounds, as well as a high climate change effect
compared to the other types. Hence, the substitution of the old type
with a modern wood boiler attached to a storage tank or with a
pellet boiler would significantly reduce emissions as well as in-
crease efficiency. It is worth noting that modern wood boilers are
usually designed for down-draught combustion instead of up-
draught combustion used in old types. Dias et al. [17] examined
the performance of a wood-pellet boiler with four different types of
pellets that mainly differ in the nitrogen-content composition. All
pellet types resulted in similar boiler thermal performance.
Maximum CO emissions were observed during the boiler start-up
due to maximum combustion intensity. Under steady-state condi-
tions, the minimum CO emissions is achieved with about 13% ox-
ygen concentration in the flue-gases and NOx emissions correlated
well with both excess air and pellets nitrogen content. Persson et al.
[18] developed a mathematical model for wood-pellet boilers and
stoves implemented in the dynamic simulation program “TRNSYS”.
However, in spite of good agreement with measured data, further
modeling improvements were recommended. Galbally et al. [19]
studied the effect of leakage from the heater and flue, related to a
wood water heater in Launceston, Australia, on the indoor air
concentrations of the BTEX pollutants: benzene, toluene, ethyl
benzene and xylene. No direct influence on the concentrations of
BTEX within the house was detected. This was attributed to the
leaky house envelope [19]; however, the indoor concentration of
BTEX in all houses in the area increased as a result of releasing
emissions to the ambient atmosphere. Verma et al. [20] studied
experimentally the emissions and combustion efficiencies of wood-
pellet boilers equipped with bottom feed, top feed and horizontal
feed burners. Results revealed that bottom and horizontal feed
262 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
boilers are preferred against top feed boilers as they have lower
emissions and higher efficiencies. Roy and Corscadden [21] inves-
tigated the potential use of hay and grass briquettes in domestic
wood stoves and concluded that these briquettes have similar
performance and emissions as other woody briquettes. Collazo
et al. [22] presented and validated a numerical model describing a
domestic pellet boiler. Analyzing the boiler, they showed that the
high emissions resulting from the system operation are principally
affected by the position of water tubes, the distribution of air inlets
and air infiltrations. Kinsey et al. [23] conducted an experimental
study to investigate the performance and emissions of residential
wood-fired hydronic heaters, where four basic appliance designs
were investigated, namely: up-draft combustion, down-draft
combustion, bottom fed pellet burner and combustion and gasifi-
cation appliances. The first three were fired with split-log cord-
wood while hardwood pellets fired the fourth unit, which resulted
in the highest operating efficiency and lowest emissions. Rabaçal
et al. [24] compared the use of industrial wood wastes and peach
stones with the use of pellets of pine in pellet-fired boilers. The
study revealed that the boiler thermal efficiency is marginally
affected while polluting emissions are significantly superior using
the former type of pellets. However, these become attractive sus-
tainable alternative fuels in domestic pellet-fired boilers through
the optimization of the boiler operating conditions, particularly, the
excess air.
2.2. Storage-type gas/oil water heater
2.2.1. Principle
In storage-type gas/oil water heater, cold water is supplied to
the tank and injected at its bottom through a dip tube. The denser
cold water is heated by a gas/oil burner. As the water heats up, it
naturally rises and is drawn off by a hot-water discharge pipe.
2.2.2. Advantages
 Less contribution to environmental pollution compared with
EWHs, due to direct conversion of thermal energy to heat
 Reliability [25]
 Generally, operating costs of both oil and gas WHs are cheaper
than those of EWHs [3]
 Less primary energy consumption compared with EWHs.
2.2.3. Disadvantages
 Gas/oil leaks from pipes
 Produces local pollution
 The burner area must be kept free of dust and dirt [25]
 Installation cost of oil water heaters is greater than those of
EWHs [3]
 Oil water heaters have less life time (8 years) than EWHs (13
years) [3].
Vogt et al. [26] conducted an experimental research on a pulse
combustion gas-fired water heater, where two different combus-
tion chambers were examined, a single chamber and a split
chamber. Although the split chamber configuration generally yiel-
ded higher thermal efficiencies, it emitted higher levels of noise.
Moreover, results showed a substantial heat transfer enhancement
of the studied system as compared with the laminar flow non-
pulsating case, and a lesser enhancement as compared with the
turbulent flow non-pulsating case. Offhaus and Goldschmidt [27]
studied the effect of various flueway inserts on the pressure drop
in the flueway and the corresponding total heat transfer to the
water side of a gas-fired water heater using a cold-flow set-up.
Tests proved that the performance of the system improves as the
pressure drop increased up to the onset of incomplete combustion.
This result was further demonstrated using a submerged combus-
tion chamber water heater. Hence, optimum flueway inserts of a
gas-fired water heater could be selected from cold-flow tests. Off-
haus et al. [28] studied the effect of emissivity of a baffled flue on
the thermal efficiency of a residential gas-fired water heater. Re-
sults revealed that the magnitudes of the radiative and convective
heat transfer rates from the flueway gases to the tube wall change
greatly with the emissivity of the baffled flue, while the effect on
the total heat transfer rate to the flue wall is small. Clark and Gir
[29] presented an analysis of low, medium and high efficiency
models of electric, natural gas and heat-pump water heaters. Their
results showed that gas water heaters are the most cost effective
followed by heat pumps. Moreover, within each class of water
heaters, applying a penalty on the extra pollution produced by the
inefficient water heaters may encourage the use of high efficiency
models. Johansson et al. [16] used oil boilers as basis for comparing
the performance and efficiencies of different types of biofuel
boilers. Test results showed that the lowest emissions of particles
and un-oxidized compounds were measured from oil burners
which over performed wood boilers. Chang and Cheng [30] per-
formed a numerical study to examine the CO-concentration inside
a typical room of a residential building, with a natural gas water
heater installed in the adjacent balcony. It was found that the
concentration of CO in the room is significantly decreased when the
air flow rate is above 0.0003 m/s, due to the entrainment of fresh air
into the bedroom from the inside door.
McDonald [31] measured the emissions from gas, oil and wood-
fired burning units and found that emissions from wood-pellet
stoves are approximately15 times greater than those of oil-fired
units and approximately 1800 times greater than those of gas-
fired units. Jeong et al. [32] developed and validated an analytical
model of a flue gas condensing heat exchanger. This model was
used to assess the condensation efficiency, defined as the percent
weight ratio of the total condensation rate to the inlet water vapor
flow rate. It was predicted that as this ratio varies from 0.5 to 1, the
condensation efficiency ranges from 10 to 30%. Tajwar et al. [33]
investigated, experimentally, the introduction of various types of
baffles in the flue pipe of a gas water heater (flat, conical, finned and
barbed razor wire). It was observed that these design improve-
ments resulted in a significant performance enhancement. The
barbed razor wire baffle was proved to be the best by improving the
combustion and thermal efficiencies from 68 to 88% and 35 to
67.4%, respectively. Li et al. [34] combined the fuzzy and PID con-
trols in order to effectively describe the characteristics of gas water
heaters using mathematical models. It was proved that the new
controller can effectively reduce the overshoot and steady-state
error as well as it can shorten the adjusting time. Pinto and Viegas
[35] experimentally showed that the combination of natural or
mechanical ventilation in spaces with gas water heaters may lead
to dangerous situations such as stopping the gas appliance safely or
reversing the combustion products in the respective exhaust duct.
As a result, they recommended either the implementation of
appropriately sized natural ventilation systems with preventing the
installation of mechanical ventilators or the installation of gas
water heaters in an exterior location to the considered space.
However, if there are constraints in terms of physical space or in the
case of renovation, an exterior air inlet is recommended to ensure
proper exhaust of combustion products. Sedeh and Khodadadi [36]
designed a helical-shaped baffle to enhance the thermal efficiency
of natural gas water heaters. Numerical and experimental exami-
nation of this design showed an enhancement of the water-heater
performance, where the consumption of natural gas was decreased
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
by about 5% under steady-state operation. The authors believe that
the amount of gas savings is less under real usage patterns.
2.3. Storage-type electric water heater
2.3.1. Principle
A storage-type electric water heater is an electric appliance that
converts electrical energy into heat. The heating element of an
electric water heater is simply an electrical resistor that works on
Joule’s law of heating.
2.3.2. Advantages
 An EWH is safer than fuel-fired water heater because it avoids
the hazards and problems associated with using a combustion
process
 Locally, it operates cleanly without any emissions
 It has lower standby-losses than fuel-fired units because it is
much better insulated
 In general, electric service availability is higher than any other
energy source
 It can be located almost anywhere within a building, especially
at or near the locations where hot water is required, whereas
fuel-fired water heaters should be located where combustion air
is available and flues can be installed
 It has a low maintenance cost
 It usually has longer life time than fuel-fired units.
2.3.3. Disadvantages
 In the case of thermal power plants, EWHs
 Pollute the environment indirectly as fossil fuels are being
burned to produce electricity
 Participate in fossil fuels depletion
 Convert high grade energy to low grade energy
 The overall efficiency of converting fossil fuels to electrical
energy and then to thermal energy is quite low
 There can be a possibility of a short circuit with the cables and
cords involved, which can be dangerous for the user
 EWHs consume excessive electrical energy to ensure adequate
hot-water temperature at the fixtures. The reason is mainly due
to mixing between the incoming cold water and the storage hot
water, which results in a progressive decrease in the tempera-
ture of the water out from the EWH [37].
2.3.4. State-of-the-art
2.3.4.1. Control and demand-side management studies. Dolan et al.
[38] developed a model for simulating aggregate residential electric
water heater loads using a rejection type Monte Carlo simulation
technique. This model can be used in evaluating any water-heater
demand-side management strategy without conducting a full-scale
pilot program. It leads to considerable savings in cost and time for
utilities considering implementing a water-heater load manage-
ment program. Lacroix [39] examined the performance of three
EWH designs for electric load management and control of bacterial
contamination. The first design was a standard EWH with minor
modifications which proved to be beneficial for large capacity
water heaters. The second design was a high temperature water
heater equipped with a heat exchanger or a mixing valve. This
design was ineffective as it consumes high electrical energy and has
limited life time. The third design was a dual 175 L or 270 L water
heaters connected in series. This design proved to be energetically
very effective although it is less aesthetically attractive and less
263
compact than a single-tank heater. LaMeres et al. [40] studied a
fuzzy logic-based control strategy for shifting the average power
demand of residential electric water heaters. Simulation results
showed that the proposed strategy can shift the stated power de-
mand from periods of high demand for electricity to off-peak pe-
riods and thus improve the load factor (average demand/peak
demand) of residential load profile. Nehrir and LaMeres [41] stud-
ied a multiple-block fuzzy logic-based demand-side management
strategy. This aims to shift the peaks of residential electric water-
heater power demand profile from periods of high demand to off-
peak hours for a certain distribution area. The distinction of this
study is represented by dividing the electric water heaters fed by a
distribution feeder into several blocks. The peak power demand of
each block is shifted to a different time period throughout the day,
where the electricity demand remains low. This strategy will avoid
the possibility of shifting the overall water-heater peak demand, of
a distribution area, to one point in time which will result in a more
level utility demand profile and therefore higher load factor.
2.3.4.2. Design and performance studies. Kar and A1-Dossary [42]
studied, deeply, the idea of series dual-tank EWH where the po-
wer rating and volume capacity of each tank were varied to find the
best combination in terms of energy performance and hot-water
output. The simulation results revealed that a dual-tank water
heater, where the second tank has 70e80% of the total power rating
and 10e30% of the total volume, provides about 10% more hot
water while requiring about 4.5% less energy, compared to a single-
tank EWH of the same total volume and power rating. Moreover,
they examined single-tank EWHs of various tank sizes and power
ratings. They found that the amount of hot water provided by
single-tank water heaters does not vary with tank size but does
vary with power rating. Hegazy and Diab [43] suggested a new
storage-type EWH design (Fig. 1(b)) that has a better performance
compared to a conventional one (Fig. 1(a)). The proposed design
differed by two aspects. First, the vertical inlet positioned from the
tank bottom was replaced by a side-bottom positioned, wedged-
pipe inlet that could achieve a good natural stratification inside
the storage tank and overcome the problem of mixing between the
incoming cold water and the storage hot water. Second, the long
pipe vertical output positioned from the tank bottom was replaced
by an upper-side positioned short tube that could overcome the
problem of heat exchange between the hot outflow and the cold
water along the long pipe outlet. It was found that the suggested
design has higher discharge efficiency and thus provides more hot
water at almost constant temperature. Moreover, the thermal
performance was enhanced with increasing tank aspect ratio and
decreasing draw-rate.
Fig. 1. (a) Conventional EWH; (b) modified design EWH [43].
264 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 2. Tested tank with three inlets (i1ei3) and two outlets (o1 and o2) [46].
Sezai et al. [44] investigated, experimentally, the performance of
employing a secondary heating element near the top part of a 120 L
storage tank. The vertical bottom and lateral horizontal locations of
the heating element were examined. It was found that, with the
heater located on the lateral surface of the tank, only the water
above the heater can be heated while the water below the heater
remains almost unaffected. As a result, they suggested a new design
of large capacity EWH composed of dual heater elements, with one
positioned vertically at the bottom and the other positioned hori-
zontally below the uppermost 50 L volume. The recommended
design would give users the chance to switch between the ele-
ments depending on the amount of hot water required and
consequently save energy. Fernandez-Seara et al. [45] studied,
experimentally, the performance of a 150 L domestic EWH storage
tank for the static heating and cooling periods. Their results
revealed that the water temperature profiles are affected by the
heating power and the pressure in the tank during the heating
process and the heating efficiency was over 85%. Moreover, the
cooling process was affected by the ambient temperature as well as
the pressure in the tank. In addition, an unexpected phenomenon
of water heating at the bottom of the tank at the beginning of the
cooling process was observed. Fernandez-Seara et al. [46] per-
formed an experimental analysis of the dynamic mode of operation
of a 150 L domestic electric hot-water storage tank equipped with
three different inlets (i1ei3) and two different outlets (o1 and o2)
whose designs are shown in Fig. 2. It was found that the i2eo1
inleteoutlet port configuration provides the best performance.
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic of the studied domestic electrical water heater; (b) Schematics of inlet designs tested [37].
Hegazy [37] experimentally investigated the effect of inlet
design on the performance of a storage-type domestic electric
water heater (Fig. 3(a)). Three different side-inlet geometries,
namely wedged, perforated, and slotted-pipe inlets (Fig. 3(b)),
were tested using two 50 L capacity tanks of aspect ratios 1 and 2
and two discharge rates 5 and 10 L/min. The study proved that the
three tested inlet designs promote good thermal stratification
inside the storage tank and that the slotted inlet provides the best
performance. Moreover, small size EWHs perform more effectively
using tanks of higher aspect ratios and low draw-rates. De Gracia
et al. [47] analyzed the improvement in thermal performance due
to the inclusion of encapsulated phase change materials inside an
electrical domestic hot-water cylinder. The use of PCM increases
the thermal energy storage capacity of the cylinder and allows the
use of low-cost electricity during low peak periods. It was
concluded that PCM increases the demand coverage from 40 to
55%. In addition, the PCM distribution inside the tank must be
defined depending on the timing and quantity of hot-water
demand.
2.4. Heat-pump water heater
2.4.1. Principle
The heat-pump water heater, based on the principle of Carnot
cycle, absorbs heat from a renewable energy source, such as
ambient air (ASHPWH), geothermal energy (GSHPWH), solar en-
ergy (SAHPWH), or waste heat, at lower temperature and transfers
it into a water tank e the higher temperature heat sink. The me-
chanical energy consumed to drive the system is a small proportion
(w30%) of the transferred energy.
2.4.2. Advantages
 HPWH produces low-pollutant heating energy using renewable
energy (solar energy, ambient air, geothermal energy or waste
heat)
 Supplies much more heat just with the same amount of elec-
tricity used for electric water heaters
 Has low operating costs since, depending on its efficiency, up to
three-quarters of the required heating energy is drawn from the
environment (without cost) [48]
 Heat pumps represent a kind of security for the future using
renewable energy sources and being able to replace wood, coal,
oil, and even natural gas which are non-renewable sources of
energy and are in a continuously decreasing quantities [48]
 Depending on latitude, ground temperatures range from 7 to
21  C at a few feet depth below the earth’s surface [49], and thus,
GSHPWHs are always energy efficient and applicable irre-
spective of climate.
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 4. Fast response heat-pump water heater [58].
2.4.3. Disadvantages
 HPWHs typically have higher initial costs than conventional
water heaters [50]
 Fans and compressors used by the HPWH make noise
 ASHPWH should be preferably installed in locations with
ambient temperature above 4.4  C year round [51].
Fig. 5. Cascade air-source heat-pump water heater with thermal storage system [63].
265
2.4.4. State-of-the-art
2.4.4.1. ASHPWH. Neksa et al. [52] investigated the CO2eHPWH. It
was proved that using CO2 as a refrigerant may produce hot water
with temperatures up to 90  C without operational problems and
thus the area of application is much larger than for the traditional
heat-pump systems, often restricted to hot-water temperatures
lower than 55  C. Modified air-conditioning systems that can ach-
ieve multi-functions, such as space heating, space cooling and
water heating, with improved energy performance were intro-
duced and studied [50,53,55]. Results showed that this system
provides a much better energy performance when compared with a
conventional HPWH or domestic air conditioner. Furthermore,
different condenser types; natural convection immersed condenser
(bayonet style and U-tube style), wrap-around condenser coil on
the tank and separate condenser, were studied [54,56]. Zhang et al.
[57] investigated the system optimization of ASHPWH which con-
sisted of a heat pump and a water tank with natural convection
immersed condenser coil. From the testing results, it was shown
that the system COP could be improved obviously by matching the
optimal tank volume with the compressor electrical power rate.
Huang et al. [58] illustrated a design and an experimental testing of
a fast response heat-pump water heater with dual-tank (supply and
holding tank) inter-connected by a shape memory alloy valve
(Fig. 4). The SMAV is a mechanical heat-sensitive device made from
shape memory alloy which keeps the valve closed when the water
temperature is not high enough and actuates the valve to open
when it is heated up to a certain level. This will isolate the tanks and
let the vapor compression cycle heat up the supply tank only and
increase the temperature response speed. Guo et al. [59] conducted
an experimental and simulation research and operation optimiza-
tion of ASHPWH. Gang et al. [60] showed that the instantaneous
heating mode has better performance, superior physical parame-
ters and higher exergy efficiency than cyclic heating modes in an
ASHPWH. Jiang et al. [61] proved that both stability and efficiency
of the ASHPWH can be improved significantly by using the EEV.
Huchtemann and Müller [62] evaluated the efficiency of elec-
trically driven heat pumps used for space heating and water
266 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286

heating in existing dwellings using data from a field-test conducted
through the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems in Frei-
burg, Germany. Analyzed data from 21 air-to-water heat pumps
showed that the majority of investigated systems used more pri-
mary energy and produced higher CO2 emissions, when compared
with a gas-condenser boiler with a 0.96-annual fuel utilization ef-
ficiency. Wu et al. [63] constructed and tested a cascade air-source
heat-pump water heater with thermal storage system (Fig. 5). Dy-
namic performance of the heat-pump water heater in single stage
mode and cascade mode was compared and discussed. Based on
the transient heating COP values, critical switching curve from
single stage mode to cascade mode was founded for the code of the
system controller. Furthermore, energy performance between wa-
ter tanks with and without PCM was compared where the results
revealed that a water tank with PCM has a lower energetic effi-
ciency mainly due to additional heat transfer process. Moreover,
the water tank with PCM supplied 2.3% more energy than that
without PCM during the thermal release process, which is consid-
ered a very small percentage. This is because PCM is not vastly
superior to water in the energy storage capacity and has low heat
transfer rate. Thus, PCMs with larger energy storage capacity and
higher heat transfer rate are desirable.
Concerning modeling, a dynamic model for an air-to-water
dual-mode HP with screw compressor having four-step capac-
ities, a water-heating system driven by a HP, an air-source heat-
pump system using an immersed water condenser were presented
by Fu et al. [64], Kim et al. [65] and Ji et al. [66], respectively. The
models were found to be accurate in predicting important system
parameters. Moreover, Techarungpaisan et al. [67] presented a
steady-state simulation model to predict the performance of a
small split type air conditioner with integrated water heater and
validated it. Table 1 illustrates the most important results of the
reviewed studies about ASHPWH.
2.4.4.2. GSHPWH. Yang et al. [68] reported that Fanney and
Dougherty [69] first discussed the performance of a residential
earth-coupled heat pump with an integral desuperheater water-
heating circuit. The recorded data showed that the desuperheater
contributed to an average of 27% of the total energy supplied for
heating water through the 24-month monitoring period. In

Table 1
Summary of studies conducted on ASHPWH.

Classification Type of study Place/climatic data Application other than WH Results

Modeling/simulation Experimental Space heating Space cooling

ASHPWH @ Oslo, Norway
@ Hon Kong
@ @ China
@ Qk & COP are greater for U-tube style than bayonet condensers
@ @ Sydney, Australia
@ As VR [, heat loss Y; as VR [, performance Y [65]
@ China
@ @ Hefei, China
@ China
@ @ Thailand
@ Taipei, Taiwan
@ @
@ @ Shanghai, China
@ Hefei, China
@ China
@ Freiburg, Germany @
@ China
@ @
@ @
@ @
@ @
@ @
COP ¼ 4.3 (for heating water from 9 to 60  C at Te ¼ 0  C);
SPF ¼ 4;PEC reduction compared to EWH or GWH: 75%; Tw
up to 90 C can be produced [52]
For three function model:
Mode 1: space-cooling and water heating: COPcw-avg ¼ 4.02,
COPc-avg ¼ 2.91 (Ta ¼ 35  C)
Mode 2: water heating only: COPwh,avg ¼ 3.42, 3.25, 2.52, 2.00
(for Ta ¼ 31, 25, 15, 4.5  C).
Mode 3: space heating only: COPh,avg ¼ 2.72 (Ta ¼ 7  C) [53]
Heating mode: Tw ¼ 45  C; Cooling mode: Tw ¼ 7  C; Simulation
model is validated [64]
Qk & COP increased as a function of the number of circuits in the
U-tube style condensers (COP7-circuit ¼ 2.7 & Qk,7-circuit ¼ 3.662 W
at Ta ¼ 27  C & Tw-avg ¼ 54  C) [54]
For 40 MJ/day peak winter load: COPintegral-k ¼ 2.3 and annual
energy saving ¼ 56%; COPexternal-k ¼ 1.8 and annual energy
saving ¼ 44% [56]
In summer, COPcw-avg ¼ 2.77 (Ta ¼ 35 C);
In winter, COPwh-avg ¼ 2.5 (Ta ¼ 7 C) [55]
Mode 1: water heating only, COPwh ¼ 2e2.5 (Ta ¼ 2.8  C);
Mode 2: space-cooling & water-heating; COPcw ¼ 2.8e5(Ta ¼ 35 C)
[50]
750 W-HP with 150 L and 1125 W-HP with 200 L are more
suitable for residential uses; For system (150 L, 1125 W):
COPwinter ¼ 2.61 (Ta ¼ 0  C); COPsummer ¼ 5.66 (Ta ¼ 35  C);
COPspring/autumn ¼ 4.817 (Ta ¼ 25  C) [57]
The steady state simulation model is quite accurate in predicting
important system parameters [67]
Fast response heat pump water heater does not need auxiliary
electric heater;
For 6 < Ta < 38  C: Temperature response speed of the supply tank,
before SMAV opened, changes from 0.714 to 1.234  C/min and that
of the holding tank after SMAV opened, changes from 0.483 to
1.1  C/min
Energy consumption lies in the range 0.008e0.016 kWh/l [58]
COP ¼ 2.32e4.41 [66]
COPsummer-avg ¼ 5.51 (Ta ¼ 35  C); COPwinter-avg ¼ 2.82
(Ta ¼ 5  C) [59]
COPinstantaneous > by 24% than COPcyclic [60]
Stability and efficiency of ASHPWH are enhanced by using EEV [61]
Mean SPFASHPs ¼ 2.3; max SPFASHPs ¼ 3 [62]
Single stage: COP ¼ 1.5e3.05
Cascade mode: COP ¼ 1.74e2.55 [63]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Table 2
Summary of studies conducted on GSHPWH.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/ Experimental
simulation
GSHPWH @ Hong Kong @ @
@ Montreal & Los Angeles @
@ Nanjing, China
@ Freiburg, Germany
addition, Kavanaugh [70] conducted a similar project and
concluded that the cost savings were considerably based on the
utility bill. Cui et al. [71] developed a simulation model of a HGCHP
with domestic hot-water supply system for space residential
cooling/heating and DHW supply in hot-climate areas. A desu-
perheater was integrated between the compressor discharge and
the condenser inlet using the HVACSIMþ environment which is a
software developed by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST). Results showed that the studied system has
significantly better performance relative to the conventional sys-
tems. Biaoua and Bernier [72] performed a TRNSYS simulation
study of four alternative means for DHW production in zero-net-
energy homes for two climates (Montreal and Los Angeles). The
studied alternative systems were: (i) a regular electric hot-water
tank; (ii) the desuperheater of a GSHP with electric back-up; (iii)
thermal solar collectors with electric back-up; and (iv) a HPWH
indirectly coupled to a space conditioning GSHP. Results revealed
that the third alternative provided the best performance and that
the fourth alternative is slightly better than the second from an
energy point of view; however, one must not forget that the fourth
alternative uses two HPs which may be considered costly non-
effective due to the high initial cost. Li et al. [73] modeled and
simulated the long-term performance of a new multi-function
ground source heat-pump system that operates in three modes:
air conditioning (space heating/cooling), water heating only and
simultaneous water heating and space cooling in a climate with a
cold winter and a warm summer. Results indicated that MFGSHP
could alleviate the imbalance of the emitted/extracted heat caused
by conventional GSHPs and therefore improve the efficiency of the
system. Table 2 presents a summary of the reviewed studies con-
cerning GSHPWH. In addition to their investigations on ASHPs,
Huchtemann and Müller [62] evaluated the efficiency of
267
Application other than WH Reference
Space heating Space cooling
Energy savings w.r.t. EWH: 70%; HGCHP can offer 95% of DHW [71]
@ Montreal: compared to EWH, GSHP with desuperheater &
HPHW-GSHP save 36% & 53% of electricity consumption,
respectively [72]
Los Angeles: compared to EWH, GSHP with desuperheater &
HPHW-GSHP save 29% & 53% of electricity consumption,
respectively [72]
@ @ COP of MFGSHP > COP of GSHP [73]
@ Mean SPFGSHPs ¼ 2.9; max SPFGSHPs ¼ 4 [62]
geothermal heat pumps used for space heating and water heating
in existing dwellings. Analyzed data from 22 GSHPs showed that
the investigated systems achieved an average primary energy
saving of 18.8% and that half of the systems could achieve savings in
CO2 emissions, when compared with a gas-condenser boiler having
0.96-annual fuel utilization efficiency.
2.4.4.3. SAHPWH. Kuang and Wang [74] conducted an experi-
mental study about a multi-functional direct expansion solar-
assisted heat-pump system which can offer space heating in winter,
space cooling in summer and hot-water year round. The studied
system could guarantee a long-term operation under very different
weather conditions and relatively low running cost during the
whole year. Hawlader et al. [75] designed and built a solar-assisted
heat-pump dryer and water heater. The DX-SAHP system with an
immersed type water condenser was studied and proved to have a
higher performance than that of the conventional heat-pump sys-
tem. Both COP and collector efficiency (hcl) increase as the ambient
temperature increases; while the increase of solar radiation in-
tensity improves COP and decreases collector efficiency. Different
studies have suggested utilizing the electronic expansion valve and
variable frequency compressor for the DX-SAHPWH [76e78].
Furthermore, it was proved that the collector efficiency of DX-
SAHPWH system can be more than 1 when the evaporating tem-
perature is lower than the ambient temperature [76]. A research
group from Taiwan presented and studied an integral-type
SAHPWH [79e81]. In this design, the storage tank and the
Rankine cycle units were integrated together to make a more
compact size and a thermosyphon loop was used to transfer heat
from the condenser to the water storage tank. Furthermore, the
condenser was of tube-in-sheet, unglazed type and the solar col-
lector was itself the evaporator. The ISAHP absorbs energy from
Fig. 6. SA-ASHP system [85].
268 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286

Fig. 7. Heat-pipe enhanced solar-assisted heat-pump water-heater system [86].

solar radiation and ambient air simultaneously. It was found that
the thermal performance of an ISAHP varies with weather condi-
tions. It is worth to mention that Chyng et al. [80] suggested that
the expansion device does not need to be controlled online,
because the rate of valve opening regulation is small and approxi-
mately constant, contrary to the recommendation of Huang and
Chyng [79].
Guoying et al. [82] performed a simulation study of solar-air-
source heat-pump water heater (SAS-HPWH) with a specially
designed flat-plate heat collector/evaporator with spiral-finned
tubes. It was proved that this system could produce 55  C-hot
water all around the year, overcoming the problem of DX-SAHP that
fails in rainy days. Anderson and Morrison [83] studied a solar-
boosted HPWH with flat unglazed aluminum solar evaporator
panels to absorb solar and ambient energy. A wrap-around
condenser coil on the outside of the water tank was adopted.
They proved that the system performance could be improved by
concentrating the condenser coils in the lower portion of the tank.
Nuntaphan et al. [84] studied the performance of an indirect
SAHPWH using the refrigerant mixture R22/R124/R152a. It was
noticed that the hot-water temperature is greater by 40% than that
obtained from conventional solar water-heating systems. Li and
Yang [85] developed a simplified mathematical model of SA-ASHP
system which mainly consists of two loops: the solar collector loop
and the airewater heat-pump unit (Fig. 6). The effect of various
parameters, including circulation flow rate, solar collector area,
solar collector tilt angle and initial water temperature in the pre-
heating solar tank was investigated.
The results show that the system performance is governed
strongly by the change of circulation flow rate, solar collector area
and initial water temperature in the pre-heating solar tank. Huang
et al. [86] designed, built and tested a heat-pipe enhanced solar-

Table 3
Summary of studies conducted on SAHPWH.

Classification Type of study Place/climatic data Results

Modeling/simulation Experimental

SAHPWH @ @ Taipei, Taiwan COP ¼ 2.5e3.7 (at 61 < Tw < 25  C) [79]

@ @ Taipei, Taiwan
@ @ Singapore
@ Taipei, Taiwan
@ Shanghai, China
@ Nanjing, China
@ Sydney, Australia
@ @ Taipei, Taiwan
@ Shanghai, China
@ @ Thailand
@ Hong Kong
@ Hong Kong.
@ @ Shanghai, China
COPdaily-total ¼ 1.7e2.5 (year around) [80]
Experiment: max COP ¼ 7; max f ¼ 61%;
Simulation: max COP ¼ 5; max f ¼ 65%;
39% < he,cl < 80% [75]
Max COPHP-mode ¼ 2.58; max COPhybrid-mode ¼ 3.32 [86]
Space heating only mode (winter), 2.6 < COPHP-avg < 3.3, 2.1 < COPsys-avg < 2.7;
water heating only mode (spring): 2.1 < COPsys < 3.5 [74]
Tw ¼ 55  C (year round); monthly COPavg ¼ 3.98e4.32 [82]
Clear daytime: COP ¼ 5e7; Nighttime: COP ¼ 3e5 [83]
Same performance correlation holds for ISAHP operating
with single or dual energy source [81]
Spring: COPseasonal-avg ¼ 5.25; hcl-avg ¼ 108%; εsys ¼ 21% [76]
COPsys ¼ 2.5e5; PBP ¼ 2.3 years; Tw obtained by system > by 40% of
that obtained by solar system;
suitable mass of hot water in the storage tank is 400 kg [84]
COPyearly-avg ¼ 6.46 [77]
15th July: highest COPsys ¼ 3.86 at Ṽw,k ¼ 10.8;
15th November: highest COPsys ¼ 3.5 at Ṽw,k ¼ 11.5 [85]
Experiment: COPsys ¼ 5.21e6.61; hcl ¼ 88e105%;
Simulation: COPsys ¼ 5.23e6.12; hcl ¼ 90.1e107.6% [78]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Table 4
Summary of studies conducted on SA-GSHPWH.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
SA-GSHPWH @ France @ @
@ Stockholm, Sweden @
@ Erzurum, Turkey
assisted heat-pump water heater. This system is a heat pump with
dual heat sources that combines the performance of conventional
SAHP and solar heat-pipe collector (Fig. 7). The designed system
can operate in two modes: the heat-pump mode when solar radi-
ation is low and the heat-pipe mode, without electricity con-
sumption, when solar radiation is high and can thus achieve high
energy efficiency. Table 3 presents a summary of the reviewed
studies concerning SAHPWH.
2.4.4.4. SA-GSHPWH. The energetic and exergetic studies of a
ground-coupled heat pump combined with thermal solar collectors
which can meet domestic hot water and heatingecooling building
energy needs were presented by Trillat-Berdal et al. [87] and
Hepbasli [88], respectively. Solar heat is used as a priority for do-
mestic hot-water heating and when the preset water temperature
is reached, excess solar energy is injected into the ground via
boreholes. Kjellsson et al. [89] studied the combination of solar
collectors with GSHP systems for heating and domestic hot water,
using TRNSYS. The study focused on the comparison among four
different system designs: 1) a base system with no solar heating
(conventional GSHP); 2) a system where all solar heat recharges the
borehole; 3) all solar heat is used for domestic hot water; and 4) all
solar heat recharges the borehole in NovembereFebruary, and is
used for domestic hot water during the rest of the year. It was
recommended that the optimal design is the fourth one. Bakirci
et al. [90] constructed an experimental set-up of a SA-GSHP system.
From the presented results, it is obvious that the system could be
used for instantaneous or storage domestic hot-water production.
Table 4 presents a summary of the reviewed studies concerning SA-
GSHPWH.
2.4.4.5. PV/T-SAHPWH. A PV/T-SAHP system combines the two-
phase solar collector with the PV module to form a hybrid
component known as the PV/T evaporator. The evaporating
refrigerant of SAHP is used as the cooling medium of the PV cells;
hence, lower operating temperature of PV cell and higher
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic diagram of the experiment rig [91]; (b) Cross sectional view of PV evaporator [92].
269
Application other than WH Results
Space heating Space cooling
Heating mode: COPHP-avg ¼ 3.75 [87]
Studied designs (depth ¼ 160 m): COPHP,design 1 ¼ 4;
COPHP,design 2 ¼ 4.15; COPHP,design 3 ¼ 3.95; COPHP,design 4 ¼ 4.05
[89]
@ COPHP ¼ 3e3.4; COPsys ¼ 2.7e3; 43 < Tw,k,o < 73  C [90]
photovoltaic efficiency will be easily achieved due to the relatively
low operating steady temperature of the evaporating refrigerant. In
addition, this system has a superior coefficient of performance than
the conventional heat-pump system [91].
A group of Chinese researchers [91,92] reported different studies
of a photovoltaic solar-assisted heat-pump system (Fig. 8). The
system consisted of two evaporators (PV and air evaporators)
connected in parallel and two condensers (air and water con-
densers) also connected in parallel. It is able to provide multi-
functional services such as space cooling, space heating, elec-
tricity production and domestic water-heating. These studies dealt
only with the PV evaporator and water cooled condenser. Ji et al.
[93] developed and studied a PV-SAHP system which is similar to
that illustrated before but without both air evaporator and air
condenser. The condenser supply water temperature was kept at
30  C. Xu et al. [94] studied a PV/T-heat-pump system having a
modified collector/evaporator which consisted of multi-port flat
extruded aluminum tubes instead of round copper tubes used in
conventional designs. Results revealed that using this collector/
evaporator, a better operating performance could be achieved.
Chow et al. [95] presented a photovoltaic-integrated solar heat
pump where an immersed condenser was used. Fang et al. [96]
conducted an experimental study on the operation performance
of photovoltaicethermal solar heat-pump air-conditioning system
in Nanjing, China. The system can perform five operation modes,
namely: refrigeration circulation, PV/T circulation, refrigeration
circulation and PV/T circulation working together, heat-pump cir-
culation, and heating water circulation modes. In this study, only
the PV/T circulation mode was experimentally studied and dis-
cussed. Mastrullo and Renno [97] presented energy, exergy and
economic studies of a PV-SAHP system similar to that presented in
Ref. [91] but without air condenser; however, this study also dealt
only with the PV evaporator and water cooled condenser. Xu et al.
[98] developed a novel low-concentrating solar photovoltaic/ther-
mal integrated heat-pump system which can produce electricity
and heat at the same time. The solar collector has fixed truncated
270 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286

Table 5
Summary of studies conducted on PV/T-SAHPWH.

Classification Type of study Place/climatic data Application other than WH Results

Modeling/simulation Experimental Space heating Space cooling Electricity

PV/T-SAHPWH @ Hefei, China @ @ @ Max COPHP ¼ 10.4; max COPp/t ¼ 16.1;

COPHP,avg ¼ 5.4; COPp/t,avg ¼ 8.3;
hPV ¼ 13.4% [91]
@ @ Hefei, China @ @ Max COPp/t ¼ 8.4; COPp/t,avg ¼ 6.5;
hPV ¼ 13.4% [93]
@ Tibet @ Typical sunny winter day: COPp/t ¼ 6.01;
hPV,avg ¼ 13.5%; hth,avg ¼ 47.9%;
hsys,avg ¼ 62.5% [92]
@ Nanjing & Hong Kong, China @ @ Compared to PV/T-HP system with
conventional collector/evaporator,
COPP/t [, hth [ & hPV [ by 7, 6 & 2%,
respectively using the modified
collector/evaporator [94]
@ Hong Kong @ Yearly: COPavg ¼ 5.93 & hPV,avg ¼ 12% [95]
@ Nanjing, China @ @ @ PV/T mode: hPV,avg ¼ 10.4%; COPsys,avg ¼ 2.88;
Tw ¼ 42  C [96]
@ Southern Italy @ @ hPV ¼ 13.7e14.2%; hth ¼ 52e84.3% [97]
@ Nanjing, China @ Sunny summer day: COPsys,avg ¼ 4.8 (30
< Tw < 70  C); he ¼ 17.5% [98]
@ @ For 200 < I < 800 W/m2, COPsys ¼ 2.9e4.6
(constant ṁwk & Twki);
For 25 < Twki < 45  C, COPsys ¼ 5.2e3.2
(constant I & ṁwk);
For 1 < ṁwk < 5 L/min, COPsys ¼ 6.7e2.8
(constant Twki & I) [99]

parabolic concentrators reflecting the incident sunlight onto the small capacity compressor. The condenser water supply tempera-
surface of PV cells. Chen et al. [99] presented an experimental study ture and water-flow rate had little effect on the electrical perfor-
on the energy performance of a small hybrid glass vacuum tube mance. Table 5 presents a summary of the reviewed studies
type PV/heat-pump system with a water cooled condenser and concerning PV/T-SAHPWH.

Table 6
Summary of studies conducted on GEHP-WH.

Classification Type of study Place/climatic data Application other than WH Results

Modeling/simulation Experimental Space heating Space cooling

Gas engine-driven heat pump @ @ @ COPoverall,c ¼ 0.8; COPoverall,h ¼ 1.2;

COPoverall,wh ¼ 1.4 [104]
@ If Ft ¼ 0.9, PER ¼ 2.08; If Ft ¼ 1.5,
PER ¼ 2.43 [105]
@ Xian, China @ @ PBP of GEHP compared to [106]:
GEHP-WLHPS: 2 years
EHP-WLHPS: 2.6 years
@ @ @ @ PER ¼ 1.67 (Ta ¼ 7 C, ES ¼ 1000)
PER ¼ 1.13 (Ta ¼ 7 C, ES ¼ 3500)
hE ¼ 83%, hHP ¼ 5 (Ta ¼ 9  C);
hE ¼ 29.7% (Ta ¼ 5 C, at max. power) [107]
@ @ @ @ Conventional GEHP: max hth ¼ 33%; min
hth ¼ 22%;HPGHP: max hth ¼ 37%; min
hth ¼ 27% [108]
@ @ @ 6.2  C < Tw,chilled,avg < 15.9  C
46.4  C < Tw,o < 60.8  C
As Tewi changes from 12.2 to 23  C, Qk, HR &
PER [ by 18%, 31% and 22%, respectively
As Ṽe changes from 1.99 to 3.6 m3/h, Qk
& PER [ by 3.9 & 3%, respectively
PER [ by 12% as Ta varies from 24.1 to 34.8  C.
Qk, HR & GHC [ by 35, 28 & 44%, respectively,
while PER Y by 15% as ES changes from 1200 to
1750 rpm [101]
@ @ @ 35  C < Two < 70  C
Qh & HR Y by 9.3% & 27.7% respectively &
GHC [ by 17.5% as Twki changes from 33 to 49  C
Qh & GHC [ by 17.3% & 39.4%, respectively & PER Y
by 15.3% as ES changes from 1300 to 1750
rpm [102]
@ Vicenza, Italy @ @ After half life cycle, same plant equipped with a
new gas engine driven system is expected to be
reliable [103]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
2.4.4.6. Gas-engine driven HPWH. A GEHP usually consists of a
reversible vapor compression heat pump with an open compressor
driven by a gas-fueled internal combustion engine. Although the
efficiency of a gas engine is not very high (about 30e45%), the
waste heat of fuel combustion can be recovered by approximately
80% and this is the main advantage of GEHPs. The heat recovery is
done by utilizing the energy of exhaust gas and by utilizing the
waste heat released by the engine cylinder jacket [100].
Previously, Hepbasli [100] conducted a review on GEHP, the
most important results of investigations related to our study are
shown in Table 6. Recently, more studies have been carried out;
Elgendy et al. [101,102] studied the performance of a GEHP for air-
conditioning and hot-water supply over a wide range of engine
speeds, ambient air temperatures, evaporator water-flow rates,
evaporator water inlet temperatures and condenser water inlet
temperatures. Busato et al. [103] reported the energetic, economic
and maintenance evaluation of a 10-year study of ‘‘S. Nicola’’ HVAC
plant built in Vicenza, Italy. The core of the HVAC system is a gas-
engine driven heat pump, integrated with two condensing boilers.
The study reported that once the initial problems with the control
and management strategies were solved, this system led to sig-
nificant primary energy savings. Comparing the studied system
with that of district heating network, it was proved that it is better
from both energetic and economic terms. Table 6 presents a sum-
mary of studies conducted on GEHP-WH.
2.5. Solar water-heating systems
2.5.1. Principle
The main component of a solar water-heating system is the solar
collector that absorbs solar radiation and transfers it into a heat
transfer fluid which in turn transfers the heat gained into water in a
storage tank. Note that the water, itself, may be the HTF.
2.5.2. Types
SWHSs are divided into two categories: active and passive. Active
systems use a mechanical system (circulating pump) to circulate the
HTF while passive systems use density gradients (gravitational forces)
to circulate the HTF. There are two types of passive systems: i) Inte-
grated collector storage or batch systems which use a tank that acts as
both the hot-water storage and the solar collector and ii) thermosy-
phon systems in which the storage tank and collector are physically
separated and transfer between the two is driven by natural convec-
tion. Active and thermosyphon SWHSs are further classified into two
types: i) direct or open loop systems in which the water in the tank is
itself the HTF and circulates through the collectors, this type is not
appropriate in climates where freezing temperatures occur, and ii)
indirect or closed loop systems in which a pump circulates the HTF
through the collectors and a heat exchanger which transfers heat to
Fig. 9. Parabolic-trough collector [112].
271
the water. There are two common types of solar thermal collectors for
water heating: flat plate and evacuated tubes. Glazed flat-plate col-
lectors are equipped with insulation and weather proofed boxes that
contain a dark absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic covers.
Unglazed flat-plate collectors having a dark absorber plate made of
metal or polymer without a cover or enclosure are typically used for
solar pool heating [109]. A water-in-glass evacuated tube consists of a
two-layered glass tube and a central feeder tube. A vacuum space is
created between the cover (outer) glass layer and the absorber (inner)
glass layer. With a low emissivity absorber surface and the presence of
the vacuum space, the collector allows a better capture of beam ra-
diation and avoids the cold winter water-freezing problem [110].
Evacuated-tube collectors are more likely to maintain their efficiency
over a wide range of ambient temperatures and heating requirements.
On the other hand, in constantly sunny climates, flat-plate collectors
are more efficient whereas, in more cloudy conditions, their energy
output drops off rapidly in comparison with evacuated tubes [111].
Another type of collector is the parabolic-trough collector. It uses
mirrored surfaces curved in a linearly extended parabolic shape to
focus sunlight on a dark-surfaced absorber tube running the length of
the trough. A mixture of water and antifreeze or other heat transfer
fluid is pumped through the absorber tube to pick up the solar heat,
and then through heat exchangers to heat water. Because the trough
mirrors will reflect only direct-beam sunlight, parabolic-trough sys-
tems use single-axis tracking systems to keep them facing the sun
[112]. Fig. 9 shows a typical PTC. PTC applications can be divided into
two main groups. The first and most important is Concentrated Solar
Power plants. In this case, temperatures are from 300 to 400  C. The
other group of applications requires temperatures between 100 and
250  C. These applications are mainly industrial process heat, low-
temperature heat demand with high consumption rates (DHW,
space heating and swimming pool heating) and heat-driven refrig-
eration and cooling [113].
Fernandez-Garcia et al. [113] stated that when a large amount of
hot water is demanded, a large collection area, which sometimes
becomes excessive, must be installed. In this case, PTCs might be of
interest, because they supply thermal energy at higher tempera-
tures than those required by the load and, therefore, higher de-
mands can be covered by mixing the hot solar fluid with another
cooler. The advantages of PTCs over the traditional solar collectors
for water-heating facilities are: i) lower thermal losses and, there-
fore, higher efficiency at the higher working temperatures, ii)
smaller collecting surface for a given power requirement, and iii) no
risk of reaching dangerous stagnation temperatures, since in that
case, a control system sends the collectors into off-focus position.
The disadvantages of PTCs are: i) their solar-tracking system in-
creases installation and maintenance costs, ii) the need to regularly
clean their components increases maintenance costs, iii) PTCs can
only use beam solar radiation, and thus their installation is
geographically limited, and iv) at very high wind speeds, operation
must be interrupted and the collectors sent into off-focus position.
2.5.3. Advantages
 SWHS reduces pollution and GHG emissions as it uses clean
renewable solar energy
 It saves energy and conserves non-renewable energy sources
like oil, coal and natural gas
 It has very low operating costs.
2.5.4. Disadvantages
 High initial cost
 For direct systems:
272 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
 They should be avoided in climates that experience freezing
temperatures for long periods
 They should be avoided with relatively hard water
 Active systems will not function during power outages (devel-
oping countries).
2.5.5. State-of-the-art
The literature review of SWHSs is handled in eight groups,1)
general studies which review SWHSs as a whole; 2) ICSSWH; 3)
thermosyphon systems; 4) active systems; 5) solar collectors; 6)
novel systems; 7) PV/T systems; and 8) PCM integrated systems
2.5.5.1. General studies. Mills [114] noted that current procedures
for evaluating SWHS performance require detailed assessments of
temperature, solar radiation and hot-water loads for each month of
the year for any particular location to use as inputs in a modeling
program. Even though, this sort of analysis is easily conducted for
an individual system check, it is not practical for assessing how the
system would perform anywhere within a very large region, as the
number of times the program would have to be rerun would be
prohibitive. Rather, such a program can be run several times and
then the results are compared against input variables so as to
develop a formula for applying to the input variables. This formula
can be applied within GIS to produce a map of SWHS performance
throughout a large region. Thus, the use of GIS along with the
existing modeling systems is able to generate much more detailed
assessments of SWHS performance. Crawford and Treloar [115]
showed that the embodied energy component of the net energy
requirement of solar and conventional hot-water systems was
insignificant. Kaldellisa et al. [116] presented an integrated cost-
benefit method, analyzing the economic viability and attractive-
ness of domestic SWHSs. Lee and Sharma [117] studied the year
round thermal performance evaluation of active and passive indi-
rect SWHSs for rural/urban areas in South Korea. Experimental
results suggested that active SWHSs must be used in Korea due to
the cold climate. In addition, they proved the feasibility of ethylene
glycol as HTF for both active and passive systems. Garcia-Valladares
et al. [118] carried out a simple and inexpensive test method to
determine the thermal behavior of different types of domestic
SWHSs. This test can give information to the manufacturer about
thermal efficiency, thermal stratification, night thermal losses in
Table 7
Summary of general studies conducted on SWHSs.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
General studies @ Australia
@ Melbourne, Australia
Greece (economical study) PBP ¼ 8e10 years (No subsidization); PBP ¼ 5e6 years (30% subsidization) [116]
@ South Korea.
@ Temixco, Mexico
@ Montreal & Los Angeles
@ @ Texas, USA
USA (economical study)
@ Portugal
the storage tank, the relationship between storage tank volume and
the collection effective area. Biaoua and Bernier [72], in the first
part of their study, proved that thermal solar collectors represent
the best alternative for DHW production in a ZNEH. In the second
part, a simple economic analysis was presented to determine the
optimum areas of thermal solar collectors and PV array to achieve a
zero-net-energy hot-water production system i.e. total DHW pro-
duction with solar energy. Results revealed that zero-net-energy
hot-water production is not cost effective for Montreal.
Degelman [119] reported the performance of a residential solar
water-heating system over a period of 22 years. Results indicated
that the collector performance has severely deteriorated over the
studied period. Cassard et al. [120] conducted an economical study
on SWHSs and concluded that 50e58% of water-heating energy is
saved by using these systems. Jaisankar et al. [9] presented a
comprehensive review on solar water heaters and among others;
they concluded that the performance of parallel flow solar collec-
tors is better than the series flow collectors. Moreover, they rec-
ommended that the variation in flow velocity of the working fluid
in the riser tubes can be made uniform using variable headers and
the convective heat loss from the glass cover may be reduced using
a suitable aero profile design that will prevent the movement of air
over the glass surface. Coimbra and Almeida [121] compared two
cooperative housings; one with traditional construction and the
other including sustainable building features. Their investigation
showed that the energy consumption for domestic water heating
was significantly reduced in the sustainable case due to the exis-
tence of solar collectors and efficient gas heaters. A summary of the
presented studies is illustrated in Table 7.
2.5.5.2. ICSSWH. Nieuwoudt and Mathews [122] designed, manu-
factured and tested prototypes of a solar heat barrow. This device is
a low-cost mobile solar water heater composed of an ICSSWH that
possesses the mobility of a wheelbarrow. The main objective of
such design was to find an affordable device in rural areas that
could assist with fetching domestic water from communal sources
and heating it, simultaneously. It was demonstrated that the device
has the ability to store domestic hot water until the evening. Smyth
et al. [123] conducted a detailed research review of ICSSWH
and concluded that the performance of ICSSWHs can also be
demonstrated to be in some cases on a par with distributed SWHSs,
if not better when cost versus useful energy gain is considered.
Results
GIS can be joined with existing SWHS models to generate much more detailed
assessments of SWHS performance [114]
Energy PBP of storage type electric-boosted and instantaneous gas-boosted
SWHSs ¼ 0.5 & 2 years for respective conventional EWH & GWH
For E-SWHS: fannular ¼ 62%; For G-SWHS: fannular ¼ 50% [115]
Active system: 40.54 < hsys < 46.79%; FR.(sa) ¼ 0.69; FRUL ¼ 3.52; best thermostat
setting is 8/2 C
Passive system: 38.69 < hsys < 48.44%; FR.(sa) ¼ 0.61; FRUL ¼ 2.3 [117]
Day test: temperature increment ¼ 18.9e26.3  C
Night test: Tw-homogeneous ¼ 39.8e46.3  C [118]
Los Angeles: Acl,optimum ¼ 4.5 m2; APV,optimum ¼ 2.06 m2; PBP ¼ 11 years;
Montreal: Acl,optimum ¼ 12 m2; APV,optimum ¼ 5.2 m2; PBP ¼ 29 years [72]
1st year of operation: fannular ¼ 84%;
After 22 years of operation: fannular ¼ 56%, scover Y by 63% [119]
SWHS saves 50e58% of water heating energy [120]
Compared with old GWHs, using solar collectors with efficient GWHs: the operational
cost of DHW Y about 46% to 70%; annual energy demand/capita for DHW Y by
66.5% [121]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 10. Schematic of (a) S1-; (b) S2-; (c) P-tank interconnections [124].
Madhlopa et al. [124] studied the effect of tank-interconnection
geometry on temperature stratification in an ICSSWH with two
horizontal cylindrical tanks. Three tank interconnections were
studied: parallel (P), series (S1) and series (S2) configurations
(Fig. 10). Results revealed that S2-tank configuration was the most
effective in promoting practical temperature stratification in both
tanks during solar collection and hot-water draw-offs.
Hassan and Beliveau [125] presented a simulation study of an
integrated solar thermal roof collection system. The system consists
of a low-temperature flat-plate collector integrated within a con-
crete building envelope linked to a PCM storage tank. Results
revealed that the proposed system could cover all domestic hot
water needs year round. Furthermore, a minimum of 88% of the
combined space heating and water-heating requirements
throughout the year could be supplied, saving the homeowner
61.5% of his annual heating bill. Garnier et al. [126] carried out an
analysis of the temperature stratification inside an ICSSWH. Using a
previously developed macro model, which was able to generate
corresponding water bulk temperature in the collector with a given
hourly incident solar radiation, ambient temperature and inlet
water temperature and therefore able to predict ICSSWH perfor-
mance, a number of improvements was made on the model and a
new one was developed. This model was able to compute the bulk
water temperature variation in different solar water-heater col-
lectors for a given aspect ratio and water temperature along the
height of the collector (temperature stratification). Computed
longitudinal temperature stratification results were found to be in
close agreement with the experimental data. Kumar and Rosen
have conducted two studies on the performance of ICSSWH with a
corrugated absorber surface [127] and with extended storage unit
[128]. Both systems were compared to conventional rectangular
ICSSWH and the obtained results showed that the performance is
Table 8
Summary of studies conducted on ICSSWH.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
ICSSWH @ South Africa
@ Malawi
@ Blacksburg, VA, USA Max THTF,o ¼ 111  C; THTF,o [ as ṁHTF Y & vice versa; In winter: ṼHTF,optimum ¼ 0.005e0.05 m3/h;
@ @ Scotland
@ Toronto
@ Toronto
273
enhanced in both cases. A summary of the presented studies is
illustrated in Table 8.
2.5.5.3. Thermosyphon systems. Artificial neural networks were
used to predict the performance of both open and closed thermo-
syphon SWHSs with horizontal and vertical storage tanks [129].
Moreover, Kalogirou and Papamarcou [130] developed a TRNSYS
model of a direct thermosyphon SWHS with flat-plate collector
using a TMY data and specific daily hot-water demand profile and
validated it experimentally. Hussein [131] presented a transient
model of a two-phase closed thermosyphon flat-plate SWHS and
validated it experimentally. Chang et al. [132] analyzed, experi-
mentally, the overall performance rating of direct and indirect
thermosyphon SWHSs with flat-plate and evacuated-tube collec-
tors. They considered: i) the thermal performance of the system
during the energy-collecting phase, ii) the system cooling loss
during the cooling phase and iii) the heat removal efficiency of the
system during the system application phase. Lima et al. [133]
developed an optimization model of a thermosyphon SWHS with
flat plat collector for domestic application, using TRNSYS. The
optimized design gives the slope and area of the flat-plate collector,
which results in the minimum cost over the equipment lifecycle. It
can be noted that the introduction of the timer led to a significant
decrease in the electric energy consumption. Chen et al. [134]
investigated experimentally the long-term thermal performance
of a two-phase thermosyphon solar water heater and compared the
results with conventional systems. Budihardjo and Morrison [135]
studied the performance of water-in-glass evacuated tube, ther-
mosyphon direct solar water heaters and compared them with flat-
plate solar collectors in a range of locations. The performance of a
typical 30 tube evacuated-tube array was found to be lower than a
typical 2 panel flat-plate array for domestic water heating in Sydney.
Results
Tw,peak,avg ¼ 60  C; Tw z 40  C at 20:00; Tw > 50  C for more than 4 h which is enough to
disinfect water from Vibrio cholerae [122]
ICSSWH is on a par with distributed SWHSs when cost versus useful energy gain is
considered [123]
S2-tank configuration is the best for temperature stratification [124]
In summer: ṼHTF,optimum ¼ 0.1 m3/h [125]
The presented analysis and modeling procedure is valid for all ICSSWH [126]
With corrugated surface, Tw [ by 5e10  C
As corrugated depth [, Tw [ & h Y
As ṁw [; max Tw Y & h [ [127]
For the studied system: h [ by 5% & Tw [ by 5e6  C, Compared with conventional
ICSSWH [128]
274 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Kalogirou [136] presented a thermal performance, economic
and environmental lifecycle analysis of thermosyphon direct flat-
plate solar water heaters and concluded that thermosyphon SWHSs
offer significant protection to the environment and should be
employed whenever possible in order to achieve a sustainable
future. Huang et al. [137] evaluated the thermal performance of
thermosyphon flat-plate solar water heater with a mantle heat
exchanger and theoretically presented an energy equation
including a “heat exchanger penalty factor”. Results revealed that
the efficiency of the studied system is lower than that of thermo-
syphon flat-plate solar water heaters without heat exchanger, but
higher than that of all-glass evacuated tubular solar water heaters.
Zeghib and Chaker [138] modeled a thermosyphon direct SWHS
with flat-plate collector, where three phases of heating-up periods
were observed. Chien et al. [139] investigated “theoretically”, using
the thermal resistance capacitor method, and “experimentally” a
two-phase thermosyphon solar water heater and proposed the use
of double fin tubes and nano-particle fluids to improve the per-
formance. Naspolini et al. [140] presented a detailed study on the
behavior of low-cost thermosyphon direct SWHSs consisting of
flat-plate collectors, with auxiliary heating provided by electrical
showerheads and not installed inside the hot-water tank. Results
showed that the economies obtained are considerable, both in
terms of energy consumption (kWh) and peak demand (kW)
reduction. A summary of the presented studies is illustrated in
Table 9.
2.5.5.4. Active systems. Cardinale et al. [141] developed a TRNSYS
model of an active, indirect SWHS with two PV circulating pumps
and a single-glazed flat-plate collector with selective absorbent
surface. The model was used to calculate the system’s annual en-
ergy performance in terms of solar fraction for three Italian local-
ities. In addition, the system was economically compared to
conventional WHs that use electricity, gas oil and LPG. Yohanis et al.
[142] presented an analysis of direct active SWHSs that determines
the number of days in each month when solar heated water meets
the whole demand above a certain set temperature. Three types of
solar collectors were studied: i) single-cover, non-selective, ii)
Double-cover, non-selective and iii) single-cover, selective. Results
proved that:
Table 9
Summary of studies conducted on thermosyphon systems.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
Thermosyphon @ Athens, Greece
@ @ Nicosia, Cyprus
@ @ Cairo, Egypt
@ Taiwan
@ Sao Paulo, Brazil
@ Australia
@ Nicosia, Cyprus
@ Taipei, Taiwan
(Economical study) Florianópol, Brazil 200 kW h/residence can be reduced annually;
@ @ Kunming, China
@ Constantine, Algeria 3 phases of heating-up periods can be observed; max hcl ¼ 95% [138]
@ @ Taiwan
 The use of a second transparent cover as well as selective
coatings for the absorber does not significantly increase the
number of days when a specified demand temperature is met by
SWHS
 The optimum collector slope is equal to approximately the local
latitude
 The size of the storage tank volume should not be larger than
the daily hot-water consumption
Chow et al. [110] developed a numerical study on the potential
application of a centralized active, indirect SWHS in a high-rise resi-
dence, where flat-plate solar thermal collectors occupied top two-
third of the south and west facades of a hypothetical high-rise resi-
dence. Hobbi and Siddiqui [143] modeled, using TRNSYS, an indirect
forced-circulation SWHS with a flat-plate collector for domestic hot-
water load of a single-family residential unit in a cold climate. The
model was used to optimize the design parameters of both the system
and the collector. Kulkarni et al. [144] performed a numerical opti-
mization of the SWHS configuration with varying water replenish-
ment profile. The studied system was of active, direct type with flat-
plate collector. The annual performance of the system was studied
based on the optimal proposed water replenishment profile. It was
observed that the annualized system cost can be reduced by 13.7%.
Ayompe et al. [145] presented a validated TRNSYS model for
forced circulation, indirect SWHSs with flat plate and heat-pipe
evacuated-tube collectors used in temperate climates. The vali-
dated model can be used to predict long-term performance of the
SWHSs in different locations and operating conditions as well as
optimize SWHS sizes to match different load profiles. Note that the
heat-pipe evacuated-tube solar collectors consist of a heat pipe
inside a vacuum-sealed tube, as shown in Fig. 11. The heat is
transferred as latent heat energy by evaporating a small amount of
working fluid in a heating zone (heat-pipe evaporator) and
condensing the vapor in a cooling zone (heat-pipe condenser).
Michaelides and Eleftheriou [146] presented an experimental study
about the performance characteristics of an active indirect SWHS
with two flat-plate solar collectors. They found that knowing the
performance boundaries during the lifecycle, one could use them as
a tool to assess the performance degradation of the solar collector
with time and make a qualitative comparison of the system
Results
ANN model was validated using actual results [129]
fannular ¼ 79%; PBP ¼ 8 years [130]
The studied model is an efficient tool for the design & optimization of the investigated
system [131]
h0 provides a more representative measure of the performance
FPC: h*s ,avg ¼ 51%; h*R,avg ¼ 81%; h0,avg ¼ 41%;
ETC: h*s ,avg ¼ 59%; h*R,avg ¼ 79%; h0,avg ¼ 47% [132]
Without timer: 4.29 < Acl,optimum < 6.15 m2;
With timer: 2.14 < Acl,optimum < 3.62 m2;
(F  5 ) < boptimum < (F + 5 ) [133]
For a 220L, 30-ETC system: monthly savings ¼ 29e90% [135]
Annual solar contribution: 79%; Reduction of GHG ¼ 70%; For Electric back-up: PBP ¼ 2.7
years; For Diesel back-up: PBP ¼ 4.5 years [136]
Two phase-SWHS: h [ by 18% compared to conventional SWHS [134]
Power demand at on-peak hours can be reduced at over 2.6 kW/unit on average [140]
SWHS with mantle heat exchanger: havg ¼ 50% [137]
Two phase-SWHS: h ¼ 82% [139]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of a heat-pipe evacuated-tube collector [145].
performance. A summary of the presented studies is illustrated in
Table 10.
2.5.5.5. Solar collector. Al-Madani [147] designed, manufactured
and evaluated the performance of a cylindrical solar water heater.
The system consisted of a cylindrical glass tube (air evacuated) that
works as the receiver of solar energy and a copper coil through
which the water flows (Fig. 12). This coil is placed inside the glass
tube and acts as the collector. Results revealed a good capability of
Table 10
Summary of studies conducted on active systems.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
Active @ Milan, Rome & Palermo, Italy
@ Belflast, Irland & London, UK
@ Hong Kong
@ Montreal, Canada
@ Pune, India
@ Nicosia, Cyprus
@ @ Dublin, Ireland
275
the system to convert the solar energy to heat and use it for water
heating. This system does not need to be directed to the sun
because of its circular shape. Furthermore, it has lower heat loss
and cost than those of a flat-plate collector-SWHS. Gunerhan and
Hepbasli [148] studied the optimum tilt angle for solar collectors in
Izmir, Turkey. It is found that the solar collector should be orien-
tated due south and that it should be mounted at the monthly
average tilt angle and the slope adjusted once a month. Varol and
Oztop [149] numerically investigated the natural convection heat
transfer and flow field inside inclined flat-absorber and wavy-
absorber collectors. It is observed that the studied parameters are
strongly affected by the shape and inclination angle of the collector
and enhanced heat transfer rate is obtained in the case of a wavy-
absorber. Furthermore, for the same aspect ratio, the mean Nusselt
number increases with the decreasing wave length.
Jaisankar et al. [150e152] found that the heat transfer
enhancement in a twisted tape collector is higher than that in a
plain tube collector and it gradually decreases with increase in
twist ratio. In addition, the heat enhancement in full length twisted
tape is better than the twist fitted with rod which in turn is better
than twist fitted with spacer and the decrease in friction factor is
maximum for twist fitted with spacer compared to twist fitted with
rod. Ma et al. [153] investigated the thermal performance of an
individual glass evacuated-tube solar collector by one-dimensional
analytical method. The studied collector is a two-layered glass
evacuated U-tube, where the absorber film is deposited in the outer
surface of the absorber tube-the inner glass tube. Furthermore, the
U-tube is welded inside a circular copper fin. Results showed an
important influence of the thermal resistance of the air layer be-
tween the absorber tube and the copper fin on the heat efficiency.
In addition, efficiency increases with the increase of solar radiation
intensity, but it reaches gradually to a constant. Kishor et al. [154]
presented a fuzzy modeling approach to represent the solar col-
lector in a thermosyphon SWHS. The proposed fuzzy model pro-
vided satisfactory prediction as compared to ANN technique.
Li et al. [155] established a heat transfer model for an all-glass
vacuum tube collector used in a forced-circulation SWHS and
validated it by experimental studies. AlShamaileh [156] studied a
new solar coating, comprising NiAl alloy particles, for SWHS ap-
plications. Results showed that the studied coating collects thermal
energy more efficiently than ordinary commercial black paints.
Taherian et al. [157] studied the dynamic simulation of a flat-plate
collector in a closed loop thermosyphon SWHS and validated it
experimentally. Tanaka [158] performed numerical analysis of a
solar thermal collector with a flat-plate top reflector, which extends
Results
Economically, SWHS is better than EWH but worse than GO & LPG-WHs [141]
For all year: if f < 30%, N ¼ 0;
For warm half year (AprileSeptember): if f < 50%, N ¼ 0;
if Vst ¼ Vdhn, performance [ as Acl [ [142]
hcl-avg ¼ 38.4%; fannular ¼ 53.4%; PBP ¼ 9.2 years [110]
The designed optimal system could provide 83e97% and 30e62% of the hot
water demands in summer and winter, respectively with fannular ¼ 68% [143]
For the cost-optimal system configuration: Acl Y by 12.7% & Vst Y by 10.2% [144]
Tank-Tw, Energy collected & hcl-avg are predictable; SWHS is relatively
insensitive to solar radiation fluctuations and hot water flows [146]
Maximum measure in 2/6/2009:
FPC: Tcl,o ¼ 67  C; Qcl ¼ 2500 kJ;
hp-ETC: Tcl,o ¼ 68  C; Qcl ¼ 2700 kJ;
Maximum measure in 2/1/2010:
FPC: Tcl,o ¼ 20  C; Qcl ¼ 500 kJ;
hp-ETC: Tcl,o ¼ 15  C; Qcl ¼ 300 kJ [145]
276 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 12. Schematic of the cylindrical solar water heater [147].
from the upper edge of the collector. He concluded that solar ra-
diation absorbed by the absorbing plate of the collector can be
increased using a flat-plate top reflector, which is inclined forward
in winter and backward in summer, and setting the inclination
angle of the reflector at less than 30 throughout the year. A
summary of the presented studies is illustrated in Table 11.
2.5.5.6. Novel systems. Tan and Deng [159] presented a simulation
study of a water chiller with a desuperheater and a reversibly used
water cooling tower for service hot-water generation. Using this
system, part of chilled water is pumped into a RUWCT where it is
heated by warmer ambient moist air. The operating characteristics
of the refrigeration system with a desuperheater and a RUWCT
were studied. The required flow rate of chilled water to be pumped
into the RUWCT was calculated in order to satisfy a certain heat
load. Also, the maximum heating capacity of the system under
different operating conditions was evaluated. In addition, results
indicated that the use of a RUWCT would achieve higher energy
efficiency than the use of electric heating as back-up heat pro-
visions when building space cooling load is reduced. Raab et al.
[160] validated the TRNSYS XST-model for calculating the thermal
behavior of ground buried hot-water heat stores. It is worth noting
that the XST-model is an additional type (non-standard type) for
TRNSYS. The validated system was composed of a closed active
solar circuit with a flat-plate collector connected to a ground buried
and thermally insulated seasonal hot-water heat store and a district
heating network as shown in Fig. 13.
Furbo et al. [161] presented the investigation of small solar
domestic hot-water systems based on smart solar tanks. These
Table 11
Summary of studies conducted on solar collectors.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data Results
Modeling/simulation Experimental
Collector @ Bahrain
@ Izmir, Turkey
@ w.r.t. variations of b, wave length, Rayleigh no. & aspect ratio, variation of Nulocal is almost linear
@ India
@ For I ¼ 950 W/m2 & Ta ¼ 283 K:
@ The developed model can be used for the estimation of the SWHS performance [154]
@ @ Beijing, China
@ Amman, Jordan
@ @ North Iran
@ Japan
tanks are small vertical mantle tanks designed in such a way that
the auxiliary energy supply system heats up the tank from the top.
Therefore thermal stratification in the tank is built up in a good way
when the auxiliary energy supply system is used. The study rec-
ommended starting the development of smart solar tank units with
an oil-fired boiler or a natural gas burner as auxiliary energy supply
systems. Ho and Chen [162] presented a theoretical prediction of
the performance of a double-pass sheet-and-tube solar water
heater with external recycle and showed that the recycle effect can
effectively enhance the collector efficiency compared with that in a
single-pass device with the same flow rate. Roonprasang et al. [163]
conducted an experimental study of a new SWHS using a solar
water pump and showed that it is economically comparable to a
conventional one. Sutthivirode et al. [164] conducted an experi-
mental study of SWHS coupled with a built-in solar water pump.
This system adds less weight to a building roof and saves electrical
energy of a circulation pump. It has lower cost compared to a do-
mestic SWHS. Zhao et al. [165] developed a computer model and
used it to analyze performance and operating characteristics of a
novel loop heat-pipe SWHS. The system was composed of wicked
heat absorbing pipe arrays, vapor and liquid headers, vapor and
liquid transporting lines, as well as a flat-plate heat exchanger
coupled with a water storage tank by water tubing as shown in
Fig. 14(a). In operation, the received solar heat converts the liquid
adhered on the wick of the pipes into vapor, which flows upwards
along the inner space of the pipes and enters the top-side vapor
header, owing to the buoyancy of vapor. The vapor is further
transported to the heat exchanger inside the building via the vapor
transporting line. Within the exchanger, the vapor is condensed
into liquid of the same temperature, transferring heat to the water
flowing across the channels adjacent to the vapor channels. The
liquid then enters the liquid header located right below the vapor
header, due to the gravity caused by the height difference between
the exchanger and the header. This amount of liquid is then evenly
distributed to individual pipes through a dedicated liquid feeder
fitted at the upper part of the pipes, as shown in Fig. 14(b).
Chow et al. [166] reported the integrated thermal performance of
a water-flow absorbing window compared to conventional single
Max (Two  Twi) ¼ 27.8  C; max h ¼ 41.8% [147]
For March & September: boptimum ¼ latitude (38.46 ); boptimum [ towards the beginning and end
of the year [148]
for flat collectors & wavy for wavy collectors
For flat collectors: highest Rayleigh number is obtained at the highest b
For wavy collectors: Numean Y with the increase of b [149]
As twist ratio Y, the heat transfer rate [ & need of Acl Y by 8e24%; performance of LefteRight
twisted tape > helical twisted tape [150,151,152]
at THTF  Ta ¼ 110 K, h [ 10% & Tcoating Y 30  C as Cb [ from 5 to 40 W/mK;
at Cb ¼ 29 W/mK, FʹY slightly & Tcoating [ 110 K as (THTF  Ta) [ from 0 to 150 K;
As THTF,i [ from 30 to 90  C, (THTF,o  THTF,i) Y 0.65  C for ṁHTF ¼ 0.003 kg/s & [ 1.96  C
for ṁHTF ¼ 0.001 kg/s;
at ṁHTF ¼ 0.001 kg/s, h [ 10% & THTF,o [ 16% as Cb [ from 5 to 30 W/mK;
Tcoating [ linearly as THTF,i [; Tcoating [ slightly as ṁHTF Y; for Cb < 40 W/mK, Fʹ Y largely [153]
UL has little impact on the calculated results because the heat loss coefficient of vacuum tube
collector is small and thus it can be ignored in mathematical models [155]
The new studied coating shows better performance compared to the untreated black paint by an
average of 5  C [156]
FPC-Thermosyphon SWHS: hcl,avg ¼ 68% [157]
Compared with a conventional one, using a solar collector with a flat plate top reflector increases
solar radiation absorption by 19, 26 & 33% for lm/lcl ¼ 0.5, 1 & 2, respectively [158]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286 277

Fig. 13. The solar-assisted district heating system in Hannover [160].

and double pane absorptive glazing. The investigated system is a
double pane window whose cavity is connected to a water-flow
circuit. The water passage in this way can effectively lower the
glass pane temperature, reduce room heat gain and therefore, the
air-conditioning electricity consumption. Furthermore, the water-
flow window system can function as a hot-water pre-heating de-
vice. Simulation results showed that the integrated performance of
the water-flow window in terms of reduction in air-conditioning as
well as water-heating loads is very attractive. Deb Mondol et al. [167]
investigated the performance of a novel heat-exchange unit (‘Sol-
asyphon’), shown in Fig. 15. The ‘Solasyphon’ delivered solar heated
water directly to the top of the storage producing a stratified supply
at a useable temperature. Results showed that the ‘Solasyphon’
system is more effective compared to a traditional twin-coil system
for a domestic application where intermittent hot-water demand is
predominant and under a transient solar input, particularly on in-
termediate or poor solar days. However, the twin-coil system was
found to be more efficient than the ‘Solasyphon’ system under a
prolonged heating period. Note that a twin-coil system consists of
two heat exchangers installed one above the other within a hot-
water storage cylinder. The upper and lower heat-exchanger coils are
connected to the boiler and solar circuit respectively. A summary of
the presented studies is illustrated in Table 12.
2.5.5.7. PV/T systems. A photovoltaic/thermal hybrid solar water-
heating system is a combination of photovoltaic and solar thermal
components/systems which simultaneously produce both elec-
tricity and heat from one integrated component or system using
water as heat removal fluid. Fig. 16 shows the main features of a
flat-plate PV/T collector.

Fig. 14. (a) The loop heat-pipe SWHS; (b) Schematic of the connection of the headers and heat pipes via the water feeder [165].
278 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of a ‘Solasyphon’ unit [167].
Although a water-based PV/T system is able to achieve a higher
overall energy output per unit area when compared to side-by-side
PV and solar water-heating systems [168], the individual thermal
and electrical efficiencies are lower.
Chow et al. [169] presented a photovoltaicethermosyphon
collector with rectangular flow channels and discussed its energy
performance. The overall performance of the system was found
promising in providing an alternative energy source for the do-
mestic sector in China. He et al. [170] constructed and tested a
water-type hybrid PV/T collector with polycrystalline PV module
placed on a flat-box type thermal absorber made of aluminum-
alloy. They found that the energy-saving efficiency (hf ¼ hth þ he/
hpower) is above that of a conventional system. Ji et al. [171] illus-
trated the thermal and electrical behavior of a wall-mounted solar
photovoltaic/thermal collector system through a numerical model.
They carried out an optimization on the appropriate water-flow
rate and packing factor which is defined as the ratio of area covered
by PV cells to the total area of the solar thermal collector. Ji et al.
[172] conducted sensitivity analysis of a flat-box aluminum-alloy
PV and water-heating system designed for natural circulation and
indicated that the higher the PV cell covering factor and the glazing
transmissivity, the better the overall system performance. Chow
et al. [173] described an experimental study of a centralized
photovoltaic and hot-water collector wall system that can serve as a
water pre-heating system, where collectors were mounted at
vertical facades. Results indicated that natural water circulation
was found more preferable than forced circulation. Moreover, with
the PV/T wall, space thermal loads can be much reduced both in
summer and winter; leading to substantial energy savings. Chow
et al. [174] presented a study on the performance evaluation of
photovoltaicethermosyphon system for subtropical climate appli-
cation. They found that the PBP for this system is equivalent to that
of side-by-side configuration. Fraisse et al. [175] studied the energy
performance of water hybrid PV/T collectors, where water was used
as the heating element for a Direct Solar Floor space heating system
and a hot-water supply to the house. Results indicated that in the
case of a glazed collector with a conventional control system for
DSF, the maximum temperature reached at the PV modules is
higher than 100  C which does not allow the use of EVA resin in PV
modules due to high risks of degradation. The use of either a-Si cells
(to avoid the use EVA and improve solar absorption) or uncovered
collector (for more effective cooling) was suggested. Da Silva and
Fernandes [168] conducted parametric studies and annual tran-
sient simulations of PV/T systems using Simulink/Matlab. They
proposed that the use of vacuum, or a noble gas at low-pressure
increases the thermal efficiency and fluid working temperatures,
reduces thermal losses and negligibly decreases the electrical per-
formance. Daghigh et al. [176] conducted a simulation study to
predict the performance of amorphous and crystalline silicon-
based PV/T solar collectors. From their results, it could be noticed
that if electrical production is a priority, the c-Si PV/T based solar
collector is preferred.
Dupeyrat et al. [177] studied and evaluated the thermal and
electrical performances of several PV/T collector concepts using a
simple 2-dimentional thermal model. They indicated that the
direct lamination of single c-Si PV cells on an optimized metal heat
exchanger leads to the best results. After that, an experimental PV/
T collector was built using the single package lamination method,
focusing on the enhancement in heat transfer between PV cells
and cooling fluid as well as the improvement of optical perfor-
mance (anti-reflective coating on the glass cover). Their experi-
mental results indicated a significant improvement of both
thermal and electrical performance in comparison to previous
work on PV/T collector concepts. Additionally, the thermal effi-
ciency at zero reduced temperature (when the fluid inlet tem-
perature is equal to the ambient temperature) of the laminated PV/
T collector seems to be very close to the efficiency of a solar
thermal-only-collector with or without a selectively coated
absorber. However, the heat loss coefficients of this collector are
significantly higher than those of high efficient flat-plate collectors
(with selective coating), but still in the same range as some less
efficient solar thermal-only-collectors (with non-selective
coating). Furthermore, the electric efficiency of the investigated
PV/T collector is significantly lower than that of good single c-Si PV
modules using the same solar cell technology; however, this is
mainly due to a low packing factor. A summary of the presented
studies is illustrated in Table 13.
2.5.5.8. PCM integrated systems. Phase change materials are latent
heat storage materials. The thermal energy transfer occurs when a
material changes from solid to liquid or liquid to solid. The main
advantages of PCMs are their high storage density and isothermal
operation. PCMs can be incorporated in SWHSs to enhance the
thermal energy storage.
Kurklu et al. [178] developed and studied a new type of solar
collectors which consisted of two adjoining sections, one filled with
water and the other with paraffin wax PCM (Fig. 17). The PCM
functioned both as an energy storage material for the stabilization
of the water temperature and as an insulation material due to its
low thermal conductivity value. It was concluded that this type of
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Table 12
Summary of novel SWHS studies.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
Novel @ Southern China
@ @ Hannover, Germany
@ @ Denmark
@ e
@ Thailand
@ Thailand
@ @ Beijing, China
@ Hong Kong
@ Northern Ireland
collector might pave the way to the use of PCMewater solar panels
on the south faces of buildings for energy storage or saving appli-
cations. Mehling et al. [179] proved that adding a PCM module at
the top of the water tank is a technique that gives the system higher
energy storage density, allowing re-heating of the transition layer
after partial unloading and compensation of heat loss in the top
layer for a considerable time. Cabeza et al. [180] studied the addi-
tion of several cylinders of PCM at the top of the water tank. A
granular sodium acetate trihydrateegraphite was chosen as the
PCM. The experiments were classified as cooling down process, re-
heating process and solar operation. The energy density was
Fig. 16. Main features of a flat-plate PVT collector [11].
279
Results
In winter, more chilled water is pumped to RUWCT;
In summer, RUWCT operates only at high heating
loads; Max Qwh is 3690, 4010, 4310 & 4620 W for 25%,
50%, 75% & 100% of full cooling load respectively;
As Qwh [, ṁref [; max ṁref ¼ 0.708 kg/s is at max Qwh for any
cooling load; Chiller with desuperheater system:
COPsystem+RUWCT > COPsystem+e-backup; Viable use of RUWCT
when Ta > 15  C [159]
Vhs ¼ 2795 m3; hhs ¼ 71.2%; f ¼ 28% [160]
Using small SDHW with smart tanks: Performance [ by
5e35% & performance/cost ratio [ by 25% [161]
hdp-stSWH > hsp-stSWH; hdp-stSWH [ as recycle rato, Twi, ṁ & I [ [162]
Solar pump works at 70 < Tcl < 90  C; hsys-avg ¼ 7e13%;
46 < Tw < 61  C [163]
Solar pump works at 70 < Tcl < 90  C; as discharge head [, hSP &
hsys Y; max Tw ¼ 59  C; max hsys ¼ 21% [164]
Optimum heat pipe operating Temperature is w72  C;
Ṽw across heat exchanger should be w5.1 l/min [165]
Compared with double and single pane windows: annual room
heat gain z 32% & 52%; annual electricity savings ¼ 111 &
140 kWh/m2, respectively [166]
For 6-h heating period at I ¼ 800 W/m2:
Solasyphon : hheat gain ¼ 21.3%;
Tw ¼ 45  C (Upper 50 L); hheat

gain ¼ 59.5% (Total, 200 L); Tw ¼ 20 C
(Lower 150 L);Coil: hheat gain ¼ 15.6%;
Tw ¼ 40  C (Upper 50 L); hheat gain ¼ 64.5%
(Total, 200 L); Tw ¼ 37  C (Lower 150 L)
[167]
evaluated by comparing the sensible heat stored in the tank when
only water was used, with the sensible and latent heat stored in the
tank when PCM modules were present. Experimental results
showed that the inclusion of a PCM module in water tanks for
domestic hot-water supply would allow either to have hot water
for longer periods of time even without exterior energy supply or to
use smaller tanks for the same purpose.
Ibanez et al. [181] developed a new TRNSYS component, based
on the already existing TYPE 60, called TYPE 60 PCM to simulate
and study the behavior of a single-family SDHW system with PCM
modules inserted inside the water tank. They proved that the
developed model is a powerful tool to evaluate the performance of
PCM modules in water tanks. Mettaweea and Assassa [182] carried
out outdoor experiments to investigate the heat transfer charac-
teristics of a compact PCM (paraffin wax) solar collector during the
charging and discharging processes of PCM. Nallusamya et al. [183]
presented a combined sensible and latent heat thermal energy
storage system. This system unit contained paraffin as PCM filled in
spherical capsules and packed in an insulated cylindrical storage
tank. The water, used as HTF to transfer heat from the constant
temperature bath/solar collector to the thermal energy storage
tank, also acts as sensible heat storage material. The effects of inlet
fluid temperature and flow rate of HTF on the performance of the
storage unit during the charging process was studied and dis-
cussed. Moreover, experiments were conducted for continuous
discharging and batch wise discharging for both sensible heat
storage system and combined storage system. It was concluded that
the combined storage system gives better performance than the
conventional sensible heat storage system. Talmatsky and Kribus
[184] constructed a physical model to describe a heat storage tank
with and without PCM. Their results indicated that contrary to
expectations, the use of PCM in the storage tank provides no en-
ergetic advantage to the end-user, and in some conditions, it may
actually be detrimental because re-heating of the water by the PCM
280 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Table 13
Summary of studies conducted on PV/T systems.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
PV/T @ @ China
@ Hefei, China
@ Hefei, China
@ @ Hefei, China
@ Hong Kong.
@ @ Hong Kong
@ @ Macon, France
@ Lisbon, Portugal
@ Malaysia
@ @ e @
during nighttime is responsible for increased losses to the envi-
ronment, in an amount that is sufficient to cancel gains made
during the day.
Mazman et al. [185] investigated the effect of using PCM modules
in a stratified SDHW tank where three PCM mixtures (PP, PS, SM)
were tested for this purpose in cooling and re-heating experiments.
In the cooling experiments, the average tank water temperature
dropped below the PCM melting temperature range in about 6e
12 h. During re-heating experiments, the PCM could increase the
temperature of 14e36 L of water at the upper part of the SDHW tank
by 3e4  C. This effect took place in 10e15 min. Furthermore, it was
concluded that PS gave the best results for thermal performance
enhancement of the SDHW tank. El Qarnia [186] studied the thermal
behavior and performance of a solar latent heat storage unit with
three different kinds of PCMs as storage mediums, n-octane, paraffin
wax and stearic acid. This unit consisted of a series of identical tubes
embedded in the PCM. During charging mode, a heat transfer fluid
(hot water) from the solar collector passes through the tubes and
transfers the collecting heat of solar radiation to the PCM. The heat
stored in the liquid PCM is next transferred to water during the
Fig. 17. Schematic view of the studied solar collector [178].
Application other than WH Results
Electricity
@ hth ¼ 37.6e48.6%; he ¼ 10.3e12.3% [169]
@ Max hth ¼ 40% if Twi ¼ Ta; he-avg ¼ 9.87% [170]
@ Optimum value of ṁw improves he & hth [171]
@ Primary energy savings ¼ 65% (z ¼ 0.63, sglazing ¼ 0.83);
he ¼ 10.15%; hth ¼ 45%; hsys ¼ 52% [172]
@ he ¼ 8.56%; hth ¼ 38.9% [173]
@ PBP ¼ 12 years ¼ PBP of side-by-side systems [174]
@ Without glass cover: annual he ¼ 10%
With glass cover: annual he ¼ 6.8% [175]
@ favg ¼ 67%; he ¼ 9%; hth ¼ 15%; hsys ¼ 24% [168]
@ (a-Si): he ¼ 4.9%; hth ¼ 72%; hsys ¼ 77%
(c-Si): he ¼ 11.6%; hth ¼ 51%; hsys ¼ 63% [176]
he ¼ 8.8%; hth ¼ 79%; hsys ¼ 88% [177]
discharging mode to produce heating water. Results showed that
the use of n-octane as PCM is not beneficial, whereas using paraffin
wax, part of the PCM remained liquid during discharging process
and stearic acid offered an acceptable range of outlet temperature of
hot water and full discharge of the storage unit for an optimum
water mass flow rate of 0.005 kg/s. Therefore, stearic acid is bene-
ficial for heating water application. Al-Hinti et al. [187] presented an
experimental investigation of the performance of water-PCM stor-
age for use with conventional SWHS. Paraffin wax was used as PCM
which was packed in the hot-water storage tank on two levels
(upper and lower). Results indicated that the system succeeded in
keeping the water temperature over 45  C under all operational and
climatic conditions. Kousksou et al. [188] confirmed the findings of
Ref. [184] regarding the use of PCM in SDHW systems that may prove
not to be substantially beneficial; however, they suggested that the
proper choice of PCM melting temperature may open the prospects
of successfully designing a PCM based DHW system that may be
more efficient. A summary of the presented studies is illustrated in
Table 14.
2.6. Instantaneous water heater
2.6.1. Principle
Instantaneous water heaters are also known as on-demand or
continuous water heaters because they instantly heat water as it
flows through the device (upon demand), and because the water is
constantly heated whilst the tap is left on. Electricity, gas or oil is
usually used as the energy source in instantaneous water heaters.
2.6.2. Advantages
 No hot-water storage, and thus standby heat loss is eliminated
 Higher energy factor than conventional storage units [189],
noting that the energy factor is defined as a measure of the
portion of input energy that is transferred to the hot water
 Lower operating cost compared to conventional storage units
 Unlimited hot-water supply as water is heated while passing
through the system [189]
 The temperature of a certain hot-water flow is constant
 Their compact size use less physical space
 Longer life expectancy than conventional storage units [189].
2.6.3. Disadvantages
 Start-up delay as water is heated upon demand
 Minimum flow rate threshold, below which the unit will not
activate, is required [189]
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Table 14
Summary of studies conducted on PCM integrated systems.
Classification Type of study Place/climatic data
Modeling/simulation Experimental
PCM @ Turkey
@ @ e Energy density [ by 20e45%; top water heat loss delayed in time
@ Lleida, Spain
@ @ Lleida, Spain
@ Egypt
@ India
@ Tel Aviv, Israel & Munich, Germany
@ Lleida, Spain
@ @ Marrakech, Morocco
@ Jordan
@ Tel Aviv, Israel & Pau, France
 May not be able to serve simultaneous multiple draws of hot
water [189]
 For electrical type, high instantaneous power is needed
 Yearly maintenance is needed to prevent water-flow restriction
due to calcium build up.
Idem et al. [190] presented a mathematical model of an
instantaneous, condensing, gas-fired water heater that could
accurately predict the water temperature rise and flue loss for a
wide range of operating conditions. Thomas et al. [191] presented
both laboratory and field-test results related to the performance of
gas-fired instantaneous water heaters for residential and com-
mercial applications. They concluded that the residential-use effi-
ciency of the studied system is approximately 17% higher than that
of a typical power-vented, gas-fired storage water heater. Con-
cerning the commercial use, the real use efficiency of the system is
close to its steady-state efficiency in a once through configuration,
while it is reduced significantly in large volume circulation loop
configuration because of the high pipe work heat losses. Moreover,
the outlet temperature of an instantaneous gas-fired water heater
is recommended to be set between 54 and 60  C in order to avoid
cold water problems with mixing valves. The impact of draw vol-
ume size, flow rate, and time intervals between draws on the
overall efficiency of instantaneous gas water heaters was investi-
gated at the Davis Energy Group [192]. Experimental tests revealed
a small impact of the flow rate and significant efficiency degrada-
tion at draw volumes less than four gallons. In addition, small time
intervals between draws yielded higher efficiencies.
Hwang et al. [193] experimentally investigated the heat and mass
transfer characteristics in a titanium heat exchanger with excellent
corrosion resistance used for waste heat recovery with the conden-
sation arranged in an instantaneous gas-fired water heater. Different
arrangements of the tubes of the heat exchanger including in-line
and staggered configurations were also investigated. Results indi-
cated that the thermal efficiency of the gas-fired water heater with a
latent heat recovery heat exchanger was enhanced by about 10%
281
Results
Day: Tw > 55  C; Night: Tw > 30  C; hth ¼ 20e80% [178]
by 50e200%; top water was reheated from the PCM module in only
20 min [179]
Increase in tank energy density at DTPCM-water ¼ 1 K & DTPCM-water ¼ 8 K is:
For 2 PCM modules: 40% & 6%, respectively;
For 4 PCM modules: 57.2% & 12%, respectively;
For 6 PCM modules: 66.7% & 16.4%, respectively [180]
f [ by 4 & 8% at TPCM ¼ 45 & 55  C, respectively, while hcl is not
influenced [181]
PCM discharge phase: havg [ as molten layer thickness [;
PCM charge phase: Qh,u [ as ṁw [; havg starts small & [ with time
due to [ in natural convection [182]
During charging: if THTF,i ¼ cst, ṁHTF has a small effect; heat transfer [
as THTF,i [ [183]
In January:
with PCM: Heat loss ¼ 13.09 MJ; hcl ¼ 42.14%;
without PCM: Heat loss ¼ 13.12 MJ; hcl ¼ 41.51%;
In April:
with PCM: Heat loss ¼ 15.73 MJ; hcl ¼ 40.36%;
without PCM: Heat loss ¼ 15.69 MJ; hcl ¼ 39.85% [184]
PCM mixture type PS: hheat recovery ¼ 74%; PCM mixture type PP:
hheat recovery ¼ 63%; PCM mixture type SM: hheat recovery ¼ 36% [185]
n-octane: εc,optimum ¼ 0.889; paraffin: εc,optimum ¼ 0.559; stearic:
εc,optimum ¼ 0.439 [186]
Tw > 45  C all time [187]
Results confirm that of ([184]) [188]
compared with conventional instantaneous water heaters. Also the
heat and mass transfer performance of the staggered tube bank type
were approximately 50% and 10% higher than that of the in-line tube
bank type, respectively. Czerski et al. [194] studied the possibility of
installing gas-fired instantaneous water heaters with combustion
chamber sealed with respect to the room in multi-story residential
buildings. This water heater is equipped with air-supply and
combustion-product ducts systems. The tests conducted in two pilot
plants in Poland showed that the use of such systems in multi-story
buildings significantly reduces the danger of CO emissions, improves
sanitary conditions and ensures higher energy efficiency (w92%)
than that in the case of traditional instantaneous gas water heaters.
The main reason, leading to efficiency enhancement, is the possi-
bility of reducing the combustion gases temperature at the outlet of
the heaters, which is not possible in traditional system types.
3. Conclusions
Water heating contributes to a large amount of residential en-
ergy consumption all around the world, and thus, the proper choice
of a domestic hot-water system can significantly save energy,
protect nature and reduce operational costs.
In this study, a detailed review of different water-heating sys-
tems existing worldwide was conducted. Six different categories
were introduced, namely wood, oil/gas, electric, heat pump, solar
and instantaneous systems. The heat pumps were further classified
in several groups, namely air source, ground source, solar assisted,
ground source-solar assisted, photovoltaicethermal and gas-
engine driven systems. In addition, concerning solar water heat-
ing, different system types and collectors were presented and
reviewed.
The main conclusions that are extracted from this study are as
follows:
 Instantaneous water heaters work on a demand principle
and thus need to use their energy source (gas/oil/electricity)
282 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
Fig. 18. General flow chart of water heater choice.
when hot water is required without hot-water storage.
High instantaneous heating energy is needed to provide the
required hot-water temperature. Using gas or oil as the energy
source causes local pollution and obliges the use of a continuous
fuel supplying system. Continuous electricity supply is needed
for electric-based heaters. In the case of frequent power outages
for grid-connected homes or off-grid homes, storing electrical
energy in sufficient capacity batteries is required. Accordingly,
in the case of non-continuous electrical power supply, the
instantaneous electrical system should be disregarded
 Wood, oil and gas domestic storage-type water heaters are
potential alternatives in the absence of sufficient electrical
energy supply. However, they are not preferred due to the
production of local pollution which may be harmful to the
residents’ health
 Concerning the use of PCM in SDHW systems, contradictory
results have been reported by different researchers; hence, it is
recommended to await further technical and research devel-
opment before judging this technology
 Concerning the design of the storage hot-water reservoir, the
following recommendations could be suggested:
 The inlet pipe: side-bottom positioned, slotted-pipe or 90
downwards-bended pipe
 The outlet pipe: upper-side positioned short tube or stainless
steel coupling positioned vertically at the center of the upper
cap of the tank
 High aspect ratio (height/diameter) in order to enhance hot-
water stratification
 Use dual-tank reservoir, where the second tank constitute
70e80% of the total power rating and 10e30% of the total
volume
 For large capacity EWHs, use dual heater elements, with one
positioned vertically at the bottom and the other positioned
horizontally below the uppermost 50 L volume
 The size of the storage tank volume should not be larger than
the daily hot-water consumption
 For SWHSs, smart solar storage tanks (small, vertical, mantle
and those that develop good stratification) are preferred
 Concerning SWHS:
 The performance of parallel flow solar collectors is preferred
more than series flow collectors for domestic use
 Twisted tape collector tubes could augment the heat transfer,
as well as lefteright twisted tape with small twist ratio has
the best performance
 PTCs installation is geographically limited
 Evacuated-tube collectors are more likely to maintain their
efficiency over a wide range of ambient temperatures and
heating requirements. On the other hand, in constantly sunny
climates, flat-plate collectors are more efficient whereas, in
more cloudy conditions, their energy output drops off rapidly
in comparison with evacuated tubes
 Solar radiation absorbed by the absorbing plate of the col-
lector can be increased by using a flat-plate top reflector
 Corrugated absorber surface increases the performance of
ICSSWH
 The optimum collector slope is approximately equal to the
local latitude
 From the utilization point of view, thermosyphon solar water
heater occupies a good position in domestic applications due
to its ease of operation without the aid of any external energy
 The energetic performance of two-phase thermosyphon
SWHSs is better than that of single-phase systems
 With a proper design of the PV/T hybrid solar system,
competitive thermal and electrical efficiencies could be ach-
ieved compared to that of conventional solar thermal-only
systems and PV modules, respectively
 Payback period for PV/T hybrid solar system is equivalent to
that of side-by-side configuration
 O. Ibrahim et al. / Building and Environment 72 (2014) 259e286
 PV/T solar systems improve the energy performance per unit
area which is very important for urban areas
 SWHSs with electrical back-up have no local pollution impact
 Concerning HPWH:
 HPWHs are energy efficient systems
 Conventional ASHPWH should be preferably installed in lo-
cations with ambient temperature above 4.4  C year round
 Energetically, the wrap-around condenser coil on the tank is
better than separate condenser
 Concerning the design of natural convection immersed
condenser, the U-tube style results in a better performance
than bayonet style
 In an ASHPWH, instantaneous heating mode has better en-
ergy performance than cyclic heating mode
 Both stability and efficiency of the ASHPWH can be signifi-
cantly improved using EEV
 GSHPWH is always energy efficient and applicable irre-
spective of climate
 A GSHP with an integral desuperheater water-heating circuit
contributes to an average of 27% of the total energy supplied
for heating water
 The collector efficiency of the DX-SAHPWH system can be
greater than 1 when the evaporating temperature is lower
than the ambient temperature
 EEV and variable frequency compressor are recommended to
be utilized for the DX-SAHPWH
 SAS-HPWH overcomes the problem of DX-SAHPWH that fails
in rainy days
 PV/T HPWH systems improve the energy performance per
unit area, the electrical efficiency of PV modules and COP of
the heat pump
 GEHP systems are novel, very efficient systems and they
become more efficient when used for both water and space
heating
 Except for GEHP, HPWHs produce no local pollution
In an attempt to suggest a general scheme that recommends the
choice of a water-heating system, five variables are introduced:
1) Surface area availability, which controls the possibility of using
solar collectors or geothermal energy
2) Mean daily solar energy
3) Average minimum daily ambient air temperature in the cold
season
4) Mean daily ambient temperature range (MDATR ¼ annual-mean
[max Ta,daily e min Ta,daily])
5) Balance point, which is the outdoor temperature at which the
heat-pump capacity equals the building load [195]
According to the previous conclusions, the flow chart, shown in
Fig. 18, suggests a general road map that controls the choice of a
water-heating system for domestic use from energetic and envi-
ronmental points of view.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Azm research center at E-
DST Lebanese University as well as the Lebanese National Council
for Scientific Research for their support.
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