MME455: Lecture A07

Nickel Base Alloys

Topics to discuss…..
 Properties of nickel
 Physical metallurgy
 Commercially pure nickel
 Nickel base alloys
 Single crystal castings of nickel-base superalloys

Lecture A07, Page 1/15

 Introduction

 Nickel and nickel-base alloys are
vitally important to modern industry
because of their ability to withstand
a wide variety of severe operating
conditions involving corrosive
environments, high temperatures,
high stresses, and combination of
these factors.
 Nickel and its alloys, like stainless
steels, offer a wide range of corrosion
resistance.
 However, nickel can accommodate
larger amount of alloying elements –
mainly Cr, Mo, and W – in solid solution
that iron.

 Therefore, nickel based alloys in

general can be used in more severe
environments than stainless steels.

Typical properties

 Silvery shiny appearance

 High toughness and ductility Crystal structure FCC
 Good high and low temperature strength Atomic number 28
Atomic weight (g/mol) 58.71
 High oxidation resistance Density (g/cc) 8.89
 Good corrosion resistance Melting point (C) 1455
Boiling point (C) 2913
 Ferro-magnetic

Disadvantages

 Relatively high cost

 Not mixed with cheap alloying elements

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 Typical applications

 About 60% of nickel production is used as alloying elements in stainless and

nickel-alloy steels, and in other elements such as copper, cobalt, chromium, etc.

 Most of the remainders is used for high-nickel alloys and for electroplating

 Nickel and nickel alloys are used for
a wide variety of applications, the
majority of which involve corrosion
resistance and/or heat resistance
chemical plant, heat exchanger, reaction
furnace, rotary kiln, turbine blades.
 A number of other applications for Ni alloys
involve the unique physical properties of
special-purpose nickel-base or high-nickel
alloys. These include:
• low-expansion alloys
• electrical resistance alloys
• soft magnetic alloys
• shape memory alloys

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• Aircraft gas turbines: disks, combustion
chambers, bolts, casings, shafts, exhaust
systems, cases, blades, vanes, burner cans,
afterburners, thrust reversers
• Steam turbine power plants: bolts, blades,
stack gas reheaters.
• Reciprocating engines: turbochargers,
exhaust valves, hot plugs, valve seat inserts
• Metal processing: hot-work tools and dies
• Medical applications: dentistry uses,
prosthetic devices
• Space vehicles: aerodynamically heated
skins, rocket engine parts
• Heat-treating equipment: trays, fixtures,
conveyor belts, baskets, fans, furnace mufflers
• Nuclear power systems: control rod drive
mechanisms, valve stems, springs, ducting
• Chemical and petrochemical industries:
bolts, fans, valves, reaction vessels, piping,
pumps
• Pollution control equipment: scrubbers,
flue gas desulfurization equipment (liners,
fans, stack gas reheaters, ducting)
• Metals processing mills: ovens, after-
burners, exhaust fans
• Coal gasification and liquefaction systems:
heat exchangers, reheaters, piping
• Pulp and paper mills: tubing, doctor blades,
bleaching circuit equipment, scrubbers

Physical Metallurgy

 Nickel is a versatile element; alloys with most metals.

 Complete solid solubility exists between nickel and copper.
 Wide solubility ranges between iron, chromium, and nickel
 possibility of many alloy combinations

 The FCC structure of the nickel matrix (g) can be strengthened by

① solid-solution hardening
② carbide precipitation, or
③ precipitation hardening.

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 Solid solution hardening

 Co, Fe, Cr, Mo, W, V, Ti, and Al are all solid solution hardeners in nickel.

 These elements differ with nickel in atomic diameter from 1 to 13 %.

 Above 0.6Tm, which is the range of high-temperature creep, strengthening is

diffusion dependent and large, slow diffusing elements such as Mo and W
are the most effective hardeners.

Carbide strengthening

 Nickel is not a carbide former; other elements present in nickel form carbides.
 This is either a bane or a blessing to the designer of alloys. An understanding of
carbide class and its morphology is critical for alloy design.

 Most common carbides forms: MC, M6C, M7C3, and M23C6.

• MC – large blocky carbide, randomly distributed,
not desired
• M6C – blocky; formed in grain boundaries (can
be used to control grain size), or precipitated in a
Widmanstaitten pattern throughout the grain
(impair ductility and rupture life)
• M7C3 – form intergranularly; beneficial if
precipitated as discrete particles, or cause
embrittlement if they agglomerate and form
continuous grain-boundary films.
• M23C6 – form as grain-boundary precipitates;
influential in enhancing rupture properties

 The alloy chemistry, its prior processing history, and the heat treatment given to the
material influence carbide precipitation and ultimately performance of the alloy.

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 Precipitation hardening

 The precipitation of g’, Ni3(AI,Ti) in a high-
nickel matrix provides significant
strengthening to the material.
 This unique intermetallic phase has a FCC
structure similar to that of the matrix and a
lattice constant having 1% or less
mismatch in the lattice constant with the g
matrix. This close matching allows low
surface energy and long time stability.
 Precipitation of the g’ from the
supersaturated matrix yields an increase
in strength with increasing precipitation
temperature, up to the overaging or
coarsening temperature.
 The amount of g’ formed is a function of the
hardener content of the alloy. Al, Ti, Nb, and
Ta are strong g’ formers.
 Effective strengthening by g’ decreases above
about 0.6Tm as the particles coarsen.
 The g’ phase can transform to other (Ni3X)
precipitates if the alloy is supersaturated in Ti,
Nb, or Ta (indicated as X) and modify
mechanical properties.
 The phases precipitated are functions of alloy
chemistry and the heat treatment given the
material prior to service or the
temperature/time exposure of in-service
application.

Classification of Nickel Alloys

① Commercially pure nickel

② Nickel-copper alloys (Monels)

③ Nickel-chromium alloys

④ Nickel-iron and Nickel-chromium-iron alloys

⑤ Nickel-base superalloys

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 Commercially pure nickel
 High purity nickel contains at least 99 % Ni
 Commercially pure nickels also have Co and such impurities
like Mn, Fe, Si, and Cu to enhance specific properties.
 These alloys are non-heat treatable and may be hardened by
cold work.
 Some alloys containing Al and Ti are heat treatable and may
be strengthened by precipitation hardening Cold drawn Nickel 200
annealed at 829 C
 Microstructure consists of solid solution g phase in annealed
condition

Typical properties Applications

 Good mechanical properties and retains its  Food processing equipment
strength at elevated temperature  Electrical and electronic parts
 Excellent resistance to most corrosive  Caustic handling equipment
environment

Alloy Major Mechanical Principal Typical

Designation Composition Properties Characteristics Applications

Pure nickel 99.99 Ni (min) TS = 46 ksi

E = 30%

A nickel 99.40 Ni+Co TS = 70 ksi Used where strength in combination Chemical and soap
E = 40% of corrosion and oxidation resistance industry
HBN = 100 are required

D nickel 95.00 Ni+Co TS = 75 ksi Improve resistance to atmospheric Spark plug electrode,
4.75 Mn E = 40% attack at high temperature; ignition tube
HBN = 140 strength greater than A nickel

Duranickel 93.90 Ni+Co TS = 100 ksi High strength in combination with spring for laundry clip,
4.5 Al, 0.45 Ti E = 40% excellent corrosion resistance; jewelry parts, optical
0.55 Si HBN = 160 age hardenable frames; instrument parts

Parmanickel 98.65 Ni+Co TS = 105 ksi Strength and corrosion resistance Used in place of duranickel
0.45 Ti, E = 45% similar to duranickel; good electrical where good conductivity
0.35 Mg HBN = 160 and thermal conductivity; and magnetic properties
age hardenable are required

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 Nickel - copper alloys (Monels)
 Ni and Cu form complete solid solution Typical properties
 Ni-Cu alloy (a.k.a. Monels) contains 29-33 %  Mechanical properties higher than brasses
Cu as the major alloying element and bronzes but lower than alloy steels
 Ni-Cu alloys containing Al and Ti ( K Monel)  Good toughness and fatigue strength over a
is heat treatable and may be strengthened by range of temperature
precipitation hardening  Good formability and weldability, but poor
machinability
 Excellent corrosion resistance to acid, alkalis,
brines, waters, food products, and atmosphere
 Reduced price

Microstructure of cold drawn Monel R405 and
annealed at 829 C, showing solid solution
phase of Ni-Cu with sulphide stringers (black)
Applications
 Values, pumps, marine fixtures and fasteners
 Chemical processing equipment
 Oil-well drill collars and instruments

K Monel
 Addition of ~3% Al make it age hardenable
 Non-magnetic, corrosion resistant material
Constantan
with extra strength and hardness
 Uses: marine pump shaft, springs, aircraft  Contains 45% Ni and 55% Cu
instruments, ball bearings, safety tools  Highest electrical resistivity
 Uses: thermocouple

H and S Monel
 Contains 3% and 4% Si, respectively; casting alloy
 High strength, pressure tightness, corrosion resistance
 H Monel, containing less silicon has better machinability
 Uses: valve seats, pump liners, impellers

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 Ni-Cu alloys

Alloy Principal composition Condition TS, ksi 0.2PS, ksi %E in 2” BHN

Monel 66.15 Ni+Co, 31.3 Cu, 1.3 Fe Annealed 75 35 40 125

K-500 Monel 65.25 Ni+Co, 29.6 Cu, 2.75 Al Annealed 100 45 40 155

H Monel 63.0 Ni+Co, 30.5 Cu, 3.2 Si As-cast 115 70 10 265

Annealed 50 Electrical resistivity
Constantan 44-46 Ni, Bal. Cu
Cold-worked 100 = 49 mOhm-cm

Nickel - chromium alloys

 Cr forms solid solution with Ni up to ~30% at RT,  Resistivity is ~108 mohm-cm
resulting high corrosion resistance
 Change in electrical resistivity is
 Alloys containing 80Ni-20Cr compositions (Chromel not constant with temperature
A, Nichrome V) and 60Ni-16Cr-24Fe compositions
 Value depends on heat treatment;
(Chromel C, Nichrome) are used as electric
annealing improves resistivity
heating elements
 The alloy forms nickel-rich single phase solid solution
having annealing twins.

Properties Applications
 High electrical resistance  Heat exchanger tubing
 High corrosion resistance at high temperature  Heaters for electric furnace, cookers,
 High strength and workability kettles, immersion-heaters, hair-dryers,
toasters, etc.

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 Nickel-iron and Nickel-chromium-iron alloys
 Fe added to replace some of Ni
 lower cost
 lower properties (as compared with nickel base superalloy)
 used at lower temperatures
 Ni-Fe alloys contains 25-45%Ni and 15-60%Fe
 Higher Ni content increases operating temp (up to 815 C)
due to improved stability but more costly
 microstructure consists of austenitic FCC matrix
 can be strengthened by solid solution strengthening
(Mo, Cr), and precipitation hardening (Ti, Nb, Al) by
forming intermetallic phases
Non-heat-treatable Ni-Cr-Fe alloys
 The major alloying elements of these alloys
(15-22% Cr and up to 46% Fe) form single
phase solid solution with nickel
 May be hardened by cold working
 Alloys are identified according to trade names:
Inconel, Incoloy, and Hastelloy
 Good mechanical strength and high resistant
to creep combined with excellent corrosion
resistance to chloride-ion solution, sulphur
compounds and other organic and inorganic
compounds
 Good machinability, weldability and workability
 Used for furnace and heat treating equipment
(nitriding container, carburizing boxes, retorts).
Optical micrograph of Inconel 901
after precipitation hardening
SEM micrograph of Inconel 718
after exposure at 705 C/6,048 h
Heat-treatable Ni-Cr-Fe alloys
 These alloys contains 15-22% Cr and up to
33% Fe as the major alloying elements
 May be strengthened by precipitation
hardening due to the presence of additional
alloying elements: Al, Be, Ti, Si
 Trade names of some alloys:
Nimonic, Inconel X-750, Udimet,
Waspaloy, Rene, Astroloy
 Very high mechanical strength and high
resistant to creep at temperatures up to 815
C combined with good corrosion and
oxidation resistance
 Used for making gas turbine components,
parts of nuclear steam generators, hot
working tools, exhaust valves for IC engines
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 Non-heat-treatable Ni-Cr-Fe alloys

Alloy Principal composition Condition TS, MPa 0.2PS, MPa %E

Inconel Ni 72% min, Cr 14-17%, Fe 6-10% Annealed 655 310 45

Ni 30-35%, Cr 19-23%, Fe 39.5% min,

Incoloy 800 Annealed 600 275 45
Al 0.15-0.60%, Ti 0.15-0.6%

Ni 30-35%, Cr 19-23%, Fe 39.5% min,

Incoloy 800HT Annealed 560 250 45
Al 0.15-0.60%, Ti 0.15-0.6%

Ni 45-50%, Cr 20.5-23%, Fe 6-10%,

Hastelloy X Annealed 765 380 44
Mo 8-10%, W 0.2-1.0%, Co 0.5-2.5%

Heat-treatable Ni-Cr-Fe alloys

Alloy Principal composition Condition TS, MPa 0.2PS, MPa %E

Ni 69% min, Cr 18-21%, Fe 3% max,

Nimonic 80A Precip. hard. 1250 780 30
Al 1.0-1.8%, Ti 1.8-2.7%
Ni 54% min, Cr 14-16%, Fe 1% max,
Nimonic 115 Al 4.5-5.5%, Ti 3.5-4.5%, Precip. hard. 1300 850 25
Mo 3-5%, Co 13-15.5%
Ni 70% min, Cr 14-17%, Fe 5-9%,
Inconel X-750 Al 0.4-1.0%, Ti 2.25-2.75%, Precip. hard. 1250 850 30
Mo 8-10%, Nb 0.7-1.2%
Cr 18-21%, Fe 2% max, Al 1.0-1.5%,
Waspaloy Ti 2.6-3.25%, Mo 3.5-5%, Co 12-15.5%, Precip. hard. 1250 850 30
Ni balance
Cr 18-20%, Fe 5% max, Al 1.4-1.6%,
Rene 41 Ti 3.0-3.3%, Mo 9-10.5%, Co 10-12%, Precip. hard. 1420 1062 14
Ni balance

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 Nickel based superalloys

 High temperature heat-resistance Properties

alloys, which can retain high
strengths at elevated temperatures
 Three types of Ni superalloys
① nickel base
② nickel-iron base, and
③ cobalt base containing nickel
 Alloys contain high Cr with
Ti and Al to from precipitates, and
additions of Mo, Co, Nb, Zr, B, Fe.
 Complex microstructures
 Heat resistant and high strength
at high temperature (760-980 C)
 Good corrosion resistance
 Good oxidation resistance
Applications
 Aircrafts, space vehicles, rocket engines
 Industrial gas turbines, high temperature
applications
 Nuclear reactors, submarines
 Steam power plants, petrochemical
equipment

 These superalloys are “super” because of the g’ precipitation strengthening effect

 g’ is an intermetallic compound (Ni3Al) with ordered fcc structure
 Amazing property of superalloys: they become stronger at higher temperature

fcc Ni g
Ni atoms
matrix
Ni atoms

Al atoms
ordered fcc g’ ppt.
(cuboid in shape)

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 Turbine blades

Turbine blades in a jet engine experience:

• Mechanical forces – (1) creep, (2) fatigue, (3) thermomechanical fatigue
• High temperature environment – (1) oxidation, (2) hot corrosion

Turbine blade heat treatment

As-cast dendritic microstructure

precipitation hardened
g’ in g matrix

precipitation hardening
(solution treatment + ageing)

g’ g

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 The major phases present in the nickel-base superalloys:
• g (gamma) phase – the continuous matrix of FCC austenite
• g’ (gamma prime) phase – the major precipitate phase (more cubic shape)
• carbides – various types, mainly M23C6 and MC (M = metal)
Note: GB carbides affect high-temp strength, ductility, creep

Single-crystal castings of nickel-base superalloys

 A major increase in strength and
temperature capability of superalloy
casting can be obtained with the
introduction of columnar-grained and
single crystal casting

equiaxed directionally single

crystal solidified crystal
columnar crystals

property comparison between polycrystal,

columnar crystal and single crystal

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Next Class

MME455: Lecture A08

Alloy steels

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