Fuel Gases

A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or
nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those
materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat
energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).
Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas.
Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence: primary (natural fuel) and secondary (artificial fuel). Thus, a
general classification of chemical fuels is:
Primary (natural) Secondary (artificial)
Solid Fuels Wood, coal, peat, dung etc. Coke, charcoal
Liquid Fuels Petroleum diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG,
coal tar, naphtha, ethanol
Gaseous Fuels Natural Gas Hydrogen, propane, methane,
coal gas, water gas, blast
furnace gas, coke oven gas, CNG

Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary conditions. Many fuel gases are
composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures
thereof. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted
and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption. Fuel gas is
contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or
transport. Fuel gas is used if we need clean combustion like in glass industry etc. While their gaseous
nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage
inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect
in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel
gases so that they may be detected by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in current use is
natural gas.
A pilot light is a small gas flame, usually natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas, which serves as an ignition
source for a more powerful gas burner. Originally, a pilot light was kept permanently alight; however, this
is wasteful of gas. Now it is more common to light a burner electrically, but gas pilot lights are still used
when a high energy ignition source is necessary, as in when lighting a large burner.
In refineries, pilot burners used for lighting main burners usually use fuel gases since they catch fire easily.
Light diesel oil, or LDO, is a blend of components from the distillation process of diesel. It is used in
engines with an rpm less than 750, such as boilers and furnaces. LDO is also referred to as distillate fuel or
marked oil since it is marked with a colouring substance. A number of properties must meet standard
requirements for a fuel to be classified as light diesel oil. Light Diesel Oil (LDO) is used for initial start-up
while heavy fuel oil (HFO) is used for flame stabilization, mill change over and during low load operation
of boilers.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_of_combustion#Heat_of_combustion_tables
Calorific value of fuel gases on mass basis is more than fuel oils but large volume of fuel gases need to be
fired, so for higher heat duties, liquid fuel is preferred.
 Coal should be fed from top and gas from the bottom since, ash is deposited in the bottom layer.
Ash should be taken out so that it doesn’t cover the entire surface. The temperature should not
be more than 1400°C since melting point of the ash is around 1400-1500°C.
 The quantity known as higher heating value (HHV) (or gross energy or upper heating value or
gross calorific value (GCV) or higher calorific value (HCV)) is determined by bringing all the
products of combustion back to the original pre-combustion temperature, and in particular
condensing any vapour produced. Such measurements often use a standard temperature of 15 °C
(59 °F; 288 K) or 25°C. This is the same as the thermodynamic heat of combustion since the
 enthalpy change for the reaction assumes a common temperature of the compounds before and
after combustion, in which case the water produced by combustion is condensed to a liquid,
hence yielding its latent heat of vaporization. Mechanical systems such as gas-fired boilers used
for space heat are suited for the purpose of capturing the HHV as the heat delivered is at
temperatures below 150 °C (302 °F; 423 K) yet usable in space heating.
 The quantity known as lower heating value (LHV) (net calorific value (NCV) or lower calorific
value (LCV)) is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of the water from the higher
heating value. This treats any H2O formed as a vapour. The energy required to vaporize the water
therefore is not released as heat. LHV calculations assume that the water component of a
combustion process is in vapour state at the end of combustion, as opposed to the higher
heating value (HHV) (a.k.a. gross calorific value or gross CV) which assumes that all of the water
in a combustion process is in a liquid state after a combustion process. The LHV assumes that the
latent heat of vaporization of water in the fuel and the reaction products is not recovered. It is
useful in comparing fuels where condensation of the combustion products is impractical, or heat
at a temperature below 150 °C (302 °F) cannot be put to use.
 The above is but one definition of lower heating value adopted by the American Petroleum
Institute (API) and uses a reference temperature of 60 °F (16 °C; 289 K). Another definition, used
by Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) and originally used by API (data collected for API
research project), is the enthalpy of all combustion products minus the enthalpy of the fuel at the
reference temperature (API research project used 25 °C. GPSA currently uses 60 °F), minus the
enthalpy of the stoichiometric oxygen (O2) at the reference temperature, minus the heat of
vaporization of the vapour content of the combustion products. The distinction between the two
is that this second definition assumes that the combustion products are all returned to the
reference temperature and the heat content from the condensing vapour is considered not to be
useful. This is more easily calculated from the higher heating value than when using the
preceding definition and will in fact give a slightly different answer.
 Coal burners are of basically two types: Grate burners and Pulverized coal burners. Fire grates are
an essential piece of your solid fuel fire allowing your solid fuel to burn brightly on the top and
allowing air to be drawn from underneath. Pulverized coal burners can be classified as swirl
pulverized coal burner and straight pulverized coal burner. The ignition of swirl pulverized coal
burner depends on recirculation zone which formed by swirling jet, retains the high temperature
flue gas to achieve ignition. The features are: Earlier mixing is strong; however later mixing is
weak; short jet range; suitable for high volatile coal boilers. Straight coal burners have longer jet
range. It forms a stable rotary fireball in the combustion area. Pulverized coal from each corner of
the furnace merge into the hot spinning fire and get burnt. So it has a good ignition condition,
and superior adaptability of coals, basically any kind of solid fuels.
 Glass manufacturing is among the most energy-intensive industries. Overall fuel use is dominated
by natural gas (73%) and electricity (24%), with the remaining share (3%) from several other fuels
in USA. In India water gas and producer gas consisting of CO, H 2 and N2 are used primarily since
manufacture of fuel gas in India is mostly limited to coal as the source of carbon.

Producer Gas
 Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as coal, as opposed to natural
gas. In this respect it is similar to other types of "manufactured" gas, such as coal gas, coke oven
gas, water gas and carburetted water gas. Producer gas was used primarily as an industrial fuel
for iron and steel manufacturing, such as firing coke ovens and blast furnaces, cement and
ceramic kilns, or for mechanical power through gas engines. It was characteristically low in
heating value but cheap to make, so that large amounts could be made and burnt.
 In the USA, producer gas may be wood gas produced in a gasifier and used to power cars, town
gas, originally produced from coal, for sale to consumers, and syngas, used as a fuel source or as
an intermediate for the production of other chemicals.
  In the United Kingdom, producer gas, also called suction gas, specifically means a fuel gas made
from coke, anthracite or other carbonaceous material. Air is passed over the red-hot
carbonaceous fuel and carbon monoxide is produced. The reaction is exothermic and proceeds as
follows:
2C +O2 +3.73 N 2 yields 2 CO+ 3.73 N 2 Feeding of coal and removal of ash is critical in
→
case of producer design.
 Arrangement of feeding powdered coal is same like that of the blast furnace. Temperature of the
producer is maintained around 1000°C to 1500°C. Ash falling out from the producer is removed
by water, so gas is not leaked out and producers operate at low pressure.
 The nitrogen in the air remains unchanged and dilutes the gas, giving it a very low calorific value.
The concentration of carbon monoxide in the "ideal" producer gas was considered to be 34.7%
carbon monoxide (carbonic oxide) and 65.3% nitrogen. After "scrubbing", to remove tar, the gas
may be used to power gas turbines (which are well-suited to fuels of low calorific value), spark
ignited engines (where 100% petrol fuel replacement is possible) or diesel internal combustion
engines (where 15% to 40% of the original diesel fuel requirement is still used to ignite the gas).
During World War II in Britain, plants were built in the form of trailers for towing behind
commercial vehicles, especially buses, to supply gas as a replacement for petrol (gasoline) fuel. A
range of about 80 miles for every charge of anthracite was achieved.
 In old movies and stories, when describing suicide by "turning on the gas" and leaving an oven
door open without lighting the flame, the reference was to coal gas or town gas. As this gas
contained a significant amount of carbon monoxide, it was quite toxic. Most town gas was also
odorized, if it did not have its own odour. Modern 'natural gas' used in homes is far less toxic, and
has a gassy odour added to it for identifying leaks.
 The blast furnace used for smelting is provided with double cup and cone arrangement to feed
the charge from top without letting any gas to escape.
 Refractory insulation is used inside the cylindrical shell. We can have water jacketed wall, out of
which very hot water flows.
 Refractory linings are used in bed with steel lining.
 Bed height is determined by pressure drop and channelling considerations (production of CO 2 in
presence of excess air).

Coal Gas
 Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped
distribution system. The gas obtained when coal is heated strongly in the absence of air is called
coal gas. Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for
sale to consumers and municipalities.
 Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and
volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.
 In British usage, coal gas specifically means gas made by the destructive distillation of coal. The
term is not applied to other coal-derived gases, such as water gas, producer gas and syngas.
United States usage may be different.
 Coal gas was introduced in the UK in the 1790s as an illuminating gas by the Scottish inventor
William Murdoch and became very widely used for lighting, cooking, heating and powering gas
engines.

Synthesis Gas
Synthesis gas (or syngas) is a general term used to designate mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
in various ratios. These mixtures are used as such and are also sources of pure hydrogen and pure carbon
monoxide. It can be noted that the term “syngas” is used more generally than stated above: The N2/H2
mixture for the production of ammonia is also referred to as syngas.
Syngas may be produced from a variety of raw materials ranging from natural gas to coal. The choice for a
particular raw material depends on the cost and availability of the feedstock, and on the downstream use
of the syngas. Syngas is generally produced by one of three processes, which are distinguished based on
the feedstock used:
 steam reforming of natural gas or light hydrocarbons, optionally in the presence of oxygen or
carbon dioxide;
 partial oxidation of (heavy) hydrocarbons with steam and oxygen;
 partial oxidation of coal (gasification) with steam and oxygen.
The name of the processes may be somewhat confusing. The term steam reforming is used to describe
the reaction of hydrocarbons with steam in the presence of a catalyst. This process should not be
confused with the catalytic reforming process for improving the gasoline octane number (Section 3.4.3).
In the gas industry, reforming is commonly used for the conversion of a hydrocarbon by reacting it with
oxygen-containing molecules, usually H2O, carbon dioxide, and/or oxygen. A combination of steam
reforming and partial oxidation, in which endothermic and exothermic reactions are coupled, is often
referred to as auto-thermal reforming.
Partial oxidation (also called steam/oxygen reforming) is the non-catalytic reaction of hydrocarbons with
oxygen and usually also steam. This process may be carried out in an auto-thermal or allo-thermal way.
Catalysis is possible and the process is then referred to as catalytic partial oxidation. Gasification is the
more common term to describe partial oxidation of coal or petroleum coke (pet-coke).

Water Gas
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced from synthesis gas. Synthesis gas is a
useful product, but requires careful handling due to its flammability and the risk of carbon monoxide
poisoning. The water-gas shift reaction can be used to reduce the carbon monoxide while producing
additional hydrogen, resulting in water gas.

Production
Synthesis gas is made by passing steam over a red-hot carbon fuel such as coke:
H 2 O ( l ) +C ( s ) yields H 2 (g)+ CO( g) ( ∆ H 0 =38.9 Kcal )
→

The reaction is endothermic, so the fuel must be continually re-heated to keep the reaction going. In
order to do this, an air stream, which alternates with the vapour stream, is introduced for the combustion
of carbon to take place.
C( s)+O2 ( g) yields C O2 (g) ( ∆ H 0=−96.5 Kcal )
→

Theoretically, to make 6 L of water gas, 5 L of air is required.

Or, alternatively, to prevent contamination with nitrogen, energy can be provided by using pure oxygen to
burn carbon into carbon monoxide.
2C ( s)+O2 ( g) yields 2 CO ( g) ( ∆ H 0=+38.7 Kcal )
→

In this case 1 L of oxygen will create 5.3 L of pure water gas.

 Variations
Carburetted water gas
Water gas has a lower heat of combustion than coal gas, so the calorific value was often boosted by
passing the gas through a heated retort, into which oil was sprayed. The resulting mixed gas was called
carburetted water gas.

Semi-water gas
Semi-water gas is a mixture of water gas and producer gas made by passing a mixture of air and steam
through heated coke. The heat generated when producer gas is formed keeps the temperature of the
coke high enough to allow water gas to be formed.

Water gas shift reaction

Pure hydrogen can be obtained from water gas by using the water-gas shift reaction, after subsequent
removal of the carbon dioxide formed when carbon monoxide reacts with water. In 1873, Thaddeus S. C.
Lowe developed and patented the water gas process by which large amounts of hydrogen gas could be
generated for residential and commercial use in heating and lighting. This gas provided a more efficient
heating fuel than the common coal gas, or coke gas, which was used in municipal service. The process
used the water-gas shift reaction:
H 2 O ( l ) +C O ( g ) yi elds H 2 ( g)+C O2( g) ( ∆ H 0 =+0.4 Kcal )
→

The process was discovered by passing high-pressure steam over hot coal, the major source of coke gas.
Lowe's process improved upon the chimney systems by which the coal could remain superheated,
thereby maintaining a consistently high supply of the gas. The reaction produced carbon dioxide and
hydrogen, which, after a process of cooling and "scrubbing", produced hydrogen gas.