Microwave and Convective Drying of Potato Slices

MICROWAVE AND C O N V E C T I V E DRYING OF POTATO SLICES
By
Moez Mohamed Bouraoui
B. A . Sc., School of Agricultural Engineering, ESIER, Tunisia, 1988
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
T H E REQUIREMENTS FOR T H E D E G R E E OF
M A S T E R OF A P P L I E D SCIENCE
in
T H E FACULTY OF G R A D U A T E STUDIES
T H E DEPARTMENT OF BIO-RESOURCE ENGINEERING
We accept this thesis as conforming
to the required standard
T H E UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
July 1991
© Moez Mohamed Bouraoui, 1991

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written
permission.
Department of Ql_0~ tE-MtlfCP £/V£

The University of British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada
DE-6 (2/88)
Abstract
Potato slices were dried using microwave drying, combined microwave and con-
vective drying, and convective drying. Drying conditions included several slice thick-
nesses, power levels and air temperatures. The profiles of temperature, moisture con-
tent and relative humidity, as well as shrinkage data were generated. Dried products
were rehydrated and rehydration kinetics were determined.
In this study, drying characteristics of the different drying methods are dis-
cussed and microwave drying is compared with convective drying. Microwave drying
has a potential for producing better quality dried products while reducing considerably
drying duration.
In addition, moisture diffusivity profiles were calculated by solving Fick's dif-
fusion model using the solution proposed by Crank (1975). Multiple regression analysis
shows that calculated diffusivity correlates well with the internal temperature and mois-
ture content of the product.
u
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Acknowledgement ix
1 Introduction 1
2 Literature Review 3
2.1 Drying using heated air 4
2.1.1 Constant-rate period 5
2.1.2 Falling-rate period 5
2.1.3 Disadvantages of hot-air drying 8
2.2 Microwave heating 8
2.2.1 Power dissipated 10
2.2.2 Penetration depth 10
2.2.3 . Rate of rise of temperature 11
2.2.4 Electric field strength 11
2.3 Microwave drying 14
3 Materials and Methods 17
iii
3.1 Experimental apparatus 17
3.2 Tests 19
3.3 Analysis 20
4 Results and Discussion 22
4.1 Typical results 22
4.1.1 Microwave drying 22
4.1.2 Combined microwave and cool air drying 25
4.1.3 Combined microwave and hot air drying 33
4.1.4 Hot air drying 33
4.2 Effects of variables 42
4.2.1 Effect of sample thickness 42
4.2.2 Effect of microwave power 42
4.2.3 Effect of air flow 49
4.2.4 Effect of probe location 49
4.3 Rehydration 49
4.4 Shrinkage data 50
4.5 Regression analysis 50
4.5.1 Microwave drying tests 60
4.5.2 Combined microwave and hot air tests 60
4.5.3 Combined microwave and cool air tests 60
4.5.4 Hot air tests 61
4.5.5 " Comparisons 61
5 Conclusions 62
Bibliography 64
iv
List of Tables
3.1 Drying types and conditions 19
4.2 Shrinkage data of 1.5 cm thick potato slices dried by different techniques
(Average of three replications) 50
4.3 Multiple regression analysis to correlate diffusivity to internal temperature
and moisture 56
v
List of Figures
3.1 Side View of the Drying Apparatus 18
4.2 Temperature profiles for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full mi-
crowave power 23
4.3 Moisture profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power 24
4.4 Drying rate profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full mi-
crowave power 26
4.5 Diffusivity profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power 27
4.6 Relative humidity profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full
microwave power 28
4.7 Temperature profiles for combined microwave and cool air drying of a 1.5
cm-thick potato slice 29
4.8 Moisture profile for combined microwave and cool air drying of a 1.5 cm-
thick potato slice 30
4.9 Drying rate profile for combined microwave and cool air drying of a 1.5
4.10 Relative humidity profile for combined microwave and cool air drying of a
1.5 cm-thick potato slice 32
4.11 Temperature profiles for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5
vi
4.12 Moisture profile for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-
thick potato slice 35
4.13 Drying rate profile for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5
4.14 Diffusivity profile for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5
4.15 Temperature profiles for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice. . . 38
4.16 Moisture profile for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice 39
4.17 Drying rate profile for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice. . . . 40
4.18 Diffusivity profile for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice 41
4.19 Temperature profiles for drying a 2cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power 43
4.20 Moisture profile for drying a 2cm-thick potato slice at full microwave power. 44
4.21 Drying rate profile for drying a 2cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power 45
4.22 Temperature profiles for microwave drying (power 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick
potato slice 46
4.23 Moisture profile for microwave drying (power 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick potato
slice 47
4.24 Drying rate profile for microwave drying (power 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick potato
slice 48
4.25 Moisture profile during the rehydration of a microwave dried (full power)
4.26 Diffusivity profile during the rehydration of a microwave dried (full power)
vii
4.27 Moisture profile during the rehydration of a hot air dried 1.5 cm-thick
" potato slice 53
4.28 Diffusivity profile during the rehydration of a hot air dried 1.5 cm-thick
potato slice 54
vm
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. P.F. Richard (my supervisor)
for his valuable guidance, help and understanding. I wish to thank Dr. K.V. Lo and
Dr. T. Durance for sitting on my committee, providing good advice and reviewing this
thesis.
I thank S. Willetts (a summer student), J. Pehike and N. Jackson (Technicians)
for their valuable help in setting up the experimental apparatus.
I appreciate the financial support of the Tunisian government and of the Nat-
ural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
I thank my parents and all the members of my family for their unconditional
help and great love.
I extend my thanks to all my friends, especially those in the Department of
Bio-Resource Engineering, in Vancouver and in Tunisia.
ix
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Drying of solids has been conducted since ancient times. Drying of foods,
for example, was achieved by natural energies such as the sun and wind. New drying
methods have developed quickly in the second half of this century. The main objective
of food drying is to preserve it by reducing water activity. In addition, reducing product
weight and volume results in reduced transport and storage costs. Drying can, however,
cause deterioration of the quality of the dried product. Despite this, dried foods are
gaining popularity especially with the growing resistance to the chemical preservation
of foods. There is also a growing demand for a wider variety of dried foods offering
considerable convenience to the consumers. Therefore extensive research on drying
techniques has been conducted to improve product quality and energy utilization.
In convective drying, moisture is removed initially from the surface of the prod-
uct thus creating a moisture gradient. This moisture gradient is the main mechanism
responsible for outward moisture flow. As the surface dries out, it poses an increasing
resistance to heat and moisture transfer. As such, drying duration is generally quite
long and surface overheating could occur. All this could bring about case hardening,
solute migration, as well as other damages to the sensory and nutritional characteristics
of the product.
Microwave drying involves the conversion of electromagnetic energy into heat.
Microwaves heat the product volumetrically with selective heating of the liquid compo-
nents. This results in the rapid internal vaporization of moisture. The resulting gas
1
Introduction 2
pressure gradient removes moisture from the product without overheating the atmosphere
or the surface (Schiffman, 1987). Microwave drying produces a more even moisture
profile and thus a better quality dried product. Furthermore, it reduces energy and
maintenance costs and can also be combined with convective drying.
This study investigates the performance of drying potato slices by microwave,
convective, and combined microwave and convective processes. The main objectives
of the work are to:
1. Generate such data as the profiles of temperature, moisture, relative humidity, and
shrinkage for different drying modes and conditions.
2. Determine the rehydration properties and kinetics of the dried products.
3. Explore the heat and mass transfer mechanisms that govern microwave drying.
4. Compare microwave drying with convective drying.
5. Investigate the characteristics of moisture diffusivity.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Thermal drying is the application of heat in order to remove moisture from a prod-
uct. It involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer in a multiphase system (Chen and
Pei, 1989). By reducing water activity, drying allows a longer preservation of foods due
to the limitation of microbial growth and enzyme activity. Another objective of drying
is reduction of weight and volume which cuts down transport and storage costs. Drying
is also frequently used to create the proper texture and flavour of such foods as raisins,
prunes, etc. Drying could also offer more variety and convenience to the consumer.
Hayashi (1989) indicated that humankind has been drying food since the old
stone age. Natural energies such as sunlight and wind were used. These methods
are slow and unreliable especially as they depend upon the weather. Since the end
of World War II, mechanical drying has developed quickly. Early methods included
trucked-tray drying, drum drying, and transfer ventilation drying. Nevertheless, such
problems as protein denaturation, fat oxidation, destruction of vitamins, browning reac-
tion by aminocarbonyls, and "off' taste can occur (Hayashi, 1989) resulting in deteriora-
tion of eating quality and nutritive value of the food. In order to improve the quality
of dried foods and the energy utilization, new drying methods were developed; spray dry-
ing, flash drying, fluidized drying, vacuum drying, vacuum freeze drying, and microwave
drying (Hayashi, 1989). Because foods constituents have different sensitivities to heat,
the appropriate drier has to be carefully selected if good quality dried product is to be
3
Literature Review 4
obtained. Porter et al. (1973) cited nineteen types of driers that may be used to
handle eight types of materials. A more recent classification of drying processes was
done by Hayashi (1989).
Rockland (1969) indicated that three types of bound water may exist in food
products, namely:
1. Water molecules which are bound to ionic groups such as carboxyl and amino
groups (the most difficult to remove);
2. Water molecules which are hydrogen-bonded to hydroxyl and amide groups, and
3. Unbound free water found in interstitial pores (the easiest to remove).
Hot air drying and microwave drying will be described in this chapter.
2.1 Drying using heated air
When hot air is blown over a product, the outer layer is heated by convection while
conduction heats the remainder of the product (Buono and Erickson, 1985). Knowledge
of drying mechanisms is indispensable when predicting methods for increasing the drying
rate or for improving product quality (Chirife, 1983). Van Arsdel and Copley (1963)
indicated some mechanisms that govern air drying. However, little work has been done
to clarify which of the mechanisms prevail under different circumstances (King, 1977).
Fellows (1988)^ suggested that water moves to the surface by the following mechanisms:
1. Liquid movement by capillary forces;
2. Diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the concentration of solutes in different
regions of the food;

Literature Review 5
3. Diffusion of liquids which are absorbed in layers at the surfaces of solid components
of the food, and
4. Water vapor diffusion in air spaces within the food caused by vapor pressure gra-
dients.
The convective drying process may be classified into two main categories: the
constant-rate period and the falling-rate period.
2.1.1 Constant-rate period
In this period, water moves from the interior of the food at the same rate as it
evaporates from the surface and the surface remains wet. Moisture content at which
the constant-rate period ends is termed critical moisture content. Internal moisture
transfer is mainly attributable to capillary flow of free water, which is caused by the
moisture gradient. The constant drying rate depends on such external conditions as
temperature, humidity and flow rate of the convective medium (Chen and Pei, 1989).
Labuza and Simon (1970), Chirife and Cachero (1970), Vaccarezza et al. (1974) and
Alzamora et al. (1979) did not find a constant-rate period during air drying of apples,
tapioca, sugar beet root, and avocado slabs, respectively. It can be deduced that the
constant-rate period may be only important in cases where, for instance, the drying
potential of air is very low or the moisture content of the food is very high (Chirife,
1983).
2.1.2 Falling-rate period
When the moisture content of a product falls below the critical moisture content,
the falling-rate period starts. The rate of moisture movement to the surface falls below
the rate of water evaporation to the surrounding air. Hence, the surface dries out.
Literature Review 6
Fellows (1988) indicated that non-hygroscopic materials (materials having a constant
water vapor pressure at different moisture contents) have a single falling-rate period.
Conversely, hygroscopic materials (materials in which the partial pressure of water vapor
varies with the moisture content) have two falling-rate periods.
The suggested transport mechanisms in the first falling-rate period were prin-
cipally capillary flow, liquid diffusion and vapor-phase diffusion (Chirife, 1983). The
plane of evaporation moves inside the food, and water diffuses through the dry solids to
the drying air (Fellow, 1988). Chirife (1983) stated that Fick's law in terms of moisture
gradient constitutes a good model for describing the drying characteristics of most foods
in the initial phase of the falling-rate period.
The Fick's diffusion model for unidimensional flow is (Yusheng, 1988):
8W 8W
2
St = '
(2 5)
where:
W = Average moisture content (kg. water/kg. dry solid)
D = Diffusivity (m /s)
2
t = time (s)
x = Linear coordinate (m)
Assuming uniform initial moisture distribution and negligible external resis-
tance, the solution expressed in terms of the average moisture content of the slab is
(Crank, 1975):
Literature Review 7
W-W e 8 ~ 1 . , n 2 Dt, , x
where:
Wo = Initial moisture content (kg. water/kg. dry solid)
W e = Equihbrium moisture content (kg. water/kg. dry solid)
L = Solid thickness (m).
The second falling-rate period occurs when the partial pressure of water is
below the saturated water vapor pressure (Fellows, 1988). The surface moisture con-
tent reaches its maximum sorptive value, no free water exists and a receding evaporation
front appears dividing the system into a wet region and a sorption region (Chen and Pei,
1989). Inside the evaporation front, the material is wet, i.e. the voids contain free
water and the main mechanism of moisture transfer is capillary flow. Outside the front,
no free water exists. All water is in the sorptive or bound water state and the main
mechanisms of moisture transfer are the movement of bound water and vapor transfer
(Chen and Pei, 1989). King (1968) suggested that water vapor pressure is the driving
force for moisture transport. Chirife (1983) mentioned that if vapor pressure is the
driving force, Fick's law should be written as follows:
3W = bcPp
dt pdx 2 {
' ]
where:
b = vapor-space permeability (kg. / Pa. m. sec.)
p = dry solid density (kg/m ) 3
p = vapor pressure of water in food (Pa.)

Literature Review 8
2.1.3 Disadvantages of hot-air drying
Fellows (1988) stated that the main disadvantages of hot air drying are:
1. Low rates of heat transfer due to the low thermal conductivity of dry foods, which
results in long drying duration;
2. Damage to sensory characterises and nutritional properties caused by long drying
times and overheating at the surface;
3. Oxidation of pigments and vitamins by hot air, and
4. Case hardening (formation of a hard impermeable skin) due to high moisture gra-
dient between the interior and the surface of the food and to the solutes migration
from the interior of the food to the surface.
2.2 Microwave heating
Microwave energy is an electromagnetic radiation, the frequency of which is de-
fined as being between 500 and 5000 MHz (Jones, 1986.). Microwave food heating
usually employs specific frequency bands (2450 MHz, sometimes 896 MHz in Europe and
915 MHz in the USA) (Fellows, 1988). The microwave energy can be generated from a
magnetron. Knutson et al. (1987) denned a magnetron as a cylindrical diode with the
cathode located in the center and the anode around the circumference. When power is
supplied, an electron emitting material at the cathode becomes excited and emits elec-
trons into a vacuum space between the cathode and the anode. The magnetic field is
created by a magnet surrounding the magnetron. The energy of the electrons becomes
entrapped in the field and travels as waves through the magnetron to the antenna. The
antenna transmits the oscillating waves to the wave guide (a hollow tube) in which they
Literature Review 9
travel to the oven cavity (Knutson et al., 1987). A wave stirrer can disperse the waves and
improve wave distribution uniformity (Ringle and David, 1975). Dielectric materials
such as foods can react to an electric field because they contain charge carriers which can
be displaced (Von Hippel, 1966). The two main mechanisms that govern microwave
heating of dielectric materials are dipole rotation and ionic polarization. As an alter-
nating field is applied, molecules carrying dipolar electrical charges such as water rotate
as they attempt to align their dipoles with the rapidly changing electric field. The
resultant friction creates heat which gets transferred to neighboring molecules. On the
other hand, charged ions such as chloride(-) and sodium(-f) flow toward the alternating
electric field (Best, 1987). Ions collision converts kinetic energy into heat (Decareau
and Peterson, 1986). Microwave heating depends on the physical state of the material.
In ice, for example, the movement of water molecules in a microwave field is restricted
and, therefore, ice is a poor microwave absorber (Decareau and Peterson, 1986). Mud-
gett (1985) cited the literature relevant to food dielectric properties. He indicated that
the basic dielectric properties of foods are related to their chemical composition, modified
by physical structure, and are highly frequency and temperature dependent. A better
understanding of the relationship of food dielectric properties to food microwave heating
characteristics is needed for the design, analysis and the development of new applica-
tions in microwave food processing (Mudgett, 1985). The dielectric permittivity e* is
a macroscopic parameter characterising the behavior of a material in a microwave field
(Goyette et al. 1990).
e = e - je (2.4)
where:
Literature Review 10
e = dielectric loss factor (which determines the absorbed power)
e = dielectric constant (which is related to the amount of energy that can be
stored in a material in the form of electric fields (Komolprasert and OfoH,
1988).
The dielectric constant and the dielectric loss factor of foods are primarily
determined by free water and salt contents and are also related to other electrical prop-
erties that affect the coupHng of microwave energy and its distribution within the product
(Mudgett, 1985).
2.2.1 Power dissipated
Microwave heating involves the conversion of electromagnetic energy into heat.
Metaxas and Meredith (1983) indicated that the heat transferred to each unit volume of
material placed in the path of microwaves is given by (Decareau and Peterson, 1986):
P = 55.61 * 10- fE e"

14 2
(2.5)
where:
P = power absorbed by unit volume, W / m 3
f = frequency, Hz
E = electric field strength, V / m
e" = dielectric loss factor
2.2.2 Penetration depth
The depth of penetration of microwaves into a product is given by (Fellows, 1988):

x= A
(2.6)
27TV e' tan £
where:
x = depth of penetration, m
A = wavelength (in vacuum), m
e' = dielectric constant
tan 5 = tan = loss tangent.
2.2.3 Rate of rise of temperature
The power required to raise the temperature of a material, subject to microwave
energy, from T to T (deg.C) in t seconds is given by (Metaxas and Meredith, 1983):

0
P = ^ ' r
i - ° »
r
(2.7)
where:
P = power absorbed, W / m 3
C p = Specific heat of the material, J/kg deg.C
p = density of the material, kg/m . 3
Hence,
(1^1 = 4- (2.8)
t pC
P
v
'
2.2A Electric field strength
Metaxas and Meredith (1983) mentioned that the electric field strength can be
determined through calorimetry:
P = 55.61 * lO- /^" = 14 p C p ( T

~ T o ) (2.9)
J
t
Therefore,
/ pC (T-T )
p Q ~
V 55.61 * l Q - " / « V ( 2
- 1 0 )
Jones (1986) reported that microwave heating is widely found in textile and
paper-based industries where it is used for drying, and in the polymer industry where
it is used for preheating granules or blocks of polymer prior to moulding as well as for
welding PVC and similar materials. The lack of understanding of how microwaves
interact with materials during heating, and the cost present major barriers to wider use
of microwaves (Jolly and Turner, 1990). Still, the high rates of heating and the reduced
damage to product quality increased the applicability of microwave heating in the food
industry. Mudgett (1985) classified food microwave processes as follows,
1. Dehydration: to reduce moisture content
2. Blanching: to inactivate spoilage enzymes
3. Pasteurization: to inactivate vegetative microbes
4. Sterilization: to inactivate microbial spores
5. Cooking: to modify flavor and texture
6. Tempering: to raise temperature below freezing
Products and packages suitable for use in domestic microwave ovens has been
developed (Anon, 1987a,b). The most important industrial applications are thaw-
ing, tempering, dehydration and baking. These were reviewed by Rosenberg and Bogl
(1987). Fellows (1988) pointed out that applications involving foods with high moisture
contents (for example blanching and pasteurization) are less successful. He attributed
this to the low depth of penetration in large pieces of food and to evaporative cooling
at the surface, which results in the survival of large numbers of micro-organisms. Lin
et al. (1989) reported that food microwave heating may cause uneven cooking of large
sized products, lack of browning, overheating, boil over, volcano effects due to steam
build-up, among other problems. They attributed the occurrence of those problems
to the lack of knowledge of the simultaneous heat transfer, moisture migration, chemical
reactions and biological changes occurring during microwave heating. They used a
finite element method to describe temperature distribution in slab and cylinder-shaped
solid food products of high moisture contents during microwave heating. Datta (1990)
stated that the three characteristic parameters determining the temperature profile are:
the sample size in relation to microwave penetration depth, the boundary conditions
(surface evaporation, convection, and radiation), and the sample shape. Ofoli and
Komolprasert (1988) reviewed three modeling approaches used for the analysis of energy
deposition in materials in a microwave environment: analysis of the heating potential,
analysis of the power absorbed, and solution of the general energy equation. They
discussed the importance of the electric field strength in the thermal modeling of mi-
crowave systems, and outlined a procedure for its mapping. They also suggested the
inclusion of moisture transfer terms in the analysis of food microwave heating. Dimen-
sional analysis was employed to develop a predictive mathematical model for microwave
heating analysis (Komolprasert and Ofoli, 1988). This model is limited, however, to
water and other materials with similar physical, thermal and electromagnetic properties.
Jolly and Turner (1990) developed a model for describing the power and temperature
distributions in materials with varying dielectric properties. They solved numerically
a non-linear system by finite difference method. The use of a dielectric layer, such as
teflon, placed between the metal backing and material, allowed the control of the heat
transfer and the associated temperature gradients (Jolly and Turner, 1990).
2.3 Microwave drying
Microwave heating can heat even thick materials rapidly throughout their vol-
ume. Besides, microwaves heat selectively the areas with high liquid content. Those
properties, among others, brought about the commercial acceptance of the application
of microwave heating in the drying of a number of products in the food, textile, wood
and chemical industries (Chen and Schmidt, 1990). When a wet solid is exposed to
microwave heating, its temperature may reach the boiling point of the liquid. The
accompanying generation of vapor due to internal evaporation of moisture brings about
a gas pressure gradient which can rapidly expel the moisture from the interior of the solid
(Metaxas and Meredith, 1983). This process leads to very rapid drying without over-
heating the atmosphere or the surface (Schiffman, 1987), and prevents case hardening
since little solute migration in the liquid phase occurs (Knutson et al. 1987). Richard
et al. (1990) found that in microwave drying most of the moisture could be rapidly ex-
pelled while the product temperature remains close to the boiling point temperature of
water.
As far as food processing is concerned, microwave drying is mostly used for
finishing operations of partly dried or low-moisture foods. Commercial appUcations
include pasta-drying, finish drying of potato chips, and grain drying (Decareau, 1985).
Mudgett (1989) reported the use of microwave heating for the drying of condiments,
tomato paste, wild rice, snack foods, and bacon pieces. Bouraoui and Richard (1991)
reviewed the utilization of microwave drying for the rapid moisture content determina-
tion in foods. Despite the multitude of advantages that microwave drying has over the
other drying methods, it is still not sufficiently applied in the food industry because of
economic constraints and because of the lack of knowledge of the heat and mass transfer
characteristics of microwave drying of foods. Perkin (1979) discussed the advantages
and limitations of microwave drying. Several studies have been conducted in order
to investigate the characteristics of microwave drying. Kudra et al. (1990) prepared a
bibliography covering publications on dielectric drying. Lyons and Hatcher (1972)
measured local temperatures, moisture content, and pressure within a wet porous mate-
rial (wet cotton) heated by microwaves. They found a very small mass concentration
gradient. Temperature gradients were also small. An analytical model of internal
transport characteristics of a textile material during microwave drying was developed
by Hatcher et al. (1975). Roussy et al. (1984) proposed a simple model for the mi-
crowave drying of wet spherical particles of paper. The model was based on a first
order kinetics law, the constant coefficient of which depended linearly on the square of
the applied electric field. Bergman et al. (1987) studied the combined microwave and
convective drying of a non-hygroscopic porous beds consisting of glass beads of differ-
ent sizes. In beds of small bead sizes, drying rates were increased because of more
uniform moisture distribution due to capillary effects. Dielectric drying of particulate
materials in a fluidized bed improved the quality of the material being dried because
of the uniform temperature maintained throughout the bed and because of the slow
(as compared to dielectric drying alone) temperature increase in the course of drying
(Kudra, 1989). Chen and Schmidt (1990) developed an integral model for simulation
of dielectrically-enhanced convective drying behavior in hygroscopic (activated alumina
spheres) and nonhygroscopic materials (glass beads). The model effectively estimated
drying rates and internal temperature histories. This model was also used by Chen
and al. (1990) to simulate microwave drying of hardwood veneer. The accuracy of
the model for predicting drying times was satisfactory. Perkin (1990) used simplified
modeling for the drying of non-hygroscopic capillary porous materials with dielectric and
convective drying. This researcher also examined qualitatively the additional internal
moisture flow mechanisms arising as a result of the volumetric heating. Experiments
and simulations for dielectrically-assisted drying of a nonhygroscopic material that ex-
hibits negligible capillary moisture transfer (water-saturated packed bed of glass beads)
have been conducted by Grolmes and Bergman (1990). Garcia et al. (1988) studied
the drying of bananas with microwave and air ovens. The drying data was fitted to a
variable diffusion model. Product temperature was not monitored, however.
So far there is little research reported on moisture diffusion determinations
during microwave drying. Such research is necessary for modeling development of mi-
crowave drying processes.

Chapter 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental apparatus
Figure 3.1 depicts the experimental apparatus of this work. A modified 700
Watt household microwave oven with a mode stirrer was used. The oven cavity con-
tained a nylon basket suspended from a top mounted balance (Electronic Analytical
Sortorius Balance) for continuous monitoring of weights. During each drying test,
the internal and surface temperatures of a potato slice were continuously measured by
means of three Luxtron Fluoroptic temperature probes (Model 755). These are fibre-
optic probes with a temperature sensitive phosphor mounted at the end of each probe.
When excited with blue-violet fight, the phosphor responds with a deep red fluorescence,
which varies with temperature (Anonymous, 1988). Temperature and weights were
recorded in a personal computer (I.B.M.-compatible Campus 386) using a data acqui-
sition system. Air flow could be supplied to the sample from a duct in the top of the
microwave oven. Electrical resistances allowed the heating of the air. The tempera-
ture and the velocity of the air were controlled. A Humeter was used to measure the
relative humidity of the air leaving the microwave oven. Also, circulating water was
introduced to protect the magnetron from the reflection of microwaves when the sample
was dry.
17
Materials and Methods
Side View
of the Apparatus.
Air out Balance
Hot air in
Front of
microwave oven
Fluoroptic
probes
Electric Weighing basket

heating
element Computer for
temperature and
weight data acquisition
Fan
Figure 3.1: Side View of the Drying Apparatus.

Materials and Methods 19
Table 3.1: Drying types and conditions.

Parameter Number Description
Heating 4 Hot air, Microwave, Microwave
and hot air, and Microwave and
cool air
Thicknesses 3 1 cm, 1.5 cm, and 2 cm
Power settings 2 10 and 5
Air temperatures 2 18°C and 65°C
Air flow rate 1 0.032m /sec.
3
3.2 Tests
Four types of drying were used:
1. Microwave drying
2. Combined microwave and hot air (65°C) drying
3. Combined microwave and cool air (18°C) drying
4. Hot air (65°C) drying
Two microwave power levels were employed; 5 and 10. Power level 10 was
full power. Microwave energy was emitted for only half the drying time when the
microwave was set at power level 5. For each test, transverse potato slices (Russet
potatoes, Solanum tuberosum) with thicknesses of 1 cm, 1.5 cm, and 2 cm were used.
Potato was chosen because it is inexpensive, easily available, has a convenient geometry,
and its drying characteristics have been well documented. Only one slice was dried at
a time. Initial and final slice dimensions were measured. For every drying test, three
replications were made. Table 3.2 summarizes the drying tests of this study.
Once dried, sample rehydration in boiling water was undertaken. Sample
weight was measured at selected time intervals (around two minutes for microwave and
combined tests, and in the range of ten minutes for samples dried by convective drying).
3.3 Analysis
Knowing the sample mass variation with time, the moisture content profiles and
the drying rate profiles were calculated.
In order to determine the diffusivity variation during drying tests, Fick's dif-
fusion model for unidimensial flow (neglecting the radial diffusion) was used:
where:
W = Average moisture content (kg. water/kg. dry solid)
D = Diffusivity (m /sec.)
2
t = time (sec.)
x = linear coordinate.
The solution proposed by Crank (1975) was:
W-W e 8 ~ 1 Dt
(3.12)
Wq = Initial moisture content (kg.water/kg. dry solid)
Where: W e = Equilibrium moisture content (kg. water/kg. dry solid)
L = solid thickness (m)
Simplifying this solution by taking only the first term of the series and by assuming
that We = 0, gives:
0 = ± [_ *Ri}
exp w ( 3-13 )
7T h
Where 8 = %
Deriving the last equation with respect to time gives
88 xD
2
8 (3.14)
dt L 2
Hence at given intervals of time, and knowing ^ and the average 8, the diffu-
sivity values can be determined using the following equation:
88 T
2
D
= (-s»<^?) <- >3 15
Multiple regression analysis was also conducted in order to correlate the calcu-
lated diffusivity to such properties as the internal sample temperature, T and the sample
moisture content, W (dry basis). The relationship used was:
D = TW a b
(3.16)
A statistical package (Systat) was used in order to determine the constants a
and b of equation 3.16. Systat was also used to undergo an analysis of variance so as
to test the variations of a and b for different drying conditions such as drying methods,
power levels and slice thicknesses. A completely random design was employed.
Chapter 4
RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION
4.1 Typical results
Typical results of potato slice drying using different methods are presented and
discussed in this section.
4.1.1 Microwave drying
The results of microwave drying, at full power, of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice are
shown in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 for temperature and moisture profiles respectively.
Figure 4.2 shows the profiles of surface temperatures (from the probe placed
just into the surface) and profiles of internal temperatures (from the two other probes
located deeper into the slice). The figure shows that in the beginning, sample tempera-
ture increased rapidly above 100°C and then stabilized at the boiling point temperature of
water. When the boiling point of water was reached, moisture removal started. Most
of moisture removal occurred while the temperature remained close to 100°C. This
temperature stabilization can be attributed to evaporative cooling caused by internal
evaporation. In the begining product temperature exceeded 100°C because internal
evaporation was not enough to stabilize the temperature. At low moisture levels,
product temperature rose again because the remaining water was too little to stabilize the
temperature. It can be deduced from temperature profile that vapor flow is the major
22
Temperature profiles
Microwave drying
18O1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Time (s.)
Surface temperature — Internal temp.

Results and Discussion 24
Moisture profile
Microwave drying
1.2T
Time (s.)
Figure 4.3: Moisture profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power.
mechanism of moisture removal. Moreover, surface temperatures were generally lower
than internal temperatures except at low moisture levels. This is due to the cooling
effect of the surrounding cooler air. Drying duration was about ten minutes.
Drying rate profile is shown in Figure 4.4. High drying rate values were
observed when the product temperature was near the water boiling point temperature.
Then drying rates decreased with decreasing moisture contents.
Diffusivity profile is shown in Figure 4.5. Diffusivity values increased with
time. However, diffusivity values calculated at very low moisture contents should
not be considered. This is because calculated diffusivity is inversely proportional to
moisture content (see equation 3.15) and hence very small values of moisture content give
values of diffusivity that are too high to be accepted.
Figure 4.6 shows that relative humidity in the chamber increased up to 70 %.
It decreased again when most of moisture was removed.
4.1.2 C o m b i n e d microwave a n d cool air d r y i n g
The results of combined microwave (at full power) and cool air (18°C at 0.032m /sec.)
3
drying of a 1.5 cm- thick potato slice are shown in Figures 4.7 to 4.10 for the profiles
of temperatures, moisture content, drying rate, diffusivity, and relative humidity respec-
tively. These results are very similar to those of microwave drying with the exception
that relative humidity did not exceed 45%. For the same power level (full power) and
slice thickness (thickness=1.5 cm), analysis of variance (using a statistical package, Sys-
tat) showed that drying times did not differ significantly (0.05 was the chosen significance
level) from those of microwave drying alone (P=0.624). The maximum drying rates
did not differ significantly either (P=0.823).

Drying rate profile

Microwave drying
0.012-
"sec.)
0.01-
o 0.008-
OT
water
0.006-
d>
0.004-
Drying rate
0.002-
100 200 300 400 500 600

Time (s.)
Figure 4.4: Drying rate profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power.
Diffusivity profile
Microwave drying
8000^
7000-
o 6000-
i—1
*
5000-
«3
4000-
>->
"> 3000-
"tn
3
2000-
Q
1000-
0-
C 600
Figure 4.5: Diffusivity profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power.
Relative humidity profile

Microwave drying
80-
70-
60-
>.
midi
50-
nCD 40-
>
ca
CD 30-
OC
20-
ii
10+
0 300 400 500 600
Time (s.)
Figure 4.6: Relative humidity profile for drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice at full
microwave power.
o
o
Microwave and coo air drying
o 1-1
CD p>
200
<Tt-
O
o
cb
Q)
O 13
o
O
Q)
ZJ
1»
CD
a
E
o
%
a
P>
P-.
n 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
o
o
500
Time (s.)
era
o Surface temperature Internal temp.
P
Moisture profile
Microwave and cool air drying
1.2
CO
0.8-
"o
ra
v- 0.6-
"c
"E
0.4-
"o
0.2-
o- 400 500 600

Time (s.)
Figure 4.8: Moisture profile for combined microwave and cool air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick
potato slice.
Results and Discussion
Drying rate profile

0.014
o
cu 0.012
CO
«
•o5
= o 0.01
CO
cb 0.008
S
CD
ch 0.006
g 0.004
03
c 0.002
Q
200 300 400 500 600
Time (s.)
Figure 4.9: Drying rate profile for combined microwave and cool air drying of a 1.5
cm-thick potato slice.
Relative humidity profile

45-1
40-
35-
humi
30-
(D
>
CO 25-
CU
rr
20
15
100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s.)
Figure 4.10: Relative humidity profile for combined microwave and cool air drying of a
1.5 cm-thick potato slice.
4.1.3 Combined microwave and hot air drying
The results of combined microwave (at full power) and hot air (65°C at 0.032m /sec.)
3
drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice are presented in Figures 4.11 to 4.14. Figure 4.11
shows that the duration of temperature stabilization was shorter than that in the case
of microwave drying. For unknown reasons, irregularities were observed in the temper-
ature profiles at the end of drying. Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.12 show that drying rates
were higher and that drying duration was a little shorter when compared with microwave
drying alone. From analysis of variance (0.05 was the chosen significance level), these
differences were not significant (P=0.182 for drying rates and P=0.079 for drying times).
Diffusivity profile is shown in Figure 4.14. Relative humidity values remained close to
14%.
4.1.4 Hot air drying
The results of hot air (65°C at 0.032m /sec.) drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice
3
are shown in Figures 4.17 to 4.18. Drying duration was longer than 900 minutes. A
constant rate period was observed. Drying rates were generally more than sixty times
lower than those of microwave drying (see Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.16). Figure 4.15
shows that surface temperatures were, most of the time, higher than internal temper-
atures. Most of moisture is thought to be removed in liquid form because most of
the drying occurred while sample temperatures were below 50°C (well below the boiling
point of water). The calculated diffusivities are shown in Figure 4.18.

a? cm2
C. a
o
o
!T
Microwave and hot air drying
<T>
tn p
2CD Mft
P
trl- 180-
n
*d
>-»
o
o
o-
5'
ex.
o
150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time (s.)
a-
Surface temperature Internal temp.

Moisture profile
1.2-
1i
CD
Tn
°o 0.8-
0.6-
IS"
0.4-
'0
0.2-
600
Time (s.)
Figure 4.12: Moisture profile for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick
potato slice.
Drying rate profile

0.014
o
cu 0.012A
CO
*
=o3 0.01
T3
CO
CD
££
ro
0.008
CD 0.006
2 0.004
CO
c 0.002
Q
300 600
Time (s.)
Figure 4.13: Drying rate profile for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5
Diffusivity profile
8000n -
7000-
o
o 6000-
i-H
*
OS 5000-
CS
4000- •
>> •
"S 3000-
)iffusi
2000-
• • •
1000- --""
0- * i* *—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time (s)
Figure 4.14: Diffusivity profile for combined microwave and hot air drying of a 1.5
Hot air drying
50
1 5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (min.)

M o i s t u r e profile
Hot air drying
1.2T -
Time (min.)
Figure 4.16: Moisture profile for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice.
Drying rate profile

Hot air drying
0.012
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (min.)
Figure 4.17: Drying rate profile for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice.
Diffusivity profile
Hot air drying
o
o
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (min.)
Figure 4.18: Diffusivity profile for hot air drying of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice.
4.2 Effects of variables
4.2.1 Effect of sample thickness
Results of microwave drying (at full power) of a 2 cm-thick potato slice are dis-
cussed. The following figures show the profiles of moisture content, drying rate, and
temperatures. When compared with microwave drying of thinner slices, the following
conclusions were drawn:
1. The thicker the slice, the longer the drying duration.
2. The thicker the slice, the lower the drying rate.
3. At low moisture level, the thicker the slice the higher the temperatures reached.
These conclusions are also valid for combined microwave and convective dry-
ing.
4.2.2 Effect of microwave power
The results of microwave drying (power setting 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick potato slice
were as follows. Figure 4.22 shows jagged temperature profiles due to the fact that at
power setting 5, the magnetron was on for only half the drying time. In comparison with
microwave drying at full power, microwave drying at power setting 5 is characterized by
(see Figure 4.23, Figure 4.24, and Figure4.22):
1. Longer drying duration
2. Lower drying rates
3. Lower product temperatures at low moisture levels
These characteristics were also observed in the combined microwave and con-
vective drying tests.

Microwave drying
180n
160-
°0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Time (sec.)
Surface temperature — - Internal temp.

Resulis and Discussion 44
Moisture profile
Microwave drying
1.2-
1
CD
"55
'o 0.8-
ro
j~ 0.6-
c
(D
0.4-
00
'o
0.2-
0-- -r
0 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time (s.)
Figure 4.20: Moisture profile for drying a 2cm-thick potato slice at full microwave power.
Drying rate profile

Microwave drying
0.009
d 0.008
CD
i | 0.007-1
° 0.006
j 0.005-1
5 0.004H
3
2 0.003
co
o) 0.002-1
0.001
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Time (S.)
Figure 4.21: Drying rate profile for drying a 2cm-thick potato slice at full microwave
power.
Microwave drying
180
°0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Time (s.)

Moisture profile
Microwave drying
1.2i
Time (s.)
Figure 4.23: Moisture profile for microwave drying (power 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick potato
slice.
Drying rate profile

Microwave drying
0.01
"Jj 0.009
* 0.008
OT
•g
'o 0.007H
CO
-5? 0.006-
« 0.005-
3 0.004
IJ 0.003-I
c 0.002
Q 0.001
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s.)
Figure 4.24: Drying rate profile for microwave drying (power 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick potato
slice.
4.2.3 Effect of air flow
When cool air flow was combined with microwave heating, the results were very
similar to those of microwave drying alone. The values of relative humidity, however,
were more limited. On the other hand, the combination of hot air with microwave
heating resulted in a reduction of temperature stabilization period and in the stabilization
of relative humidity in the chamber.
4.2.4 Effect of probe location
Except at low moisture levels, surface temperatures were lower than the internal
ones during microwave and combined drying tests. At low moisture levels, even internal
temperatures were quite different. This was thought to be due to the nonhomogeneity
of the product and probably to the change in the positions of the temperature probes
caused by the product shrinkage.
4.3 Rehydration
Rehydration tests were undertaken as an indicator of dried product quality. Mi-
crowave and combined microwave and convective dried potato slices were rapidly and
almost completely rehydrated. This is thought to be due to the fact that the pressure
build up during microwave drying caused opening of pores and allowed complete rehy-
dration. Rehydration kinetics following microwave and combined drying tests were
very similar. Figure 4.25 and Figure 4.26 show the profiles of moisture and diffusiv-
ity, respectively, during the rehydration of a microwave dried, 1.5 cm thick potato slice.
Diffusivity decreased with time as opposed to diffusivity profiles in microwave drying,
which increased with time. This was due to differences in the mechanisms of moisture
diffusion between drying and rehydration. In contrast, the rehydration of hot air dried
Table 4.2: Shrinkage data of 1.5 cm thick potato slices dried by different techniques
(Average of three replications).
Drying tests Radial shrinkage (%) Thickness shrinkage (%)
Microwave (Full power, 1.5 cm- 16.2- (3.032") 22.2 (3.811)
thick slice)
Microwave (Power 5, 1.5 cm-thick 13.6 (0.48) 17.8 (3.851)
slice)
Hot air ( 1.5 cm-thick slice) 14.6 (3.466) 44.45 (3.851)
* Mean.
** Standard deviation.
potato slices did not exceed 80% (see Figure 4.27 and Figure 4.28) and was much slower.
This was thought to be due to case hardening and closing of surface pores brought about
by hot air drying.
4.4 Shrinkage data
Table 4.2 presents typical results of shrinkage (values are averages of three replica-
tions). The degree of shrinkage that occurred during microwave drying was very close
to that occurring during combined microwave and convective drying. Furthermore, slice
shrinkage in microwave drying at power setting 5 was less than that at full power. More
thickness shrinkage took place during hot air drying alone despite lower temperatures.
Therefore, in comparison with convective drying, microwave drying allowed better rehy-
dration while causing less product shrinkage.
4.5 Regression analysis
A statistical package (Systat) was used in order to correlate the calculated dif-
fusivities, D with the internal sample temperature, T (deg.C) and the sample moisture
Moisture profile (rehydration)
6 8 10 12
Time (min.)
Figure 4.25: Moisture profile during the rehydration of a microwave dried (full power)
Diffusivity profile (rehydration)

120y
1 1
o
100-
o
80-
usands)
s
60-
_>> o
[> H
'co
S 40-
ta
Q
20-
T 1 1 1
1 " 1 1— 1 T
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (s)
Figure 4.26: Diffusivity profile during the rehydration of a microwave dried (full power)
Moisture profile (rehydration)

0.9j
0.8-
CD 0.7-
to
0.6-
'o
CO 0.5-
'c
0.4-
3
00
0.3-
"o
0.2-
0.1-
0*
0 30
Time (min.)
Figure 4.27: Moisture profile during the rehydration of a hot air dried 1.5 cm-thick
slice.
Diffusivity profile (rehydration)
Time (min.)
Figure 4.28: Diffusivity profile during the rehydration of a hot air dried 1.5 cm-thick
potato slice.
content, W (dry basis).
The model used is:
D = TW
a b
(4.17)
Where:
a and b are constants
. Diffusivity unit is (m x 10 /sec.) for microwave and combined drying tests. It is

2 lo
(m x lO /min.) for convective drying tests.

2 10
Table 4.3 summarizes the multiple regression results of this model for different
drying tests. R is the squared multiple regression coefficient.

2
P indicates the sig-
a
nificance of temperature (if P is very small, then temperature has a significant effect on
a
the model). P indicates the significance of moisture (if Pj, is very small, then moisture
0
has a significant effect on the model).
The values of R indicate that diffusivity correlates very well with the tem-
2
perature and moisture. Moreover, the values of P and P(, were very small (generally less
a
than 0.05, the chosen significance level), which means that both the temperature and
moisture have significant effect on the model.

Table 4.3: Multiple regression analysis to correlate diffusivity to internal temperature

and moisture.
Drying tests a b R
2
Pa Pb n
Microwave (full power, 1 cm-thick slice)
1 1.466 -0.293 0.998 0.000 0.000 19
2 1.347 -0.500 0.985 0.000 0.002 23
3 1.389 -0.404 0.988 0.000 0.002 22
Microwave (Power 5, 1 cm-thick)
1 1.300 -0.403 0.988 0.000 0.000 34
2 1.227 -0.531 0.989 0.000 0.000 40
3 1.264 -0.432 0.995 0.000 0.000 41
Microwave (full power, 1.5 cm-thick)
1 1.576 -0.400 0.997 0.000 0.001 19
2 1.545 -1.025 0.988 0.000 0.002 20
3 1.475 -0.205 0.995 0.000 0.159 21
Microwave (Power 5, 1.5 cm-thick)
1 1.388 -0.943 0.983 0.000 0.000 37
2 1.393 -1.039 0.990 0.000 0.000 40
3 1.422 -1.147 0.985 0.000 0.000 39
Microwave (full power, 2 cm-thick)
1 1.776 -1.427 0.991 0.000 0.015 18
2 1.857 -2.156 0.991 0.000 0.000 21
3 1.682 -0.994 0.996 0.000 0.000 21
Microwave (Power 5, 2 cm-thick)
1 1.450 -1.380 0.977 0.000 0.000 49
2 1.487 -0.864 0.987 0.000 0.000 43
3 1.503 -0.705 0.990 0.000 0.000 45
Table 4.3 (continued)

Drying tests a b R2
Pa
c
Microwave (full power, 1 cm-thick) and hot air
1 1.410 0.179 0.996 0.000 0.237 15
2 1.434 -0.341 0.993 0.000 0.074 17
3 1.443 -0.794 0.969 0.000 0.003 16
Microwave (Power 5, 1 cm-thick) and hot air
1 1.346 -0.736 0.986 0.000 0.000 28
2 1.291 -0.746 0.980 0.000 0.003 26
3 1.344 -0.439 0.983 0.000 0.003 29
Microwave (full power, 1.5 cm-thick) and hot air
1 1.561 -0.363 0.988 0.000 0.076 19
2 1.532 -1.017 0.973 0.000 0.015 18
3 1.538 -0.488 0.979 0.000 0.035 18
Microwave (Power 5, 1.5 cm-thick) and hot air
1 1.477 -0.289 0.992 0.000 0.009 35
2 1.459 -0.182 0.994 0.000 0.046 36
3 1.474 -0.507 0.993 0.000 0.000 35
Microwave (full power, 2 cm-thick) and hot air
1 1.626 -0.648 0.977 0.000 0.007 23
2 1.623 -0.665 0.991 0.000 0.002 24
3 1.661 -0.660 0.988 0.000 0.034 19


Drying tests a b R 2
Pa P b n
Microwave (Power 5, 2 cm-thick) and hot air
1 1.508 -0.589 0.992 0.000 0.000 46
2 1.504 -0.609 0.993 0.000 0.000 47
3 1.468 -0.623 0.982 0.000 0.000 50
Microwave (full power, 1 cm-thick) and cool air
1 1.684 -0.322 0.996 0.000 0.001 20
2 1.392 -0.428 0.982 0.000 0.009 21
3 1.425 -0.249 0.991 0.000 0.007 22
Microwave (Power 5, 1 cm-thick) and cool air
1 1.311 -0.391 0.983 0.000 0.001 32
2 1.261 -0.375 0.985 0.000 0.000 38
3 1.241 -0.211 0.983 0.000 0.068 37
Microwave (full power, 1.5 cm-thick) and cool air
1 1.574 -1.408 0.984 0.000 0.004 19
2 1.524 -0.366 0.996 0.000 0.004 21
3 1.593 -0.385 0.998 0.000 0.000 21
Microwave (Power 5, 1.5 cm-thick) and cool air
1 1.426 -0.646 0.985 0.000 0.000 36
2 1.363 -0.788 0.976 0.000 0.000 42
3 . 1.360 -0.482 0.988 0.000 0.000 43


Drying tests b R2
P a P b
Microwave (full power, 2 cm-thick) and cool air
1 1.607 -0.373 0.991 0.000 0.013 28
2 1.588 -0.649 0.994 0.000 0.002 23
3 1.702 -0.599 0.993 0.000 0.000 21
Microwave (Power 5, 2 cm-thick) and cool air
1 1.499 -1.287 0.987 0.000 0.000 47
2 1.412 -1.071 0.977 0.000 0.000 44
3 1.626 -2.204 0.976 0.000 0.000 44
Hot air (1 cm-thick slice)
1 1.300 -0.115 0.999 0.000 0.000 89
2 1.685 -0.109 0.999 0.000 0.000 108
3 1.208 -0.036 0.999 0.000 0.443 74
Hot air (1.5 cm-thick)
1 1.351 0.225 0.998 0.000 0.000 112
2 1.228 -0.194 0.998 0.000 0.000 109
3 1.522 -0.265 0.998 0.000 0.000 109
Hot air (2 cm-thick slice)
1 1.318 0.906 0.998 0.000 0.000 122
2 1.319 0.932 0.995 0.000 0.000 130
3 - _ 1.389 0.258 0.998 0.000 0.000 126
Systat was also used to undergo an analysis of variance for the determined
values of the constants a and b.

4.5.1 Microwave drying tests
For the same thickness, a- values of full microwave power tests significantly differed
from those of power 5 tests (p-values less than 0.05), contrarily to b-values (p-values
greater than 0.05).
For full microwave power tests, a-values of three thicknesses (1, 1.5 and 2cm)
were significantly different (P=0.002). Significant difference (P=0.034) was also found
between b-values of the three thicknesses.
4.5.2 Combined microwave and hot air tests
For the same thickness, a-values of full microwave power tests significantly dif-
fered from those of power 5 tests. Except for 2cm thick slices (p=0.01), b-values of full
microwave power tests were not significantly different from those of power 5 tests.
For the three thicknesses,and for fulT microwave power tests, a-values were
significantly different (P=0.000) whereas b-values were not (P=0.464).
4.5.3 Combined microwave and cool air tests
Except for a-values of 1.5 cm thick slices (P=0.004), a-values of full microwave
power tests did not differ significantly from those of power 5 tests. Also, for the same
thickness b-values of full microwave power tests were not significantly different from those
of power 5 tests.
For the three thicknesses, and for full power tests, a-values were not signifi-
cantly different (P=0.344) and neither were b-values (P=0.464).

4.5.4 Hot air tests
For the three thicknesses, a-values were not significantly different (P=0.924)
whereas b-values were significantly different (P=0.018).
4.5.5 Comparisons
At full microwave power and for the same thicknesses, microwave tests results were
compared to combined microwave and cool air tests results. a-values were not signifi-
cantly different. Except for 2 cm thick slices (P=0.048), b-values were not significantly
different.
At full microwave power and for the same thicknesses, microwave tests results
were compared to combined microwave and hot air results. No significant difference was
found between the a-values. Except for 1 cm thick slices (P=0.000), b-values were not
significantly different.
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS
Experiments on microwave drying, combined microwave and convective drying,
and convective drying were undertaken. These experiments generated profiles of tem-
perature, moisture content and relative humidity, as well as shrinkage data.
Fick's diffusion model was solved in order to calculate moisture diffusivity
profiles during drying tests and during rehydration tests.
Multiple regression analysis was used to relate the calculated diffusivities to
the product temperature and moisture content.
From the results of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Results of microwave drying were very similar to those of combined microwave and
convective drying, in contrast to convective drying alone.
2. During microwave drying and combined drying most of the moisture was expelled
while product temperatures remained close to the boiling point of water. This
temperature stabilization was attributed to evaporative cooling. The stabilization
period was shorter in the case of combined microwave and hot air drying.
3. In microwave drying and in combined drying, vapor flow is thought to be the
principal mechanism of moisture removal, whereas liquid flow is thought to be the
major mechanism of moisture transfer in convective drying.
4. In contrast to convective drying, in microwave drying and in combined drying
internal temperatures were generally higher than surface temperatures.
62
Conclusions 63
5. Drying rates in microwave drying and in combined drying were more than sixty
times higher than those in convective drying. This resulted in much shorter drying
times.
6. The lower the microwave power setting, the longer the drying time and the lower
the product temperatures reached at low moisture levels.
7. The thicker the product, the longer the drying duration and the higher the internal
temperatures of the product.
8. In microwave drying and in combined drying, no case hardening was observed.
9. The shrinkages were less than that in convective drying.
10. Results suggest that products dried by microwave or combined drying can be com-
pletely rehydrated. Generally, less than 80% rehydration occured following convec-
tive drying.
11. Good correlation was found between calculated diffusivities and product tempera-
ture and moisture content.
For future studies, it is suggested that Fick's law be solved considering vapor
pressure gradient as the driving force of moisture removal in microwave drying. More-
over, product nonhomogeneity and shrinkage should be considered in microwave drying
modeling.
Microwave drying has potential to produce better quality products with re-
duced drying time. Further work is required to explore taste and microstructure of dried
foods.
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Microwave and Convective Drying of Potato Slices

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Microwave and Convective Drying of Potato Slices

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MICROWAVE AND C O N V E C T I V E DRYING OF POTATO SLICES

Moez Mohamed Bouraoui

B. A . Sc., School of Agricultural Engineering, ESIER, Tunisia, 1988

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

T H E DEPARTMENT OF BIO-RESOURCE ENGINEERING

We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard

T H E UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

© Moez Mohamed Bouraoui, 1991

Department of Ql_0~ tE-MtlfCP £/V£

were rehydrated and rehydration kinetics were determined.

In addition, moisture diffusivity profiles were calculated by solving Fick's dif-

ture content of the product.

Table of Contents iii

2.1 Drying using heated air 4

2.1.1 Constant-rate period 5

2.1.2 Falling-rate period 5

2.1.3 Disadvantages of hot-air drying 8

2.2 Microwave heating 8

2.2.1 Power dissipated 10

2.2.2 Penetration depth 10

2.2.3 . Rate of rise of temperature 11

2.2.4 Electric field strength 11

2.3 Microwave drying 14

3 Materials and Methods 17

4 Results and Discussion 22

4.1 Typical results 22

4.1.1 Microwave drying 22

4.1.2 Combined microwave and cool air drying 25

4.1.3 Combined microwave and hot air drying 33

4.1.4 Hot air drying 33

4.2 Effects of variables 42

4.2.1 Effect of sample thickness 42

4.2.2 Effect of microwave power 42

4.2.3 Effect of air flow 49

4.2.4 Effect of probe location 49

4.4 Shrinkage data 50

4.5 Regression analysis 50

4.5.1 Microwave drying tests 60

4.5.2 Combined microwave and hot air tests 60

4.5.3 Combined microwave and cool air tests 60

4.5.4 Hot air tests 61

4.5.5 " Comparisons 61

3.1 Drying types and conditions 19

(Average of three replications) 50

4.3 Multiple regression analysis to correlate diffusivity to internal temperature

3.1 Side View of the Drying Apparatus 18

cm-thick potato slice 29

thick potato slice 30

cm-thick potato slice 31

1.5 cm-thick potato slice 32

cm-thick potato slice 34

thick potato slice 35

cm-thick potato slice 36

cm-thick potato slice 37

4.22 Temperature profiles for microwave drying (power 5) of a 1.5 cm-thick

1.5 cm-thick potato slice 51

1.5 cm-thick potato slice 52

" potato slice 53

I thank S. Willetts (a summer student), J. Pehike and N. Jackson (Technicians)

for their valuable help in setting up the experimental apparatus.

ural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

help and great love.