CHAPTER 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.1 Introduction

Fluids mechanics deals with study of fluids, liquid and gases. The study can be behavior
of liquid fluids at rest (static) and in motion (dynamic). The study of fluid mechanics is
important because our life depend on them. The air we breathe, flight of birds in air, the motion
of fish in water, circulation of blood in veins of human body, flow of oil and gas in pipelines,
transportation of water in pipe, all follow the principles of fluid mechanics. Engineers have
applied these principles in the design of dams, construction of ships, airplanes, turbo-machinery
etc. Fluids in motion are potential sources of energy and can be converted into useful work to
drive a water turbine or windmill. The principles of fluid mechanics are also applied to fluid
power system in which pressured fluid is used to transmit power. Hydraulic drives and controls
have become more and important due to automation and mechanization. Today, a very large part
or modern machinery is controlled completely or partly by fluid power.

Fluid can be defined as substance that has ability to flow. Gases expand whereas liquids
do not. Liquid have no shape of it’s own but rather take the shape of the container in which it is
placed. That means if liquid or volume less than volume of the container is poured into container
the fluids will occupy a volume of the container and will have a free surface. Gases expand and
occupy full volume of the container. Gases are compressible which means their volume changes
with pressure where as liquids are incompressible. Compressible flows are again divided into
subsonic and supersonic depending on gas velocity less or greater than sound velocity. Their
application is in jet propulsion system, aircraft and rockets.

1.2 International System of Units (SI)

In the text we shall use SI units. The dimension in any system can be considered as either
primary or secondary dimensions. In the SI units there are 4 primary dimensions.

a) Primary Units
 Dimension International Symbol Unit
Mass M Kilogram (kg)
Length L Meter (m)
Time T Second (s)
Temperature K Kelvin (K)
Electric Current A Ampere (A)

b) Secondary Units
Secondary units is a combination of primary units such as Newton (N or kgm/s 2), Joule (J or
Nm), Watt (W or Nm/s) etc.

1.3 Specific weight and mass density

Two important parameters that tend to indicate heaviness of the substance are specific
weight and mass density. The specific weight in the weight of substance per unit volume and is
commonly designated by Greek letter ‘gamma’ ( γ ). In equation form,

Weight W
γ= =
Volume V

Mass density is the mass per unit volume of the substance. It commonly designated by a
Greek letter ‘rho’ ( ρ ). In the equation form,

mass m
ρ= =
Volume V

Or
In thermodynamics normally referred as specific volume, ν:

Volume V 1
ν= = =
mass m ρ

There exist an important relation between specific weight and mass density.
 Weight of the substance w = mg

Weight of the substance/unit volume,

mg
γ= =ρg
V

For ideal gases, the density of gas is depended on the pressure and temperature of the gas. The
density can be obtained by the gas equation;

PV =mRT

or

P=ρ RT

Universal gas ℜ
R= Coefficient
=
where molar gas M

Thus the specific weight is the product of mass density and acceleration due to gravity.
In the SI units,  will be expressed in N/m3 and ρ in kg/m3. The values of specific weight and
mass density of water at different temperature are given in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 gives
Table 1.1 Physical Properties of Water

Temperatur Specific Mass Dynamic Kinematic Surface

e Weight Density Viscosity Viscosity tension
T γ ρ μ ν σ
(°C) (kN/m³) (kg/m³) N-s/m² m2/s N/m
0 9.81 1000 −3 −6 0.0756
1.75 x 10 1.75 x 10
30 9.77 996 −4 −7 0.0712
8.00 x 10 1.02 x 10
60 9.65 984 −4 −7 0.0662
4.60 x 10 4.67 x 10
90 9.47 956 −4 −7 0.0608
3.11 x 10 3.22 x 10
the mass density for common fluids. From this table, other fluids can be compared with water in
terms of density and specific of weight.

Table 1.2 Physical Properties of Common fluids at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (at 25oC)

Fluids Specific Specific Mass Dynamic Kinematic

Gravity Weight Density Viscosity Viscosity
s γ ρ μ ν
- (kN/m³) (kg/m³) N-s/m² 2
m /s
Air 0.0012 11.8 1.20 1.81 x 10 −5
1.51 x 10
−5

Ammonia 0.830 8.31 829 4 −7

2.20 x 10 2.65 x 10
Glycerine 1.263 12.34 1258 −3 −4
950 x 10 7.55 x 10
Kerosene 0.823 8.03 819 1.92 x 10 −6
2.34 x 10
−3

Mercury 13.60 133.1 13570 1.56 x 10 −7

1.14 x 10
−3

Methanol 0.79 7.73 788 4 −7

5.98 x 10 5.58 x 10
SAE 10 Oil 0.87 8.71 869 8.14 x 10 −5
9.36 x 10
−2

SAE 30 Oil 0.89 8.71 888 4.40 x 10 −4

4.95 x 10
−1

Turpentine 0.87 8.51 868 1.38 x 10 −6

1.58 x 10
−3

Water 1.00 9.79 998 1.02 x 10 −6

1.02 x 10
−3

Sea Water 1.03 10.08 1028 1.07 x 10 −6

1.04 x 10
−3

1.4 Specific gravity

It is the ratio of specific weight of the substance to the specific weight of water at 4°C. A
convenient method to measure specific gravity is by means of a hydrometer. It is dipped into the
liquid and a calibrated scale gives the specific gravity. It should be noted that specific gravity is
a dimensionless number and its value for a particular substance is the same regardless of the
system of units. It is abbreviated as (s).

specific weight ρf
Specific gravity =
of fluid
=
specific weight of water
C ρw
at
o
4

The specific gravity can also be expressed as ratio of mass density of the substance to mass
density of water at 4°C.

Example 1.1

A tank of glycerol has a mass of 1200kg and volume of 0.95m3. Determine:

(a) Weight of glycerol
(b) Density
(c) Specific weight
(d) Specific gravity

Solution:

(a) From Newton’s Law;

W= mg

Thus, W= 1200 x 9.81 = 11.76kN

(b) From equation (1.2)

m 1200
ρ= = =1265 kg/m 3
V 0 .95
 (c) From equation (1.3)

3
γ=ρg=1263×9. 81=12 . 38 kN /m

(d) From equation (1.4)

ρ s 1265
s= = =1 .26
ρW 1000

1.5 Viscosity

Fluids offer resistance to shearing force. Viscosity is the property of the fluid that
determine amount of this resistance.

Consider a fluid in between two parallel plates Figure 1.1 where the upper plate is
moving with velocity V and lower plate is stationery. The distance between the plates is y. The
layer in contact with the upper plate is moving with velocity V where as the layer is contact with
lower plate which is fixed will have zero velocity. The deformation of the fluid under the action
of shear stress is assumed proportional to the rate of change of velocity, may be expressed in the
equation form,
 Figure 1.1

The displaced fluid due to shear stress acted and the shear stress is assumed proportional with the
velocity gradient. It can be illustrated in the equation;

∂v
τ =μ
∂y (1.5)

Where,
τ= shear stress
μ= proportional coefficient
∂v
∂ y = velocity gradient

The shear force, FD acting on the lower plate surface is given by;

F D=τ× A

Where A= surface area of the lower plate

The unit of dynamic viscosity, µ is SI unit is (N-sm-2 or Pas). Kinematics viscosity which is
usually, denoted by the Greek letter ‘nu’ (v) is determined by dividing dynamic viscosity (µ) by
mass density of the fluid ( ρ ). In the equation form;

μ
ν=
ρ (1.6)

When the fluid is at rest the velocity gradient dv/dy is zero and therefore no shearing force exists.
The viscosity varies with temperature therefore values of µ for given fluid are usually tabulated
at various temperatures. There are experimental methods to calculate viscosity. One such
experimental method is Falling Sphere Viscometer. In this method a sphere of known diameter
is dropped into a liquid. By determining the time required for the sphere to fall through a certain
distance, its terminal velocity (v) can be calculated. The stokes equation can be written as

gd 2 σ
v=
18 ν ρ( )
−1

Where d = diameter of sphere

σ = sphere density
ρ = fluid density
ν = kinematics density

A number of viscometers are available in the market. These viscometers are electronic devices
with digital panel and measured viscosity most of the liquids such paint, lubrication oil, polymer
compound, chemical compositions etc.
 Fluids obeying Newton’s law of viscosity (equation 1.6) and for which µ has a constant
value are known as Newton’s fluids. Most common fluids such as air, water and oil come under
this category for which shear stress in proportional to velocity gradient. The fluids that do not
obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known as non-Newtonian fluids such as human blood,
lubrication oils, molten rubber and sewage sludge etc.
A general relation between shear stress and velocity gradient for non-Newton’s fluids
may be written as;

n
dv
τ =A +B ( )
dy (1.7)

Where A and B are constants. Based on the value of power index ‘n’ non – Newtonian fluids are
classified as;

Pseudoplastic (such as milk, cement, clay) n<1

Bingham-plastic (such as sewage sludge, toothpaste) n=1
Dilatent (such as lubrication oil, butter, printing ink) n>1
A Newtonian fluid is a special case of non–Newtonian fluid for which A = 0 and power index n =
1.

The dynamic viscosity of various fluids at various temperatures is shown in Figure 1.2.
Absolute viscosity  , N . s/m2

Figure 1.2 Dynamic viscosities versus Temperature

Example 1.2
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 75cm long
concentric cylinders as shown in Figure E1.2. The outer radius of the inner cylinder is 15cm, and
the gap between the two cylinders is 0.12cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at 200rpm, and the
torque is measured to be 0.8Nm. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
 Figure E1.2

Solution:

∂v
F D=τ× A=μ ×2 π RL
The shear force, ∂y

Where shear force can be calculated by

Torque 0 . 8
F D= = =5 .33 N
R 0 . 15

V= 2πRf = 2(3.142)(0.15)(200)/60 = 3.14 m/s

∂ v V −u 3 .14−0
= = =2616 . 67 m/s
∂y t 0 .0012

Thus, the dynamic viscosity:

5 .33
μ= =0 .0029 Ns/m2
2 π ( 0. 15 )(0. 75 )(2616. 67 )

1.6 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

 Consider a mass of fluid m whose initial pressure and volume is P and V respectively.
Let the fluid be compressed by application of force such that final pressure is P+dP and volume
reduced to V–dV. Hence, change in pressure is dp and change in volume is –dV. Volumetric
strain in defined as change in volume divided by original volume and is –dV/V. The bulk
modulus denoted by k and is defined as change in pressure to volumetric strain;

k= Changes in pressure/Volume strain

or

dP
k =−V
dV (1.8)

Let mass of fluid is m:

m = ρV (1.9)

After differentiation of equation (1.9):

ρ dV +Vd ρ=0

V ρ
− =
dV dρ (1.10)

Substitute –V/dV into equation (1.8), thus;

dP
k =ρ
dρ (1.11)

From equation (1.11) the value of k is dependent on the relationship between pressure and
density. For liquids, changes of density with pressure are small and Bulk modulus k is high.
These liquids can be considered incompressible. However, for gases the compressibility is so
large that value of k is not a constant but proportional to pressure. For gases relation between
pressure and mass density in obtained from characteristic equation of a gas and particular
relation between pressure and density is established depending on type of compression process.

(i) For an isothermal process where the temperature is maintained constant the characteristic
equation is written as

dP P P
= =const . =const .
dρ ρ ρ (1.12)

dP P
= =const .
dρ ρ (1.13)

Substitute dP/dρ into equation (1.6) gives

k= P (1.14)

(ii) For an adiabatic process where no heat is allowed to enter or leave during compression
the relation between pressure and density is given by
P
=const .
ργ (1.15)

After differentiation will give;

dP P
= γ
dρ ρ (1.16)

where γ= ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume or γ= CP/CV

Again substitute dP/dρ into equation (1.11) will give;

 k= γP (1.17)

The ratio of adiabatic bulk modulus is equal to the ratio of specific heat of fluid as constant
pressure to that at constant volume. For liquids is almost equal to one, but for gases the
difference is large for example for air = 1.4.

1.7 Mach no. and Compressibility

Mach. No. is defined as ratio of velocity of flow (v) to local velocity of sound (a) and is a
measure of compressibility effects.
v
M=
a (1.18)

The velocity of propagation of sound waves in a fluid, flow is expressed as

a=
√ dP
dρ or
a2 =
dP
dρ (1.19)

Substituting the value of dP/d in equation (1.11) we get

2
k =ρa (1.20)

Substituting value of a in equation (1.12) we get

M=
√ v2 ρ
k (1.21)

For liquids the bulk modulus k is large and velocities small and, hence, Mach. No. is negligible
or effect of compressibility is neglected. Gas velocities are high bulk modulus is low, and hence,
Mach. no. is high and compressibility cannot be neglected. Gases can only be treated as
incompressible if pressure changes are small and Mach. no. is less than 0.3.

1.8 Surface tension

The molecules of the liquid are attracted by the molecules of the same liquid by a force
known as ‘Cohesion’. This force keeps the molecules bonded together.

The force of attraction between molecules of two different liquids that do not mix each
other or between liquids molecules and solid boundary containing the liquid or between
molecules or liquid on side and molecules of air (or gas) on the other side is known as
‘adhesion’.

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.3 is shown a molecule of liquid at the surface is acted on by imbalance cohesion
and adhesive forces giving rise to surface tension. It is commonly denoted by Greek letter,
‘sigma’ () and is defined as force per unit length of the surface. In the equation, it can be
written as
F
σ=
L (1.22)

The units of σ in SI units will be N/m. In many engineering problems surface tension
forces are very small compared with other forces acting on the fluid and may therefore be
neglected. However, surface tension can cause serious errors in capillary effects particularly in
manometer.

For a droplet or a half bubble, the surface tension effect can be illustrated by analyzing a free-
body diagram as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4

The pressure force exerted in the droplet is given by

F=PπR 2

The force due to surface tension is

F=2 πRσ

The pressure force and tension must be balance each other;

PπR 2=2 πRσ

2σ
P=
R (1.23)

1.9 Capillarity
 If a small diameter glass tube is inserted into water through a free surface the water will
rise in the tube. This phenomenon is known as capillarity and is caused by cohesive force of the
liquid molecules and adhesion of liquid surface to solid glass surface.

The rise in level of the capillarity tube will depend on σ and angle of contact, θ as shown
in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5

Length of line of contact of the liquid with the tube = πd

Vertical component of the surface tension force = (πd).σ.cosθ

π 2
d hγ
Weight of column of liquid, W= 4

Thus, for the equilibrium of surfaces tension and gravity forces requires as

π
πdσ cos θ= d 2 hγ
4

4 σ cos θ 4 σ cos θ
h= P=
γd or d (1.24)
 Consequently, when one does not wish a meniscus to rise appreciably in a tube, a large
value of diameter is chosen. It is believed that trees, even very tall ones, send water to their
highest branches by means of capillarity effects. Hence, capillary passages must be extremely
fine. In water and certain other liquids that exhibit capillarity the meniscus is ‘concave’. These
liquids wet the glass and angle of contact θ is less than 90°. In some other liquids such as
mercury the meniscus is convex. The liquids do not wet the solid surface and angle of contact θ
is more than 90°. Glass tubes are commonly used in manometer and capillary action is a serious
source of error in reading levels in such tubes. They should have as large a diameter as is
conveniently possible to minimize errors due to capillarity.

1.10 Vapor Pressure

Cavitation is given to the phenomenon that occurs at the solid boundaries of liquid
streams when the pressure of the liquid is reduced to vapor pressure of the liquid at the
prevailing temperature (Table 1.3). Any attempt to reduce the pressure still further merely causes
the liquid to vaporize more quickly and clouds of vapor bubble form. The bubbles of vapor
formed in the region of cavitation move downstream to a region of higher pressure where they
collapse (see Figure 1.5). It is repeated formation and collapse of vapor bubbles which can have
damaging effects upon the walls of the solid surface. The actual time between formation and
collapse may not be more than 1/100 of a second, but dynamic force caused by this phenomenon
may be very severe. It is only a matter of having enough bubbles formed over a sufficient period
of time for the destruction of the metal begins. Cavitation may occur in pumps, turbines,
hydrofoils, propellers, and in venture-meters. In the case of turbines, cavitation is most likely to
occur on the blade surfaces near the tail race where as for pumps it is most likely to occur at inlet
to the impeller. Cavitation can also occur if a liquid contains dissolved air or gases, since
solubility of gases in liquid decreases as the pressure is reduced. Gas and air bubbles will be
released as vapor bubble with the same damaging effects. Care should be taken to avoid
cavitation as far as possible but if this proves impracticable, than the parts likely to be affected
by cavitations should be constructed of especially resistant metals such as stainless steel.

Table 1.3 Saturation vapor pressure of water

 Temperature (˚C) Vapor Pressure (Pa)
0 615
10 1230
20 2340
40 7400
60 20000
80 47400
100 101300

Figure 1.5 Cavitation phenomena inside the nozzle

Problems

1. Determine the density of air, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide at an absolute pressure of
300kN/m² and a temperature of 38.8ºC.
(3.35 kg/m3, 0.233 kg/m3, 5.088 kg/m3)
2. Calculate the specific weight and density of oxygen at absolute pressure of 500 kPa and a
temperature of 40ºC.
(8.2x10-4 kg/m3, 8.04x10-3 N/m3)
3. If the volume of liquid decreases by 0.2% for an increase of pressure from 6867 kN/m² to
15696 kN/m², calculate the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid.
(4,414.5MPa)
4. A soap bubble 51 mm in diameter has an internal pressure in excess of outside pressure of
2.06 x 10-2 kPa, calculate the tension in the soap film.
(0.13133N/m)
5. If the pressure inside a water droplet is 0.2 kPa in excess of external pressure, and given
surface tension of water in contact with air at 20ºC is equal to 0.0736 N/m, determine the
diameter of the droplet.
(1.472mm)
6. Air is introduced a nozzle into a tank of water to from a stream of bubbles. If the bubbles
are intended to have diameter of 2 mm, determine the pressure of air at the nozzle exceed
that of surrounding water (given tension of water = 0.0736 N/m).
(147.2N/m2)
7. The air in an automobile tyre is at 2.943 MPa absolute at 26.6ºC. Assuming no change in
the volume of air if the temperature rises to rises to 62.2ºC, determine the air pressure.
(3.489MPa)
8. A gas occupying a volume of 300 liters at a certain temperature and pressure of 0.34
N/mm² is compressed isothermally to 150 liters. Calculate the initial and final bulk
modulus of elasticity.
(0.34N/mm2, 0.68N/mm2)
9. Given v= 10y1/6, where v is the velocity of water in m/s and y is the distance from the
boundary in mm, plot the velocity profile and determine the ratio of shear stress at y= 2mm
to the shear stress at y= 5mm.
(2.14)
10. A liquid flows between two fixed parallel boundaries. The velocity distribution near to
lower wall is given in the following table:

y (mm) v (m/s)
1.0 1.00
2.0 1.99
3.0 2.98
4.0 3.00
5.0 3.00

Determine the maximum and minimum shear stresses (The dynamic viscosity of fluid is
0.05Pas).
 (50N/m2, 0)
11. Two plates are arranged as in Figure Q11 in the liquid. The top plate is moving with the
velocity of 0.5m/s and the middle plate is moving with the velocity of 2m/s in opposite
direction. The area of both plates area 0.25m2. Plot the velocity profile on all surfaces and
determine the force acting on the middle plate (Take the viscosity of liquid is 0.01Pas).

Figure Q11
(3.75N)
12. Mercury does not adhere to a glass surface, so when a glass tube immersed in a pool of
mercury, the meniscus is depressed, as a shown in Figure Q12. The surface of mercury is
0.514 N/m and the angle contact is 40ºC. Calculate the depression distance in a 1 mm
glass tube.

Figure Q12
(11.81mm)
13. The vapor pressure of water at 100ºC is 101 kN/m², because water boils under these
conditions. The vapor pressure of water decreases approximately linearly with decreasing
temperature at a rate of 3.1 kN/m²/ºC. Calculate the boiling temperature of water at an
altitude of 3000 m, where the atmospheric pressure is 69 kN/m² absolute.
(89.7oC)
14. Calculate the vacuum necessary to cause cavitation in a water flow at temperature of 80 oC
at the mount of Kinabalu where the elevation is 2500m above sea level.
(26.62kPa)

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