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1. Introduction
Green moulding sand process has a long history. A large production of castings, including the vast majority of
those made by machine moulding, is cast in greensand moulds. The process uses natural sand as the main
ingredient for moulding for which any sand treatment equipment is not necessary. It is a popular moulding
process for those foundries producing small and medium size castings and may not be able to lose its position
due to economic considerations.
In some cases, there are compelling technical reasons for drying or hardening the mould, or use of some other
moulding methods. However, the greensand moulding systems has certain benefits:
1. The sand is readily reconditioned since there is little dehydration of the clay bond.
2. Greensand, having low compression strength, offers little resistance to contraction, so that the risk of hot
tearing is reduced.
3. Moulds join closely, leaving little „flash‟ for removal by fettling.
4. The rapid turnaround of moulding boxes and the smooth moulding and casting cycle make it suitable for
mechanised systems.
Recently, several new sand moulding processes have been developed which consequently reduced the use of
greensand process. However, various technological developments are made and green moulding system is still
the principal moulding system used by the foundrymen. Some of the developments include:
1. Inexpensive molten metal with modernisation of melting technique and equipment.
2. Development of sand treatment, its equipment and sand control system.
3. Mechanisation of moulding, shake-out and sand transport.
Moulds for making a ton of castings may require 4 to 5 tons of moulding sand aggregate. The sand-metal ratio
may vary from 10:1 to 0.25:1 depending on the type and size of castings and moulding methods employed. In
any case, the tonnage of sand which must be handled in a sand casting foundry is large, and its quality must be
controlled to make good castings.
The grain size of base sand also influences the strength of moulding sand aggregate, an inverse relationship
existing between compressive strength and grain size of clay-bonded sands, Fig. 2. Finer grains also appeared to
be more easily fused (i.e. low refractoriness) than coarser ones. Where maximum refractoriness is required, as in
steel moulding sands, the coarser high-purity sands are used.
Table 1. Similarity in AFS grain fineness number of two sand samples with
different grain size distributions.
Percentage retained
USA sieve No.
Sand A Sand B
6 0.0 0.0
12 0.0 0.0
20 0.0 0.0
30 1.0 0.0
40 24.0 1.0
50 22.0 24.0
70 16.0 41.0
100 17.0 24.0
140 14.0 7.0
200 4.0 2.0
270 1.7 0.0
Pan 0.3 1.0
Total 100.0 100.0
AFS grain fineness No 60.0 60.0
3. Thermal Expansion
Low thermal expansion is mandatory for moulding sands. However, a major expansion of silica sand occurs in
the temperature ranges of 550 to 650 °C because of the allotropic transformation of silica. Silica sand is
commonly encountered four different phase transformations and the equilibrium temperature ranges for these
modifications are:
4. Hardness
Adequate hardness of sand is essential so that they do not break during mould preparation, mould handling and
pouring of liquid metal.
5. pH Value
Neutral sands having the pH value in the range of 6 to 8 are ideal as moulding sand. Otherwise, they will be
susceptible to attack by the chemical binders.
SiO2 content 95 – 96 % min. The higher the silica the more refractory the sand
Loss on ignition 0.5% max. Represents organic impurities
Fe2O3 0.3% max. Iron oxide reduces the refractoriness
CaO 0.2% max. Raise the acid demand value
K2O, Na2O 0.5% max. Reduces refractoriness
Acid demand value to pH4 6 ml max. High acid demand adversely affects acid catalysed binders
The principal division in practice, that between natural and synthetic sands, exists in all sections of the industry,
but the general trend is towards greater use of synthetic sands, particularly in mechanised foundries. Their chief
advantages lies in superior refractoriness and permeability, consistency, and the readiness in which their
properties can be controlled, particularly in reclamation systems. They are not, however, so readily hand worked
by the moulder as the naturally bonded sands with their greater latitude of moisture content and somewhat higher
green strength. Table 3 shows a comparison between the usefulness of natural sand and synthetic sand as
foundry sand, while a comparison in properties of different synthetic sands is shown in Table 4. Synthetic sands
have been most widely adopted for steel founding, where relatively coarse grained sands are bonded with
bentonites and cereals to provide properties such as those shown in Table.5.
Zircon is probably the most widely used of the non-silica sands. It is used with chemical binders for high quality
steel castings and for critical iron castings such as hydraulic spool valves which contain complex cores, almost
totally enclosed by metal, making core removal after casting difficult. Zircon has low acid demand value and can
be used with all chemical binder systems. The Cosworth casting process uses the low thermal expansion of
zircon sand cores and moulds to cast dimensionally accurate castings. The high cost of zircon sand makes
reclamation necessary and thermal reclamation of resin bonded moulds and cores are frequently practised.
Because of high cost, instead of making the whole mould, mould wash onto a greensand or silica mould is often
used. Some zircon sands contain radioactive minerals which may cause a health hazard. The supplier should be
contacted to confirm that the level of radioactivity is safe.
This sand has low thermal expansion property which effects to prevent defects as scab. But care should be taken
when using this sand as it absorbs moisture. The sand is much cheaper than zircon and olivine. Specific
characteristics of chamotte sand and negligible affinity to liquid steel make it suitable for steel castings.
Fig. 7. Typical effect of clay content on relationship between mould hardness and green compressive
strength. The curve marked „maximum‟ applies equally well to clay-saturated southern and western
bentonite and fire clay-bonded sands.
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram showing the approximate effect of bentonite clays on the
maximum green compressive strength of clay-sand-water mixtures.
Fig. 9. Influence of moisture content of green and dry strengths of moulding sands
(bentonite-bonded silica sand).
Dry clay does not provide the necessary bond to hold sand grains firmly together; bond is developed only when
clay particles are hydrated. When water is added to dry clay, the negative hydroxyl (OH –) ions are adsorbed on
the nuclei of the clay atoms, owing to unsatisfied valence bonds at the surface of the clay crystal, and form an
integral part of the crystal. So the clay-water particle becomes negatively charged.
The positive (H+) ions in the surrounding water media are attracted by the negative clay ions, but repelled by the
nuclei of the clay atoms, with the result that the positive ions take up equilibrium positions. The hydrogen ions
and the adsorbed hydroxyl ions about the clay particle comprise a so-called double diffuse layer. A hydrated clay
particle or micelle is illustrated schematically in Fig. 12.
Particles of sand (quartz) also form micelles by the adsorption of hydroxyl and hydrogen ions. When quartz and
clay micelles are formed in each other‟s presence, the hydroxyl ions of the clay micelle exhibit an attraction for
the hydrogen ions contained in the quartz micelles. Thus a clay dipole is formed and the result is an electrostatic
bond between sand and clay particles and between clay particles as sketched in Fig. 13. The maximum attractive
force is found to be at an optimum distance of separation x. There are many such dipoles in a clay-water
medium. Depending on the type of clay, a maximum degree of hydration is necessary to develop a dipole
completely. This is why the strengths of clay-bonded sands increase with increasing amounts of water, up to a
maximum value. As the amount of water is increased further, water enters the spaces between the dipoles to a
distance greater than x, resulting in a decrease in the net intermicellular force, Fig. 14.
Fig. 12. Schematic representation of a clay micelle. Surrounding the clay particle are negatively charged
hydroxyl ions positioned at varying distances from the particle. Outside this layer, positively charged hydrogen
ions also are located at various distances from the clay centre; hence the term double diffuse layer applies. This
layer is rigidly attached to the surface of the clay particle and is considered to behave as a solid.
(b)
Fig. 13. (a) Micellular dipoles, indicating the localized concentration of adsorbed negatively charged hydroxyl
ions and positively charged ions; x denotes critical intermicelluar spacings, the result of a compromise between
the forces of attraction and repulsion. (b) Schematic sketch showing disposition of clay and quartz dipoles. In
green sand the intermicellular voids are filled with water.
5.3 Additives
In order to obtain specific characteristics in moulding and core making sands according to the requirement of
molten metal and base sand, suitable additives are mixed during sand preparation. The additives may be of
reducing or fibrous nature, or may act as binding agents. These may also help in improving high-temperature
plasticity and hot strength, produce anti metal penetration properties and impart good surface finish to the
castings. It is necessary to select the right type and determine the correct proportion of the additive for any given
moulding and casting conditions so as to enable the production of flawless castings. The commonly used
additives are discussed below. A summary of functions of additives are also given in Table 10.
Coal Dust or Sea coal. It is a finely ground soft coal commonly used in greensand and dry-sand moulding for
protecting mould surfaces against the action of molten metal and improving surface finish of cast iron castings.
When the molten metal comes in contact with mould surfaces containing coal dust, a gaseous envelope is formed
which resists the fusion of sand to metal. Use of coal dust increases both green and dry strength, reduces
expansion, tendency to scabbing and metal penetration. It, however, tends to reduce the permeability of sand.
The sea coal is usually ground to fineness similar to that of the moulding sand in which it is used. Percentages
employed in sands are about 2 to 8 per cent. A good quality coal dust suitable for foundry use should have
minimum 30% volatile matter, maximum 20% ash, 3% moisture, 1 % sulphur and 0.2% phosphorus content.
Pitch and fuel oil are also used as reducing agents and have similar effect as coal dust.
Iron Oxide. Iron oxide powder is used as an additive for both moulding and core making sands to achieve high-
temperature plasticity, hot strength and anti-metal penetration characteristics. In core sands, it prevents veining
or high-temperature cracking of cores. The use of iron oxide is common in steel foundries both for moulds and
cores. In iron foundries, its use is restricted to cores only. Good quality iron oxide should have iron oxide
(Fe2O3) content not less than 93% and iron content not less than 6%. Its pH value in 10% distilled water solution
should not be more than 9%. Its fineness should be 150 mesh BS sieve (106 micron IS sieve).
Cereals. Cereal are used as binder to influence the bonding properties of sand. They are mainly starch and
dextrine made from corn. Starch is made by separating the starchy portion from corn by dry or wet milling
followed by cooking to gelatinate the starch and finally grinding to required size. Dextrines are produced from
corn starch by acidifying with hydrochloric acid and heating in large steam jacketed roasters. This treatment
makes the starch soluble in cold water. Sometime dextrose (crystalline corn sugar) is also used. The cereal
binders develop a gelationus bond with water and are normally employed along with other binders, e.g. in clay
bonded moulding sands and in oil and resin bonded core sands. In moulding sands the cereals increase air setting
strength, toughness and collapsibility and prevent sand from drying quickly. During pouring they gasify
producing voids between sand grains and allowing their expansion without distortion. An additional advantage is
Purposes Additives
As binder Cereal, molasses, resin, linseed oil, water glass
Increase collapsibility Cereals, molasses, fibrous materials
Reduce expansion problems Cereals, coal dust, fibrous materials
Increase green strength Coal dust, molasses
Increase dry strength Cereals, resin, molasses, coal dust
Increase hot strength Iron oxide, silica flour
Reduce metal penetration Coal dust, iron oxide, silica flour
Improve surface finish Coal dust, resin
Increase flowability Resin, fibrous materials
Increase bench life Cereals, resin, molasses