BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

School Of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Institute of Technology

Stream of manufacturing Engineering regular PG

TERM PAPER ON FLAT ROLLING

By: FISSHA BIRUKE

Submitted to: Dr. Tafesse Gebresenbet,

Submission date: February 2012

 AKNOLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my heart full gratitude to my instructor Dr. Tafesse Gebresenbet for his
intensive and extensive guidance and helpful comments, and his tireless patience in
encouragement on moral to the end of the literature we prepared. Also for Getye Mekonnen
(M.sc) helping me in the progress of this paper. Finally I would like to give great thanks for my
class mates giving me some comments.

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 Abstract

A general description of flat rolling process of sheets is given in this paper. The equipment
used in rolling are listed out including their use in the rolling process. Also the types of these
equipments and the parameters to select among these specific tools are discussed. The
classification of rolling according to the working temperature to cold and hot processes and the
specific application area is discussed. The problems and defects occurring in rolling process and
their possible causes including the remedies were discussed also. The estimation of rolling Load
or pressure is essential for many factors including roll mill life and product quality and this Load
should be estimated before the manufacturing of the flat strips. In this paper estimation was done
by considering plane strain conditions using slab, upper-bound and slip-line field methods and
compared with results from ANSYS software.

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Contents Page
CHAPTER ONE FLAT ROLLING........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Terminology of general rolled products ............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Classification of rolling process ........................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Hot rolling .................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Cold rolling ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Equipments that are used in Flat Rolling ............................................................................................ 3
1.4.1 Type and Selection of Rolling Mills .............................................................................................. 4
1.5 The process of rolling and factors affecting rolling process ............................................................... 7
1.6 Problems and defects in rolled products ............................................................................................ 7
1.6.1 Defects from cast ingot before rolling ......................................................................................... 8
1.6.2 Defects during rolling ................................................................................................................... 8
1.6.2.1 Uniform thickness…………………………………………………………………………………………………9
1.6.2.2 Flatness………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..9
1.6.2.3 Edging ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................ 12
2.1 Force and geometrical relationships in flat rolling ........................................................................... 12
2.2. Analysis of rolling Load .................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.1. Slab analysis of flat rolling......................................................................................................... 15
2.2.1.1 Slab analysis in case of sliding friction (Coulomb’s low)………………………………………..15

2.2.1.2 In sticking friction case ………………………………………………………………………………………..18

2.2.1.3 Rolling without friction ………………………………………………………………………………………..25

2.2.2. Upper-bound Analysis for Flat Rolling ...................................................................................... 26

2.2.2.1 Flat rolling analysis using upper bound ……………………………………………………………….27

2.2.2.2 Upper Bound with Sticking Friction Condition ……………………………………………………25

2.2.3. Slip Line Field Theory ................................................................................................................ 27

2.2.3.1 Slip-Line Field Solution Procedure ………………………………………………………………………..28

2.2.3.2 Slip line Field for flat Rolling …………………………………………………………………………………28

2.2.3.3 For the sticking friction …………………………………………………………………………………………32

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 2.2.4 Finite element method .............................................................................................................. 34
2.2.4.1 Principles for the fem-simulations ………………………………………………………………………34

CHAPTER THREE CONCLUSION................................................................................................................... 39

References .................................................................................................................................................. 41

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 List of figures

1- Figure 1.1 Two high rolls (a) Non reversing (b) Reversing………………………………5
2- Figure 1.2 (2) Double duo (3) Three high mill (4) Three high with middle roll…………5
3- Figure 1.3 (5) Three high Lauth with idle
middle roll (6) four high (7) HC rolling mill(8) Taylor mill……………..………….…..6
4- Figure 1.4 (9) Six-high mill (10) Sendzimir- twelve-high
(11) Twenty-high planetary Sendzimir………………………………………….……….6
5- Figure 1.5. Consequence of roll bending …………………………………………….…..9
6- Figure 1.6 (a) The use of cambered rolls to compensate for roll bending.
(b) Un-cambered……………………………………………………………………..….10
7- Figure 1.7 defects in rolling due to over camber …………………………………..…...10
8- Figure 1.8 defects in rolling due to insufficient camber………........................................11
9- Figure 1.9 Edge defects in rolling………………………………………………………..11
10- Fig 2.1 forces acting on a flat rolling…………………………………………………….12
11- Fig 2.2 geometrical relations of the contact length ……………………………………...13
12- Fig 2.3 Decomposition of the normal and frictional forces……………………….……..13
13- Figure 2.4 slab element in flat rolling………………………………………………...….15
14- Figure 2.5 flat roll strip with 3 velocity discontinuities……………………………….…21
15- Figure 2.6 Hodograph for the velocity vectors………………………………………......22
16- Figure 2.7 slip line field for flat rolling of 50% reduction…………………………..…..28
17- Figure2.8 Orientation of slip lines……………………………………………………....30
18- Fig 2.9 slip lime field with sticking friction on the contact surface……………………..32
19- Fig. 2.10. Model of symmetrical flat rolling process……………………………….…....35
20- Fig. 2.11 dscritization of the model to elements which are meshed …………………….36
21- Fig. 2.12 the distortion of diseritised elements after lode is applied. …………………..37
22- Fig. 2. 13 nodal solution of the model after the solution is done…………………….…38

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Flat Rolling

CHAPTER ONE
FLAT ROLLING

1.1. Introduction

Rolling process can be defined as: the Bulk deformation process of reducing the thickness
or changing the cross-section of a long work-piece by compressive forces applied through a set
of rolls (mills). It is the most wildly used metal working process because it tends itself to a high
production and close control of the final products. In compression of metal between two rolls the
metal is subjected to a high compression stress from the squeezing action of the rolls and surface
shear stress as a result of the friction between the rolls and the surface of the work. The
frictional forces are also responsible for drawing force in to the rolls. Usually the breakdown of
ingots in to blocks and billets is usually done by hot rolling followed by hot rolling to plates and
sheets, rods, bars and structural shapes.

1.2. Terminology of general rolled products

The terminology used to describe rolling products is fairly lose, and sharp limits with respect to
dimensions cannot always be made for steel making terminology. A Bloom is the product of first
break down of ingots, and having equal width and thickness of cross section greater than
230cm2. A further reduction by hot rolling results in a Billet. Which have minimum cross section
of 40 by 40mm. A Slab refers to a hot rolled billet or ingot with a cross section greater than
100cm2 and with a width that is at least twice the thickness of.
Blooms, billets and slabs are known as semi finished products because they are subsequently
formed in to other mill products such as plates, sheets and strips. A plate is generally having a
thickness greater than 6mm with exception depending on the width. A sheet and a strip generally
refers to a thickness less than 6mm. A strip refers to a product with a width no greater than
600mm, while a sheet is having greater width.

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1.3. Classification of rolling process

Rolling processes can be mainly divided in to two groups considering the temperature existing
in the operation namely cold and hot rolling processes.

1.3.1 Hot rolling

Flat rolling can be conducted in hot condition above the recrystallisation temperature.
Breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets are generally done by hot-rolling. The first hot
working operation for most steels products is done on the primary roughing mills. These mills
usually are two high reversing mills with 0.6 to 1.4m diameter rolls. They are designated by the
size of the rolls, as for example a 1m slab mill.
Plates are produced by hot rolling, either from reheated slabs or directly from ingots. Sheared
plate is produced by rolling between straight horizontal rolls and then trimmed edges.

The general distinction between strip and sheet is that strip usually is less than 600mm wide.
However, irrespective of width the equipment for producing this product is known as a
continuous hot strip mill. In the modern wide, hot strip mill, reheated slabs are first passed
through a roughing train of four high mills followed by finishing train of four high finishing
mills.
Because of the non ferrous metals industry deals with a diverse product mix, the equipment
used for hot rolling these materials are usually less specialized than equipment for hot rolling for
hot rolling of steel. The smaller ingots sized and lower flow stresses found with most nonferrous
alloys permit the use of smaller rolls. Two and three high mills are generally used for hot rolling
of nonferrous alloys also continuous four high hot mills are used for aluminum alloys.

1.3.2 Cold rolling

Cold rolling is carried out under recrystallisation temperature an introduce work hardening.
The total reduction achieved by cold-rolling generally will vary from about 50 to 90%. The
reduction in each stand should be distributed uniformly without falling much below the

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maximum reduction for each pass. Generally the lowest percentage reduction is taken place in
the last pass to permit better control of flatness, gage, and surface finish. Cold rolling provides
product with superior surface finish due to low temperature no oxide scales will be included.
Also better dimensional tolerances are achieved compared with hot-rolled products due to less
thermal expansion. Cold-rolled nonferrous sheet may be produced from hot-rolled strip, or in the
case of certain copper alloys it is cold-rolled directly from the cast state.

Cold rolled metals are rated as temper as follows

1. Skin rolled which undergoes the least rolling ~ 0.5-1% hardens, still more workable.
2. Quarter hard which are operated at higher amount of deformation. They can be
bent normal to rolling direction without fracturing
3. Half hard these types can be bent up to 90o.
4. Full hard this metal is compressed by 50% with no cracking. And can be bent up to
45o.
High speed four high tandem mills with three to five stands are used for the cold rolling of
steel sheets, aluminum and copper alloys. Generally this type of mill is designed to provide both
front and back tension. A continuous mill has high capacity and results in low labor cost.
However these types of equipment require a large capital investment and suffer further from lack
of versatility. Four high stand reversing mills with front and back tension are more versatile
installation. This type of mills is used often for the production of specialty items that vary wildly
in dimensions.
1.4 Equipments that are used in Flat Rolling

A rolling machine basically consists of rolls, bearings housings for containing the parts and
drive for applying the Load s to the rollers and controlling their speeds. The forces that are
needed for rolling can easily reach many mega Newton. Therefore very large rigid construction
of the equipment is needed. Very large motors are required to provide the necessary power.
When this factors are multiplied several times for successive stands of large continuous mills it
is easy to see why a modern rolling mill installation demands many millions of dollars of capital
investment and many man power of skilled engineers design and construction.

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1.4.1 Type and Selection of Rolling Mills

According to their actual functions, rolling mills are subdivided into the following classes:
1. Cogging mills this type are used for production of blooms, billets and slabs from
ingots, where these are still used.
2. Plate, strip and sheet mills used for rolling of plates strip and sheets.
3. Tube mills (longitudinal rolling and cross-rolling.
4. Section mills used for production of profiled sections, rounds, flats and strip; and
5. Special mills used for production of machine parts.

An individual mill is characterized by the function for which it is intended and also by the
type, position and number of rolls. These are located in stands, which in some cases are
incorporated in a stand train.
Depending on the position of the stands, mills can be further classified as linear (where the
stands are in a line and there may be one or two lines driven by a single motor), or continuous
(where a number of stands is placed in tandem and, at any given time, rolling takes place in
More than one stand).
In each stand the number of rolls involved defines the stiffness of the structure and,
therefore, reflects on the dimensional accuracy of the product, whereas the disposition of the
rolls specifies the function of the system. Irrespective of the complexity or otherwise of the roll
arrangement, the actual work of deformation is normally performed by a pair (or a set) of
innermost rolls which are backed up (for the mentioned structural stiffness) by a number of other
usually larger diameter sets of rolls. The numbers of these gives rise to the name of the mill
which is described as n-high mill.
A selection of basic arrangements for flat, horizontal rolling is given below. The following
types of mill can be distinguished.
1. Two-high rolls: - This type is the simplest one. It can be one of following type,
(i) Reversing the rolls are rotated in one direction, used for production of slabs,
large rail, profiled sections and thick plate rolling.

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(ii) Non-reversing in this type the rollers are rotated in 2 directions

intermediately. This improves productivity; the work is rolled in the forward
and again in the backward rotation. Used for continuous rolling of billets,
rods, rounds and plate, linear rolling of sheet, and for dimensional calibration
of the product.

Figure 1.1 Two high rolls (a) Non reversing (b) Reversing

2- Double duo mills: - used mainly in older mills for rolling small and medium-sized rods,
strip and profiled sections.
3 - Three high-mill: - used for rolling medium and large billets, rails, rods and profiled
sections.
4 - Three-high with the middle roll oscillating between the two outer rolls: - all the rolls are
driven; used for blooming or slabbing of ingots of around 3.5 ton in weight.

Figure 1.2 (2) Double duo (3) Three high mill (4) Three high with middle roll

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5 - Three-high Lauth with an idle middle roll:- Used for rolling thick plate and as a first stage
in linear hot rolling of thin sheet.
6 - Four-high-either:- This can be of 2 forms,
(i) Reversing Used for cold rolling thin strip and hot rolling thin and thick plate.
(ii) Non-reversing Used for continuous hot rolling strip and plate and cold rolling
strip.
7- HC rolling mill (Hitachi):- Used mainly for cold rolling plate and strip.

8- Taylor mill:- are used for precision rolling of thin sheet and strip.

Figure 1.3 (5) Three high Lauth with idle middle roll (6) four high (7) HC rolling mill
(8) Taylor mill.
9- Six-high mill: - used for cold rolling thin sheet and foil.
10- Sendzimir twelve-high mill: - used for cold rolling thin sheet and foil.
11- Twenty-high planetary Sendzimir mill: - used for cold rolling thin sheet and foil.

Figure 1.4 (9) Six-high mill (10) Sendzimir twelve-high (11) Twenty-high planetary Sendzimir

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1.5 The process of rolling and factors affecting rolling process

The process of the rolling is dependent on the following factors
 The route process that are going to be performed wither it is a primary secondary or finish
rolling affects the rolling process.
 The properties of the material to be rolled, harder material need very hard rolling mills and
large assembly and soft and ductile materials can be rolled with medium hardness rolling
mill.
 The type of rolling process wither it is cold or hot rolling affects the process and speed of
rolling.
 The size of the rolling mill, the roll diameter, is also affected by the parameters like
required rolling Load s and properties of the material.
 The heat conductivity and frictional properties of the roll and the work also affect the
rolling process. Rough materials having higher friction need higher lubrication.
 The precision requirement and surface finish also determines the type of roll to be used.
 The presence of the front tension and/or back tension in the plane of the sheet.
With the exception of special steels and or profiled Sections rolling processes follow one of
two main routes:
1. Production of plate and strip; or
2. Production of billets, bars, rod, sheet, tube or sections.

1.6 Problems and defects in rolled products

When high forces generated in rolling are transmitted to the work piece through the rolls, there
are two major types of elastic distortions:
1. The rolls tends to bend along their length because the work piece tends to
Separate them while they are restrained at their ends this defect is called roll bending.

2. The rolls flatten in the region where they contact the work piece. The radius
Of the curvature is increased R _ R’ which cause roll flattening.

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A variety of problems in rolling, leading to specific defects can arise depending on the
interaction of the plastically deforming work piece with the elastically deforming rolls and
rolling mill. Under the influence of high rolling force the rolls flatten and bend, and the entire
mill is elastically distorted. Because of mill spring the thickness of the sheet existing from the
rolling mill is greater than the roll gap set under no Load condition.

Elastic flattening of the rolls with increasing roll pressure results in a condition where the rolls
eventually deform more than the work piece. Thus, for a given material and set of rolling
conditions, there will be a minimum thickness below which the sheet can be reduced no further.

The roll gap must be perfectly parallel, otherwise one edge of the sheet will be decreased more
in thickness than the other, and since volume and width remains constant, this edge of the sheet
elongates more than the other and the sheet bows. There are two aspect to the problem to the
shape of a sheet. The first pertains to uniform thickness over the width and along the length. This
property of a sheet can be measured accurately, and it is subjected to precise control with modern
automatic gage control systems. The second important property of a sheet is flatness. It is
difficult to measure this property accurately.
1.6.1 Defects from cast ingot before rolling
Defects other than cracks can result from defects introduced during the ingot stage of production.
Porosity, cavity, blow hole occurred in the cast ingot will be closed up during the rolling
process.
Longitudinal stringers of non-metallic inclusions or pearlite banding are related to melting
and solidification practices. In severe cases, these defects can lead to laminations which
drastically reduce the strength in the thickness direction.
1.6.2 Defects during rolling
There are two aspects to the problem of the shape of a sheet.
1) Uniform thickness over the width and thickness – can be precisely controlled with
modern gage control system.
2) Flatness – difficult to measure accurately.

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1.6.2.1 Uniform thickness

The thickness remains constant in this type of defects. Under high rolling forces, the rolls
flatten and bend, and the entire mill is elastically distorted.

•1 Mill spring causes the thickness of the sheet exiting from the rolling mill to be greater than
the roll gap set under no-load conditions. Precise thickness rolling requires the elastic constant
of the mill.
2 Roll flattening increases the roll pressure and eventually causes the rolls to deform more
easily than the metal. Thus for a given material and set of rolling conditions there will be a
minimum thickness below which the sheet can be reduced no further. This limit is proportional
to the coefficient of friction, the roll radius, modulus of elasticity and the flow stress of the work
piece.
1.6.2.2 Flatness
It is difficult to measure this property accurately, particularly in process measurement taken as
the sheet is move through continuous mill at a high speed. The rolling speed is very sensitive to
flatness. A difference in elongation of one part in 10,000 between different locations in the sheet
can cause waviness.

Figure 1.5. Consequence of roll bending

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Camber and crown can be used to correct the roll deflection (at only one value of the roll force).
Or use rolling mill equipped with hydraulic jacks to permit the elastic distortion of the rolls to
correct deflection.

Figure 1.6 (a) The use of cambered rolls to compensate for roll bending. (b) Un-cambered
rolls give variation of thickness.
Possible effects when rolling with insufficient camber are
- Thicker centre means the edges would be plastically elongated more than the centre,
normally called long edges. This induces the residual stress pattern of compression at
the edges and tension along the centerline.
- This can cause centre line cracking (c), warping (d) or edge wrinkling or crepe-paper
effect or wavy edge (e).

Figure 1.7 defects in rolling due to over camber

Possible effects when rolls are over-cambered.
Thicker edges than the centre means the centre would be plastically elongated more than the
edges, resulting in lateral spread. The residual stress pattern is now under compression in the
centerline and tension at the edges (b). This may cause edge cracking (c), centre splitting (d),
and centerline wrinkling.

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Figure 1.8 defects in rolling due to insufficient camber

1.6.2.3 Edging
This is caused by inhomogeneous deformation in the thickness direction. If only the surface of
the work piece is deformed (as in a light reduction on a thick slab), the edges are concaved (a).
The overhanging material is not compressed in the subsequent step of rolling, causing this area
under tensile stress and leading to edge cracking. This has been observed in initial breakdown of
hot-rolling when h/Lp > 2 with heavy reduction
The centre tends to expand more laterally than the surface to produced barreled edges (b). This
causes secondary tensile stresses by barreling, which are susceptible to edge cracking.
Alligatoring (c) will occur when lateral spread is greater in the centre than the surface (surface
in tension, centre in compression) and with the presence of metallurgical weakness along the
centerline.

Figure 1.9 Edge defects in rolling.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Force and geometrical relationships in flat rolling

A metal sheet with a thickness ho enters the rolls at the entrance plane xx with a velocity v o. it
passes through the boll gap and leaves the exit plane yy with a reduced thickness hf. The
assumption is that no increase in width results, so that the vertical compression of the metal is
translated in to an elongation in the rolling direction.

N = neutral point

XY = arc of contact

Pr = radial force

F = tangential force

α = angle of contact

Fig 2.1 forces acting on a flat rolling.

At any point along the surface contact, such as point A on the figure two forces act on the
metal. There are a radial force pr and tangential force F. between the entrance plane and the
neutral point the sheet is moving slower than the roll surface and the friction force acts in the
direction to the tangential velocity of the rollers. And this frictional force used to draw the metal
in to the roll gaps. On the exit side of the neutral point the sheet moves faster than the roll
surface and the direction of the frictional force is reversed opposing the delivery of the sheet to
the gap.

The vertical component pr is known as the roll Load p. the rolling Load is the force with which
the rolls press against the metal. Because this is also equal to the force exerted by the metal to
trying to force the rolls, it is frequently called separating force. The specific roll pressure p is the
rolling Load divided by the contact area. The contact area between the metal and the roll equal to
the product of the width of the sheet and the projected length of contact Lp and this contact
length is derived from geometry as follows.

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Fig 2.2 geometrical relations of the contact length

From the figure above the following relation can be found for the projected contact length.

………………………………………..Eq. 2.1

……………………………………………….Eq. 2.2

where is the drift taken in rolling

The angle of contact or angle of bite α is the angle between the entrance plane and the center of
rolls. Referring to the figure below the horizontal component of the normal force Pr and the
horizontal component of the frictional force is F .

Fig 2.3 Decomposition of the normal and frictional forces.

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For the work piece to enter to the gap between the rolls the horizontal component of the
frictional force must be greater than the horizontal component of the force which is acting away
from the gap. So for the condition for the slab to enter to the gap,

Pr =F ……………………..Eq. 2.3

Which indicate the work piece can be drown to the rolls if the tangent of contact angle exceeds
the coefficient of friction.

From geometry, if we consider that is much smaller than R we

can conclude that =R

= =μ

So the maximum height that can be reduced at a given friction condition and roll radius
is given by the following equation,

…………………………………………………………………………………………Eq. 2.4

2.2. Analysis of rolling Load

Rolling is a bulk forming process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross sectional
area to a long work piece by compression between roll sets applying a compressive force on the
metal. the calculation of force and stress distribution in flat rolling is more involved than in
upsetting because of the curved contact. In addition the material at the exit is strain hardened so
the flow stress at the exit is higher than at the entry.

The analysis can be done using some analytical methods that are tried to be discussed bellow,
such as,

1. Slab analysis method of flat rolling

2. Upper bound method
3. Slip line filed method of analysis
4. FEM analysis using ANSYS.

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2.2.1. Slab analysis of flat rolling

A theory of rolling is applied at expressing the external forces such as the rolling Load and the
rolling torque in terms of geometry and strength properties of the material being rolled.

The differential equation for the equilibrium of an element of material being deformed between
rolls is common to all the theories of rolling. The derivation using slab method below is based on
the assumption

1. The arc of contact is circular, no elastic deformation of the rolls

2. The coefficient of friction is constant over the contact length
3. There is no lateral spread, plane strain condition is considered
4. Plane vertical section remains plane
5. The peripheral velocities of the rolls is constant
6. The elastic deformation of the of the sheets is small compared to the plastic
deformation

2.2.1.1. Slab analysis in case of sliding friction (Coulomb’s low)

The friction force developed between the work piece and the rolling mills are important
consideration in the analysis. And the frictional conditions on the contact surface in Coulomb’s
low are described by a constant friction coefficient in which the shearing stress at the interface
are given by where p is the stress normal to the surface. Taking a slab element in the
deformation zone and equilibrium of force, considering a constant width b.

Figure 2.4 slab element in flat rolling

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Now summation of forces in x direction will result

Since the width is considered to be constant we can eliminate b.

Neglecting to be small

………………………………………Eq. 2.5

but from geometry ………Eq. 2.6

…………………….Eq. 2.7

If we consider p and to be the principal stress and considering Von Mises criterion will give,

So substituting this in equation 2.7

as we first consider that is constant and its derivative equals to zero

but from von Mises equation.

…………………………………Eq. 2.8

Integrating will result

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……………………….Eq. 2.9

Now considering boundary condition to find the integration constant that is

At which result ,

at x is zero, substituting this in equation 2.9 to find C.

and

Then equation back to equation 2.9

………………………………………Eq. 2.10

The mean rolling pressure is is given by integrating p over the contact area

………………………………………Eq. 2.11

Equation 2.11 is the mean rolling pressure and the contact length ‘a’ in case of rolling

is given as, 2a = Lp(projected contact length= )

So the mean pressure will become like follows

…………………………………Eq. 2.12

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Finally the forging Load P is given by the product of the mean pressure p and the contact
area A.

where A= Lp * b b=width of the roll.

is the forging Load necessary for flat rolling of a material

without friction.

2.2.1.2 In sticking friction case

Is other method to describe interface shear stress is considering sticking friction case is to
give friction factor m, where .substituting this in equation 2 will result

where and

but 2k =

and directly integrating will result.

……………………………...Eq. 2.13

Considering boundary condition to find the integration constant c, such that

at x = a and substituting to get C in equation 2.13

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The mean pressure is now found by integrating over the contact length as follows.

The contact length for rolling a = Lp (projected contact length=

…………………………………………….Eq. 2.14

Equation 2.14 is the mean pressure in sticking friction case.

The rolling Load required is given by the product of the mean pressure and the contact
area A.

P= A = Lp*b where b is the width.

P=

…………………………………..Eq. 2.15

Equation 2.15 is the total forging Load estimation in sticking friction condition.

2.2.1.3. Rolling without friction

If rolling without friction is considered such that μ is considered to be zero, substituting

μ=0 in the total Load estimation equation the Load required will be the corresponding Load
that is found using the yield stress of the material.

Substituting μ=0 in this equation to no friction case,

The term will be equal to one because for any number

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Then ………………………………………………Eq.2.16

2.2.2. Upper-bound Analysis for Flat Rolling

In metal forming operation, it is a great interest to predict a force that will surely cause a body
to deform plastically to produce the desired shape change. An upper bound solution predicts least
equal to or greater than the exact Load need to cause plastic flow. Upper bound analysis focused
up on satisfying a yield criterion and assuming shape changes are geometrically self consistent.
No attention is paid to stress equilibrium.

The upper bound theory can be may be stated as follows, any estimation of the collapse Load
of the structure made by equating the internal rate of energy dissipation the rate at which external
force do work in some assumed pattern of deformation will be greater than or equal to the correct
Load .

The basis of upper bound analysis is

1. An initial flow field is assumed and must account for the required shape change. As such
the field must be self consistent.
2. The energy consumed internally in this deformation field is calculated using the
appropriate strength properties of the material.
3. The external force or stresses are calculated by equating the external work with the internal
energy consumption. For a material proof such solution predicts Load equal to or greater
than the exact Load to cause plastic deformation.

The following assumptions are considered in upper bound technique for flat rolling

1. The work material is isotropic and homogenous

2. The effect of strain hardening are strain rate are neglected
3. Either frictionless or contact shear stress condition prevail at the tool work
interface
4. Plane strain condition are considered
5. There is no deformation in the width direction

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2.2.2.1. Flat rolling analysis using upper bound

Since rolling is a symmetric process along the center between the rolls, it is enough to consider
half of the field where the velocity discontinuities occur along AB, BC and CD referring to the
figure below. Considering plane strain in which the strain in the width direction is zero or
considering width (b) equals to unity. Also 50% reduction is considered in the thickness.

From constancy of volume but due to 50% reduction

so ………………….Eq. 2.17

1
2
β

Figure 2.5 flat roll strip with 3 velocity discontinuities.

First the material was moving with a velocity V0 and as the material cross velocity
discontinuity AB its velocity is interrupted and changes to V1 which must be drawn parallel to
AC since the material in region 1 is moving as a rigid block having the same velocity. This
establishes the direction of V1. And its magnitude is found by considering its discontinuity vector
in which the rigid body suffers while crossing and is represented parallel to and
starting at the end of V0.

…………………………………………….Eq.2.18

The next velocity discontinuity is which is parallel to BC and causing the second velocity
change to V2 which is drawn parallel to BD.

…………………………………………….Eq. 2.19

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And the final velocity discontinuity is which is parallel to CD and causing 3rd velocity
change to Vf which must be drawn parallel to V0.

…………………………………………….Eq. 2.20

And the hodograph is drawn as follows considering the directions of each velocity vector.

Figure 2.6 Hodograph for the velocity vectors.

Now to find the rolling pressure pr from upper bound solution method which consider the
external pressure consumed can be found by equating the external work with the internal energy
consumption. If ‘W’ is the external work by shear deformation which is given by,

…………………………………………..Eq. 2.21

The volume crossing the velocity discontinuity at an increase of time is the length of the
line (velocity discontinuity line) times the width times the discontinuity velocity V*, which is
shown as follows:-

, since width is considered to be unity (b=1) can be taken for

plane strain. ……………………………………Eq. 2.22

From equation 2.21 and 2.22 rate of external work done is given by,

, but

This can be written in as follows for n number of plane of shears.

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………………………………….Eq. 2.23

In case of flat rolling the external rate of work done can be found by,

where

And the internal energy dissipation is found as follows.

equating this with rate of external work.

………………………Eq. 2.24

And from the hodograph using sin rule,

…………………………………….Eq. 2.25

And also

………………………..Eq. 2.26

And using the final velocity

…………………………………….Eq. 2.27

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It is clear that the value of varies with selected value of and the angle of bite used .
If we use and degrees, equation 2.25, 2.26 and 2.27 will give the following
results,

……………………………………………Eq. 2.28

……………………………………………Eq.2.29

………………………………………………...Eq. 2.30

From the geometries of the discontinuity regions, using the selected values of the angles.

…….Eq. 2.31

And from equation 2.31 substituting for h0 to find AB,

=1.15Lp…………………………………………….Eq. 2.32

Similarly,

Substituting for from equation 2.31 in the above to find CD,

…………………………………Eq. 2.33

And also,
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………………...Eq. 2.34

Substituting the values of equation 2.28, 2.29, 2.30, 2.32, 2.33 and 2.34 in equation2.24 will
result,

………………………………………………….Eq. 2.35

This (equation 2.35) will give the upper bound solution for flat rolling using the upper bound
method.

2.2.2.2. Upper Bound with Sticking Friction Condition

It is not essential to assume frictionless condition in a process since in reality friction exists and
rolling is not possible without friction. A simple alternative approach with sticking friction
prevails along the roll contact surface. For the figure of the flat rolled strip shown above if a
sticking friction exists along AC, then V1 must be considered as a velocity discontinuity and will
result an additional frictional term to the energy dissipation to overcome the frictional force in
addition to the deformation force.

If sticking friction is considered, V1 will be a velocity discontinuity and equation 2.24 will have
the following form,

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……………………………………Eq. 2.36

Now to find the additional terms ( ) due to friction From the geometry of flat strip in
the upper bound drawing:-

, but from Eq. 14

…………………………Eq. 2.37

And for the velocity discontinuity , from the hodograph using sin rule the following will result.

…………………………………………….Eq. 2.38

Substituting equations 2.37 and 2.38 in equation 2.36 to get the rolling pressure with sticking
friction,

but from equation 18

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………………………………………………………….Eq. 2.39

Equation 2.39 gives the upper bound estimation for flat rolling considering sticking friction.

2.2.3. Slip Line Field Theory

In comparison with other methods for analyzing the rolling process, the slip line field method
is the largest class of solutions to boundary value problems in plasticity which gives exact
solutions. Exact solutions require that both stress equilibrium and a geometrically self consistent
pattern of flow are satisfied simultaneously everywhere throughout the deforming body and in its
surfaces.

The governing stress and velocity equations are hyperbolic and can be solved by the method of
characteristics. It transpires that the characteristics for stress and velocity are identical and they
lie in the direction of the maximum shear stress. Hence the deformation zone is covered by a
network of orthogonal characteristics, and these are commonly referred to as the slip lines. In
statically determinate problems the usual procedure has been to build up a pattern of slip lines
(based largely on experience) and to obtain the stress distribution within the deforming zone via
the so called Hencky equations, i.e. the equilibrium equations reformulated along the
characteristics. It is not always possible to proceed in this manner, in which case the slip line
field and the hodograph have to be constructed simultaneously. In the past, this has led to
laborious trial and error procedures (usually graphical) before an acceptable solution is obtained.

When dealing with metal working operations, the analysis is formulated in terms of either
elastic-plastic solid (which is usually based on the elastic-plastic stress- strain matrix developed
or rigid-plastic solid. In hot forming process the material is often treated as an incompressible
non-Newtonian fluid, where the viscosity is related to the strain rate and possibly temperature
and total strain.

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2.2.3.1. Slip-Line Field Solution Procedure

The general procedure for slip line solution is as follows

1. Slip-line field should be constructed and compared with industry value to validate our
calculation procedure. The construction of the slip line field depends on the boundary
conditions. It is a statically determinate problem, in which the slip line field is uniquely
defined by the stress boundary conditions and represents a plastically deforming zone.
2. Labeling of the α- and β-slip lines in conformity with the convention that the direction of
the algebraically greatest principal stress passes through first and third quadrant of the
local system.
3. Denotation of the family of slip lines that are α- and β-lines.
4. Determination of angular distortion in the slip-line field net for each point considered by
measurement. (The slip-line fields were drawn to scale).
5. Verification of conformity to velocity boundary conditions.
6. Calculation of the normal stress at each point considering the angular distortion of each
point using Hencky equations until we get to the point at the bottom of the roll.
7. Determination of the deforming force (load) by multiplication of area of contact and
normal stress (pressure).
2.2.3.2. Slip line Field for flat Rolling

As discussed above the first procedure is to make a construction of the slip line field. The
assembly of the slip line field should based on their 45° intersections with axes of symmetry for
frictionless condition and their reflections at stress discontinuities. In determining slip lines for
interior yielding, tangents were projected to the roller boundary at various points in the plastic
region. α-and β-lines were in conformity with convention that the direction of the algebraically
greatest principal stress passes through the first and third quadrants of the local system. The α-
and β-lines intersect at the boundary points and at their intersections, the α- and β-lines are
subjected to the same hydrostatic stress. Figure below shows slip line fields constructed for 50%
reduction in height. Such that ho=2hf considering the half of the rolling span and ratio to be
10.1.

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Figure 2.7 slip line field for flat rolling of 50% reduction

On the above field lines 1,2 and 3 represent α-lines and i, ii and iii represent β-lines which their
path coincide with the trajectories of maximum shear stress. And from boundary conditions for
frictionless interface slip lines must meet the roll surface and the symmetry line at 45o. The
symmetry line has no resultant shear component on it.

Through each point in the plane of plastic flow, we may consider a pair of orthogonal curves
along which the shear stress has its maximum value k. These curves are called slip lines or shear
lines. We shall denote them by α and β lines, following the convention that the line of action of
the algebraically greatest principal stress makes a counterclockwise angle of π/4 with the
α direction. Let φ be the counterclockwise orientation of the α line with the x axis at a typical
point P. the hydrostatic stress at this point is denoted by –p.
Equations of Hencky For the solution of physical problems, it is convenient to set up differential
relations holding along the slip lines. Let the x and y axes be taken along the tangents to the α
and β lines respectively at the considered point. Since this corresponds to φ=0 the following
formulas can be used to get the stress at a point from the rotation of the slip line.
The hydrostatic pressure p varies linearly with the angle φ turned by a slip line.
p + 2kφ is constant along an α line
p – 2kφ is constant along a β line
Where the angle φ is in radians.

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In general, we need to examine the stresses on a small curvilinear element in the x-y plane
upon which a shear stress and a hydrostatic stress are acting, and where the principal stresses are
– p – k and – p + k for a situation where there is plane strain compression, such as in forging or
indentation in which k is a constant but p can vary from point to point. We can then identify on
this diagram the directions of principal stress σ1 and σ2 (remembering that σ1 > σ2), and which
of the lines are α-lines and which are β-lines. We can also specify the angle φ of the α-lines with
respect to the x-axis: and we have to find local pressure is found using Hencky equation then the
total rolling lode is found by multiplying the local pressure with the corresponding area of that
pressure.

Figure2.8 Orientation of slip lines.

Now if we choose the field has been shown to be compatible with the stress and the velocity
boundary conditions, the stress may be evaluated using Hencky equation. The solution will be
established at the solution will be started at the boundary where the horizontal principal
stress σ3=0 because the vertical stress σ1 is compressive σ3 is algebraically greater than σ1 and
is an α-line. The pressure pc acting up on it is given by

………………………………….Eq. 2.38

Which is constant along , because line is a straight.

And between C and G the β-line rotates anti-clockwise through 45o so the pressure at G found
from Hencky equation.

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……………………………………………..Eq. 2.39

This is constant along of the slip line AE which is considered to be straight

and parallel to platen surface.

The vertical pressure p acting over the AG equal to hydrostatic pressure.

This may be seen from the Mohr circle as the direct

stress on the plane of maximum shear, by considering equilibrium of cube element side and
parallel to the α slip line.

Now the pressure at F is found from 15o clock wise rotation (- ) of α slip line using the

p + 2kφ=constant along α-line.

……………………………………………Eq. 2.40

Which is constant along of the slip line AG.

The pressure at E is found similarly by p + 2kφ=constant along α-line.

…………………………………………….Eq. 2.41

This is constant along of the α-line AE.

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The principal stress and the vertical component stress acting on the boundary GE can be found
along it. Since the hydrostatic pressure has been found using Hencky equation, the rolling force
and torque can be found by numerical integration along the boundary AGFEB.

The total roll force without considering friction can be found by multiplying mean of local
pressures by the arc of rolling contact. The total rolling pressure is given by,

V*
AB

…………………………………………………Eq. 2.42

2.2.3.3 For the sticking friction

The slip line for rolling with friction is very similar to the drawing for the friction case, but the
starting condition is however modified. Instead of the slip lines meeting the center line at 45 o
their angles are determined by the condition that the resolved components of the shear force must
equal to the frictional drag. This gives the angle of slip line and the center plane to be θ which is
q'
given by, cos 2 
k

Fig 2.9 slip lime field with sticking friction on the contact surface.

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Where µ is coefficient friction, and pf the roll pressure with finite friction. It is convenient to
assume a starting condition that friction does not affect the roll pressure, so that.

The pressure is again uniform over the roll contact, because the slip lines AC straight.

The pressure is again uniform over the die face, because the slip lines AC and BC are straight.
For other reductions, where the mesh does not fit exactly q’ is not uniform. The average
longitudinal component of the die force is given by

rho
2p f ' Ac sin   2p f Ac cos  2p f . (sin    cos )
2 sin 

 p f rh0 (1   cot  )

This may be equated to the rolling force P

P  tp.h f .1   ' (1  r )h

r
Giving, p  pf (1   cot )
1 r

The full solution for q’ has not been obtained, but it is found experimentally that the roll pressure
is not appreciably influenced by friction, and the first assumption that q’=q is sufficiently
accurate at least for well lubricated rolling.

 pf 
   1   cot 
 p ……………….……………………Eq. 2.42

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2.2.4 Finite Element Method

The finite element method (FEM) is the method whereby the difficulty of mathematically
solving large complex problems is transformed from a differential or integral equation approach
to an algebraic problem. This method can be applied metal forming problems. First the
continuum is discretized by dividing into a finite number of discrete regions; called elements
which are connected at certain points; called nodes on the boundaries. In some cases internal
nodes can also be used. The number of degrees of freedom at each node normally refers to the
displacements and their first partial derivatives (rotations) at the nodes. A displacement or
velocity function is terms of nodal values are assumed to represent the corresponding field within
each element. By using the strain displacement relations which relate the values at the nodes, and
constitutive relations that relate stress and strain values at the integration points within an
element, a virtual work or a variation formulation can be build up for the whole body. As a result
the stiffness matrix relating the nodal displacement to nodal force is obtained. The stiffness
matrices obtained for each element is assembled to obtain the global stiffness matrix. By the
imposition of boundary conditions the corresponding solution to the problem is achieved.

2.2.4.1. Principles for the fem-simulations

A. Element type
The element category is of an eight node, isoperimetric, arbitrary hexahedral type with trainer
interpolation. Since this element is of a low order type the representation of shear behavior is
poor. This tendency is balanced through the use of a fine mesh data). This low order element
type is preferred in contact analyses and therefore ideal in the hot rolling process.
B. Modeling
The roll flattening is neglected hence the roll is modeled as a rigid surface. Through the use
of two symmetry planes, vertical and horizontal, only a quarter of the strip/bar is modeled
and only one roll. The length of the strip/bar is approximately 3 times the contact length
Which ensures steady state conditions without disturbance of end-effects, and at the same time
Giving as few elements as possible in order to minimize the run time.

Now in this paper the FEM modeling of flat rolled strip is given using ANSYS as follows,

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Fig. 2.10. Model of symmetrical flat rolling process.

C. Boundary conditions
The temperature is considered constant through the roll pass. In order to avoid skidding a
pressure on the strip in longitudinal direction towards the roll gap is imposed in the very first
increments. No back or forward tension is included.

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D. Mesh density
The mesh density in the FEM simulations is of a critical matter. In this report the main focus is
on the roll torque which is an integrated quantity and therefore less sensitive to mesh Density.

Fig. 2.11 dscritization of the model to elements which are meshed

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E. Solution phase

In this phase loads are defined on the model object. The pressure is considered to be distributed
on the curved contact surface. After this defining is done the model is solved to show the loaded
condition of the model using ANSYS. The following result was obtained.

Fig. 2.12 the distortion of diseritised elements after lode is applied.

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F. General post processing

The distribution of the pressure over the roll contact region is shown showing elemental
pressure condition.

Fig. 2. 13 nodal solution of the model after the solution is done.

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CHAPTER THREE
CONCLUSION

Rolling process is Bulk deformation process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross-
section of a long work-piece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls (mills). That
are used to produce generally Blooms, billets and slabs which are known as semi finished
products because they are subsequently formed in to other mill products such as plates, sheets
and strips. A plate is generally having a thickness greater than 6mm with exception depending
on the width. A sheet and a strip generally refer to a thickness less than 6mm.

Rolling processes can be mainly divided in to two groups considering the temperature existing
in the operation namely cold and hot rolling processes. Flat rolling can be conducted in hot
condition above the recrystallisation temperature while cold is below the recrystallisation. The
total reduction achieved by cold-rolling generally will vary from about 50 to 90%.Cold rolling
provides product with superior surface finish due to low temperature no oxide scales will be
included. A rolling machine basically consists of rolls, bearings housings for containing the
parts and drive for applying the Load s to the rollers and controlling their speeds.

The analysis was done using some analytical and software methods that are tried to be
discussed bellow, such as,

1. Slab analysis method of flat rolling

2. Upper bound method
3. Slip line filed method of analysis
4. FEM analysis using ANSYS.

The assumption in all of the analysis is that no increase in width results, so that the vertical
compression of the metal is translated in to an elongation in the rolling direction.

The friction force developed between the work piece and the rolling mills are important
consideration in the analysis in slab analysis method. In this method equilibrium of forces that
are applied to the work piece is considered. And in the real frictional condition existing the slab
analysis estimation of rolling pressure gives the following value for sticking friction,

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In metal forming operation, it is a great interest to predict a force that will surely cause a body
to deform plastically to produce the desired shape change. An upper bound solution predicts least
equal to or greater than the exact Load need to cause plastic flow. Upper bound analysis focused
up on satisfying a yield criterion and assuming shape changes are geometrically self consistent.
No attention is paid to stress equilibrium. And using the upper bound method the following result
was obtained considering, It is clear that the value of varies with selected value of and
the angle of bite used . If we use and degrees,

Upper bound gives a more accurate estimation of the rolling pressure than the slab method for
friction conditions. The accuracy of the result obtained depend on the number of velocity regions
considered and their geometrical consistency.

In comparison with other methods for analyzing the rolling process, the slip line field method
is the largest class of solutions to boundary value problems in plasticity which gives exact
solutions. Exact solutions require that both stress equilibrium and a geometrically self consistent
pattern of flow are satisfied simultaneously everywhere throughout the deforming body and in its
surfaces. now in this paper the estimation of rolling pressure results the following,

This number shows a smaller number than the upper bound estimation which shows slip line
method is more accurate in estimating the pressure.

From all the methods FEM is the most wildly used and accurate estimation because it consists
of microstructure study using commercial software. And the degree of accuracy of the result
obtained depend on the number of element used in the discrimination process.

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References

1. Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-1
2. William F.hosford, Robert M.caddel; metal forming mechanics and metallurgy, prentice
hill.inc.ISBN 0-13-588526-4
3. Altan T., Ngaile G, Shen G. Cold and hot forging applications and fundamentals. ASM
4. Chakrabarty J. Theory of Plasticity. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006.
5. G.W.Rowe; principles of Industrial Metalworking Processes
6. Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials, 1990, Butterworth
Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.
7. Serope Kalpajian, manufacturing processes for engineering materials, word studentseries
edition.

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