740353

Opera Beginnings in the New World
Author(s): Robert Stevenson

Source: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Jan., 1959), pp. 8-25
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/740353
Accessed: 29-03-2018 16:26 UTC
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OPERA BEGINNINGS
IN THE NEW WORLD
By ROBERT STEVENSON
O PERAThosetook only shallow root in 18th-century English America.

few works that were produced - beginning with Flora,
or Hob in the Well at Charleston in 1735 - followed the ballad opera
tradition by mixing song with speech. Nothing so ambitious as a Handel
opera was ever attempted, even during his heyday in London.
On the other hand, a three-act opera based on the same Italian
libretto that he was to use in 1730 - Partenope - but with music
by the Mexican composer Manuel de Zumaya1 had been produced at
the viceregal palace in Mexico City as early as the year during which
Handel mounted his first London opera (1711). The dated original
score of an opera produced a full decade earlier at the viceregal capital
of Peru survives at the Biblioteca Nacional in Lima to prove that drama
sung throughout had reached South America by 1701.
If evidence other than the present-day survival of the original score
can be accepted, then opera in Lima indeed took its rise even earlier.
Already in 1672 El Arco de Nod ("Noah's Ark"), a sacred play in
mtisica recitativa with libretto by Antonio Martinez de Meneses,2 had
been publicly presented nine times. Stage machines, costumes, lighting,
several changes of scene, and a cunning disposicidn de perspectivas
had enhanced the effect. According to a contemporary chronicler -
Joseph de Buendia3 - this representaci6n de misica recitativa spon-
sored by the nineteenth viceroy of Peru, Pedro Fernindez de Castro y
Andrade, merited the more applause because it was "the first shown in
1 For further details see my Music in Mexico: A Historical Survey, New York,
1952, pp. 149-50; also my article in Grove's Dictionary, 5th ed. (1954), IX, 428.
Both Zumaya and Handel used Stampiglia's libretto.
2 Guillermo Lohmann Villena, El Arte dramdtico en Lima durante el virreinato,
Madrid, 1945, p. 278. The viceroy himself retouched the libretto.
3 Vida admirable . . . del Venerable . . . Padre Francisco del Castillo . .
Natural de Lima, Madrid, 1693, pp. 301-02.
Opera Beginnings in the New World 9
this viceroyalty with such diverting apparatus." To whet the ap

of the Lima cognoscenti for this type of entertainment the Je
at the viceroy's suggestion staged on February 2 of the same
brief colloquy in musical recitative, sung by seven boys"4 as th
ing novelty5 of an elaborate procession. So successful did El
Nod prove to be when first performed a little over a week late
would have run even past March 2, had not Lent intervened.
This particular viceroy, tenth Count of Lemos (1632-1672), g

son of two viceroys (Sicily and Naples) and son of another (
had first made a stir in the world during his year at Naples, 166
At his command a hotheaded Sardinian servant had shot a cleric. The
priest survived but the Neapolitan viceroy at once ordered the youn
count home. The count's other personal servants at the moment inclu
Tomis de Torrej6n y Velasco, a many-faceted musician who was in 17
to distinguish himself by composing the first New World opera the s
of which survives. The same Torrej6n y Velasco may also be presume
from circumstances that will be mentioned below to have composed
music for such earlier productions at Lima as the breve coloquio
mzisica recitativa and the Coloquio en forma de Auto Sacramenta
1672 - even though the scores of these previous musico-dramatic pr
ductions cannot now be brought forward to clinch the proof.
Since the action of his surviving opera pivots around a hunt, it see
all the more interesting that his own father should have been Miguel
Torrej6n y Velasco (b. 1590), a huntsman employed by Philip IV
Baptized on December 23, 1644, at Villarrobledo (a small town so
hundred miles southeast of Madrid), he spent his earliest years in th
suburb lying on the northern outskirts of Madrid named Fuencarral.
about the age of twelve he became a page in the household of the yo
nobleman whom he was to accompany to Peru in 1667.9
4l Ibid., pp. 298-99.

5 Autobiografia del Ven. P. Francisco del Castillo, in Revista del Archivo N
cional del Perti, VI (1928), 59: "el certamen y coloquio particular que se hizo
nunca oido otros semejante en esta ciudad."
6 Buendia, op. cit., p. 302. See also p. 329.
? Lohmann Villena, El Conde de Lemos, Madrid, 1946, p. 11.
8Lohmann, Informaciones genealdgicas de peruanos seguidas ante el Sant
Oficio, in Revista del Instituto Peruano de Investigaciones Genealdgicas, Lima
(1956), 182 (no. 389).
* TomAs de Torrej6n, Sermones morales que saca a luz su hermano Don Joseph
Torrejdn y Velasco, Madrid, 1736-37, II (Sermones panegyricos), dedication.
10 The Musical Quarterly
The years 1657-1661 were crucially important to th
opera. Calder6n, beginning with his "piscatory eclog
sirenas of 1657, moved in steady ascent towards the
that was sung throughout, La Ptirpura de la rosa
account Lope de Vega's stray experiment of 1629,
Calder6n's La Pzirpura de la rosa mounted at the Bue
Madrid on January 17, 1660, takes pride of place
opera to be sung throughout. On December 5, 166
aire matan was mounted at the same theater. Juan H
the first act of the latter survives.'0 Probably the fiftee
was later to write the eldest surviving New World op
his father a royal employee and his master a cour
principal interest before leaving for Peru was h
Madrid"), the youthful page engrossed in music c
escaped falling under the influence of the Calder
were of course for court festivities and shown befo
Madrid. At any event, he chose precisely Calder6n
rosa when at the age of 56 in faraway Peru he ca
own opera. How attentively he listened to Juan H
also be judged by anyone who will compare the t
score for Celos aun del aire with the complete score
de la rosa of 1701.
After returning to answer for his Sardinian servant's misdeed

Naples, the young Count of Lemos who was Torrej6n's protector again
settled in Madrid. In July of 1664 he married a wealthy widow am
elaborate festivities. Two years later he became the second Spani
grandee to be named a Peruvian viceroy. The now-married 22-year-old
Torrej6n accompanied by his own young wife, Dofia Maria Manue
sailed with him from Cgidiz as his gentleman-in-waiting February
1667.12 After a 45-day voyage they reached Cartagena and on May 28
Portobelo, the unspeakable port from which treasure-laden galleo
departed for the home country. Here they disembarked to cross t
isthmus. After further delays they reached Lima, the count making h
triumphant entry towards the close of November. During his fi
years as viceroy he made Torrej6n at first superintendent of the
armory; and in the last year of his rule corregidor (magistrate) and
10 Ed. Jose Subird, Barcelona, 1933.
" El Conde de Lemos, p. 13.
12 Archivo General de Indias, Contrataci6n 5435 (44-4-218/12), no. 24, fol. 3.
This document (39 folios) lists the passengers licensed for the voyage.
chief justice of Chachapoyas province in upper Peru.'3 Torre

eldest son, given his own Christian name of Tomis, was born a
January 29, 1671.1' His young wife died shortly afterwards - per
during Torrej6n's years as magistrate in the Amazonian wilds. At
rate he returned to Lima within five years of his protector's dea
July 1, 1677, he succeeded Juan de Araujo in the chapelmast
of the Lima Cathedral - a post he continued to occupy un
death at the age of 83.'5 His appointment testifies all the more re
ably to his musical powers when it is remembered that all pr
chapelmasters whose names have been recovered were in order
same rule held elsewhere throughout the Spanish world. As
compensate, he sired five children who entered religion, but only
who married. His eldest, Tomis (1671-1733), became a ren
orator in the Society of Jesus'8; the first son of the second marr
Juan Jos6 (1679-c. 1755), a synodal examiner; and the next, Fr
Javier Evaristo (1683-c. 1766), a Mercedarian. The first two daugh
joined the Congregation of the O in 1696 and 1698. Only his youn
child, Dofia Maria Josefa, at last married - and she as late as
when the composer was already 67.
His cathedral career was marred by only the usual difficul

1) management of undisciplined singers; 2) problems of fina
3) choirboy recruitment. To overcome the first difficulty the cat
chapter armed him on October 3, 1679, with power to fine an
last resort dismiss unruly musicians, even if they were clerics wh
remained but a layman. On April 22, 1681, a cut in the salar
all cathedral employees was announced. Torrej6n's declined f
600 pesos to 500 for chapelmastering, and from 152 to 13
teaching the choirboys. After two of his choirboys were dismisse
next year, the chapter proposed to halve his teaching stipen
against this cut he lodged a successful protest. Not until Septemb
13 Theoretically this post paid 900 pesos, 150 more than the Lima chap
tership. But its disadvantages were many. Most appointees held it only tw
or so. See Lohmann Villena, El Corregidor de Indios en el Peri, Madrid, 1
pp. 191, 596; and map opp. p. 200.
14 Manuel de Mendiburu's date (Diccionario histdrico biogrdfico del P

2nd ed. [1934], XI, 17) was a mere guess and must be corrected. See And
Tomds de Torrejdn y Velasco, in Misica, Lima, I (1957), 5.
5s Died April 23, 1728.
'1 Mendiburu, op. cit., XI, 17-18. See this son's illuminating remarks
Falsas en la Misica at fol. B of the "Aprobaci6n" in Peralta Barnuevo'
Fundada: Parte Primera, Lima, 1732.
1697, did the chapter at last restore his principal sala
600 pesos. On March 3, 1716, since he had now re
three-score-and-ten, the chapter exempted him from
ing. In his 80th year (July 19, 1724) the chapter
chapelmaster's salary to only 500 pesos.17
His name first reaches print in a folio published

1688. Five pages are given over to the eight lyrics clo
musical settings for use during the octave of a 1680 r
tion at Lima.'8 Except for those three settings which
of solo voices, all demand multiple choruses. The firs
Toribio Mogrovejo's honor calls, for instance, for
second for four, the third for three, and the next pai
His name again reaches print in Lima Triumphan

lished in the viceregal capital during 1708 to exto
Manuel de Oms y de Santa Pau, the Catalonian mar
Rius whom Philip V (first of the Spanish Bourbo
Peruvian viceroy the previous year. Prior to his L
this marquis had served as ambassador first to Portug
At the critical moment of Charles II's death he wa
embrace the Bourbon cause. As a reward Louis XI
appointment to Peru. Thoroughly cosmopolitan, he br
to Lima his own private band of nine expert musi
native of Milan, Roque Ceruti. Their repertory inc
motets and sonatas of such Italian masters as [Boni
Corelli - reports the Lima panegyrist of 170819 - b
cicos and tonadas of such Spanish masters as [Seb
Torrej6n.
17 Sgs, op. cit., p. 4. The best extant collection of his sac
library of San Antonio Abad Seminary at Cuzco. See Rubin Vargas Ugarte's
Un archivo de mzisica colonial en la ciudad del Cuzco, in Mar del Sur: Revista
peruana de cultura, V (March-April, 1953), 1-10. In addition to a half-dozen
works with Spanish text, his Magnificat for four choruses, Dixit Dominus for the
same, Lamentation for double chorus, Christus factus est a 8, and Ave Verum Corpus
a 4 are in the Cuzco collection.
18 Francisco de Echave y Assi, La Estrella de Lima, Antwerp, 1688, pp. 345

The octave began with solemn vespers on Nov. 11. Some 32 musicians (singers
and instrumentalists) took part. The new grand organ (constructed by Ignacio de
Vergara for 6000 ducats) was played for the first time. See p. 122. In addition to
the two organs, the accompanying instruments probably included the harpas,
guitarras, and violones mentioned at p. 350.
19 Pedro Joseph de Peralta Barnuevo, Lima Triumphante, Lima, 1708, fols.
M2v-M3.
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Courtesy
Tonadas solas dela Comedia sung as solos by Venus's four nymph

the opera. The music of alternate tonadas is identica
(ACompto) occupies the 5th and 6th
In the same year that Lima Triumphante was published the n
viceroy vaunted his own literary talents with the libretto of a myth
logical opera celebrating the birth of the future Ferdinand VI, El me
escudo de Perseo. First presented in the patio of the viceregal pa
on September 17, this comedia harmonica was set to music howe
not by Torrej6n but rather by the Italian parvenu, Ceruti.2o Even
he performed the music of Dur6n and Torrej6n, and even if he s
enough adjusted to Lima by changing the spelling of his own na
to Cheruti and by marrying a resident (Maria de los Santos de Ja
April 18, 1736), his rise eventually spelled the end of Spanish mus
hegemony in colonial Peru. With his accession to the cathedral chape
mastership in August of 1728 the long line of masters with distinctiv
Spanish names abruptly ends."2
No happier libretto could have been found than Calder6n's L

Pzirpura to celebrate Philip V's 18th birthday and the completion
his first year on the Spanish throne. In the first place, Calder6
originally wrote it on royal commission to celebrate the marriage
Louis XIV to the Spanish infanta (on which union Philip V base
his claim to the throne). In the second, he was by all odds the m
popular Spanish dramatist in the colonies. Even before 1701 some
recorded performances of named works had been given in Lima alon
Before another decade had passed, 76 more had been given (includ
a repetition of La Pzirpura in 1708 and a first performance during t
same year of Celos aun del aire matan) .23
Torrej6n copied the text of Calder6n's La Pzirpura de la rosa in

his own 1701 score with admirable solicitude. He omits the first word
in line 8 and inserts another in recompense. He changes Venus's penulti-
mate word before Mars's first entry to a synonym. These and many other
minute changes may merely prove that he used one edition in preference
to another. True, he does seem to have cut 28 lines after Disappoint-
ment's first quatrain and another 110 after the Nymphs' last double-
o20 Lohmann, El Arte dramda'tico, p. 324.

21 Jos6 Manuel Bermlidez, Anales de la Catedral de Lima: 1534 d 1824, Lima,
1903, p. 270.
22 Everett W. Hesse, Calderdn's Popularity in the Spanish Indies, in Hispanic
Review, XXIII (1955), 19-20.
s23 On the peculiar aptness of Calder6n's verse for operatic setting, see Lohmann
Villena, Apuntaciones sobre el arte dramdtico en Lima durante el virreinato, Lima,
1941, p. 17. His favorite meter, the dodecasyllabic, is la forma mdtrica mds
adecuada para el canto in Spanish, claims Lohmann Villena.
chorus music. But even to have omitted 200 lines would have reduced
Calder6n's published libretto by only one-tenth.2'
He does perforce substitute a new loa-text. Calder6n's, like the usual
loa, had paid topical tribute to the sponsors of the occasion. At any
new presentation such merely topical matter could no longer be used.
Calder6n's had lauded the Prospero=Philip IV and the happy Ferdin-
and=Louis XIV who had married his Miranda=-Maria Teresa. For the
musical historian, the crucial lines in his loa come at the end: A
character who personifies the common folk, Vulgo, announces that the
fdbula to follow will tell the story of Venus and Adonis. The whole
play will be sung, he adds, in order to prove that Spain can compete
with other nations in this style of entertainment.2s Another character
interposes, but do not you risk the anger of a Spanish audience with
a whole play sung? Vulgo replies, not so, because this will be only a
small representacidn; and besides, he who never dares never achieves.
None of this forewarning continues any longer necessary in a loa to
be sung at a 1701 performance. Instead, Calliope, Terpsichore, and
Urania unite to hymn the new monarch's praises. In the four-part
choruses with which the 1701 loa ends, his benignity and justice form
the theme. But as is frequently the case in a loa, the singers curtsy at
the close, begging his sufferance for so humble a tribute.
Before Torrej6n's music can be appreciated by English-speaking
listeners the Venus and Adonis tale needs to be reviewed, as Calder6n
manages it. His Venus, like Shakespeare's, perishes on a sigh.
Ay, me, she cries, and twentie times, wo, wo,
And twentie echoes, twentie times crie so.26
His Adonis also suffers death on a boar's razor snout.
And in his blood that on the ground laie spild,

A purple floure sproong vp. 7
The "purple" of this flower indeed suggests his title, La Ptirpura de la

rosa.
24 If Calder6n's spoken play, La Fiera, el rayo y la piedra (M

seven hours when first produced, La Ptirpura de la rosa-- half
lines, but sung - must have exceeded five hours. See J. E. Hartz
Biblioteca de Autores Espaiioles, XIV, 677 (quoting Le6n Pinelo's Historia de
Madrid).
as25 "Por sefias de que ha de ser/Toda misica; que intenta/Introducir este
estilo,/Porque otras naciones vean/Competidos sus primores."
26 Venus and Adonis (1593), lines 833-34.
27 Ibid., lines 1167-68.
But the differences from Shakespeare's languorous account are
more significant than the likenesses. Calder6n begins with Venus
nymphs rushing about in distress. She is being chased by a wild
Offstage she cries for help and is answered by Adonis, also of
who rushes to her aid. He comes on bearing her in his arms. But
he learns who she is, he abruptly quits her. It was Amor who bro
disgrace upon his mother, Myrrha. Venus cannot so easily giv
up and starts in pursuit. She runs headlong into the suspiciou
Whom are you drooling after? he demands. Am I not your spouse
suffers the toils of war for your sake? But before he can force the
out of either her or her nymphs his sister Bellona summons
fresh combat. Venus next calls on Cupid to shoot the drowsing A
with an arrow. He awakes enraptured. But Mars soon return
catches Cupid eavesdropping and vows punishment. When
escapes he orders his soldiers to pursue. Suddenly out of a grotto
arise before Mars's eyes Fear carrying an axe, Suspicion a tele
Envy an asp, Ire a poniard. All four wear funereal black.
masked. Blackbearded Disappointment carrying shackles joins
He upbraids the god who conquers others but cannot control him
Through a mirror Mars sees Venus embracing Adonis and con
lating him upon the spoils of the chase. An earthquake swallo
Five Pains and the vision. The scene changes to Venus's gardens, w
Adonis reclines in her toils. Nymphs divided into two answe
choruses bandy the question, can Love improve my lot? Cupid ru
to warn them of Mars's approach. Adonis refuses to leave her
tected until she assures him that he cannot harm her. Mars does how-
ever storm against her. She casts her spell over him. Peasants rush on
fleeing from a mad boar who has reduced the countryside to terror.
The same Adonis who rescued Venus now vows to rid them of this
scourge if it cost him his life. Offstage he is gored to death. From his
blood there springs up a purple flower. In a final apotheosis he and
Venus ascend on opposite sides of the stage, she as the evening star, he
as the flower of sacrificial virtue.
Beneath this main plot Calder6n weaves a subsidiary strand involv-

ing three lowlife characters - Drag6n a soldier, Chato a peasant, and
Celfa his wife. Chato suspects the worst of Drag6n and Celfa, just as
Mars suspects his pair. Drag6n, however, shows what a vile creature he
considers Celfa to be when he ends by soundly cudgelling her. These
blows delight her husband who stands by watching. The lowlife trio
provide a kind of comic relief, a mixing of the subl
lous, not found in Italian Baroque librettos.
Calder6n's scene changes from a wood, to a garden

gardens, to a mountain, to the heavens. The libre
least three stages, an outer, an inner, and an
already-mentioned axe, telescope, asp, dagger, shack
stage properties include Cupid's arrow, Bellona's
tains. At her last entry Venus runs on "half naked,"
hanging down. Cupid appears once in disguise, but t
his mythological costume.
Trumpets and drums sound offstage to herald the

or Bellona. Ensembles of solo voices onstage and
liberally sprinkle the libretto. Venus's nymphs sing
a septet onstage. Mars's retainers unite in offstage c
men chorally halloo the prey offstage. During t
offstage chorus sings a dirge.
Torrej6n's surviving score, bound in yellowed par

of 89 oblong pages (21 by 34 cms.) copied on one sid
under call-number C1469 at the Biblioteca Naciona
with a title-page,28 continues with 3 blanks (esp
their clear watermarks), 11 unnumbered leaves com
numbered = 55 actual leaves (fol. 20 has been ripp
all the solo pieces (tonadas solas) in the main bod
and concludes with 19 given over to choral selection
bles.29 In addition to fol. 20 of the comedia, wha
fols. 9 of the loa and 16 and 21 of the choral app
The paper shows three watermarks which recur r

separated by a floral ornament and surrounded by a
line border; I and B by an inverted heart similar
a third more complex watermark showing two ba
2s Reproduced in an accompanying plate. The Conde de l
on the title-page as sponsor of the fiesta was Melchor Ant
Vega (1636-1705). Viceroy in Mexico from 1686-88, he ser
death. He lost an arm at the Battle of the Dunes of Dunkerque (June 23, 1658).
Henceforth he was popularly known as "Silver Arm."
29 He gathers the ensembles and choruses into an appendix to save paper. If
they were copied on the same page with the solo pieces, he would have wasted the
same kind of space lost by a modern orchestrator who leaves spaces for every
instrument on every page. The ensembles and choruses though frequent are brief.
festal attire. Facing each other they hold between them a coat o
blazoned with three fleurs-de-lis. Except for the first four leav
are ruled on one side only with six staves to the page. Here and
the black notes have eaten through; and a few small worm-h
be found. But fortunately neither of these accidents interferes w
legibility of the music.
Torrej6n's notation exhibits many of the same idiosyncrasies

seen in Juan Hidalgo's Ni Amor se libra de amor and Celos aun d
matan.30 In triple meter their semibreves before other semibreve
perfection, they both write white quavers, their white minim
their black crotchets, their black semibreves equal two white m
and their black breves four white minims. On the other hand, T
forbears barring, except at ends of sections and irregularly else
Torrej6n also follows Juan Bermudo's precept when he ref
write a singly-appearing black?.1 Hidalgo, more careless in these m
does not scruple to interpose a single black note between two vo
As for pitch, Hidalgo notates his Ni Amor se libra at least a f

(and perhaps a fifth) above our present-day sounding pitch.32 S
Torrej6n until the end of his grotto scene. He then makes a
shift.33 Not only does he begin using Bb in the key signature for
time, but also he brings all the written pitches of soloists as
chorus down a fifth. The rest of the score (which continues
in the signature till the end) can therefore be transcribed as wr
The shift downward can be proved by comparing the writte
of every soloist before and after the grotto scene.
Adonis sings the highest written note in any soloist's pa

above the treble clef. Until all the written pitches fall, blackbea
leatherstockinged Disappointment sings the lowest written n
below middle C.34 Mars's range lies a third or fourth lower
Adonis's. Drag6n, a miles gloriosus in Plautus's vein, ascends
written A's, but en tono de falsete in imitation of a blubber
man (llorando viejo35). Of the 17 named characters - Adonis,
30 See Jose Subiri, Historia de la mtisica espaihola y hispanoamericana
lona, I953, pp. 343, 346, for facsimile-pages.
31Bermnudo, Declaracidn de instrumentos, Osuna, 1555, fol. 53v (Bk. 3,
3 Cf. Pedrell's transcription (Subiri, op. cit., pp. 342-43).
33 At fol. 41v (old numbering) in MS C1469.
34 At fol. 37v, 4th and 5th staves.
a5 Fol. 29v, 2nd staff.
Cupid, Venus, Bellona, the Five Pains, the four nym
lowlife characters - at the most four can double f
personifications and the nymphs).
Adonis, on other accounts besides range, sings t

role. He skips tenths, sings in imitation of motifs st
paniment, executes sixteenth-note runs, ascends
matic scales; and, above all, sings the most text. In
he must for instance sing 44 continuous lines of
handles such long narrative passages in his own in
long as the sentiment fluctuates, he writes fresh mus
when - as, for example, at line 29 in these 44 - the
upon a plateau, he provides music for a quatrain and
repetition during as many of the following quatr
plateau. He carefully marks the music to be repea
beginning and end. But only on occasion does he bot
than a catchword or two of the second quatrain b
prescribes such repeated music not only upon rea
plateau in a long monologue but also in a dialogue
a plateau.
To differentiate characters, he often endows Adonis, Mars, or

Venus, as the case may be, with what might be called a "personal
property" refrain. Sung at the very outset of a scene, the refrain will
type that character throughout the remainder of the scene. Adonis, for
instance, begins with such a personal property refrain at the very
moment of his first encounter with Venus. He immediately repeats it six
times. He then reverts to it twice at the end of his second monologue,
and again twice at the close of his third. Or to take the case of Mars.
At his first blustering entry he too is typed with a refrain (see Ex. 1).
The repeats of this 12-bar refrain follow in this order: 1 2 3 . . 5

6 7 8 . .. 9. Venus interjects two notes in the 3rd repeat, sings the
7th alone, and converses with Mars in the 8th. She herself initiates her
own refrain at her second encounter with Adonis. Palpitating with
desire, she finds him dreaming. He heaves a sigh, Ay me, that she whose
life I saved should slay me. Adonis now begins to reciprocate her
feelings, even if against his will. Torrej6n therefore incorporates their
36Dur6n may however have followed a similar plan in his unpublished opera,
La Guerra de los gigantes (MS in Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid). Garcimufioz's
repetitions in the direct speech passages of Una Montaiia pasando (Cancionero
Musical de Palacio, no. 154) distantly prefigure Torrej6n's scheme.
Ex1(fo~s. 7 v - 10)
Mars
Ql-. (oi..7.- _u, - guna l - o o- i,(Que es+an li- be- ral
- ti - ma-cib~n... o-fen - di- da Se la- men-fa: yes.....~.
Aap.-II 'tlJ~tCI t,..* I.J h'i i (f i
a - - dron, Que hur - in . do-teel me - dio a-cen-o Er
ta oa i - aon Que 'G ue fr rel ue.o a s.
iyC1i f Ijf . ..... rP(r

te-L;b
ro se i
le vol
IfJ - - !
vi),i Tu
I es-
i :ii. *
tan-doen la tie - Ira y'o. eOues es - to
l r h .i.
sighing into a duet at the third repet

"personal property" when the scene
Ei.2 (fois. 23v -24)

Venus
Adonis
iSy__.__ dye mi... Que meda muerleaqulen lavi-da d;!
Ptc i 1:' r?i'IY .

These refrains serve not only a psychological but also a structural
purpose. They are often so spaced as to build within scenes a striking
architectural unity. Mars's first four repetitions are separated from
the next set of four by an interval twice the length of one repeat, the
second set of four by an interval three times the
occasion - as at Bellona's first entry - Torrej6
part at each repeat (meanwhile keeping the b
writes a set of ground bass variations.
He notates his accompaniment throughout a

basso continuo.37 On pages of ensemble he often p
but always on a facing page when the continuo a
Accidentals above the continuo affect a note in t
Ex.3 (fo,. 3 3Z, a. (aide)

Cupid
iAy' fris - tel Si klMeco-no-ce muer- to
Marsha 1 -
Qui~n con-hra mi 6r-den A-qu
Acp
soy, Pues ha deque-rer sa-ber La cau-sade midis - fraz

(discovers Cupid) ,
nQuin er-es,di - - me,y aquikTeoculs
Svy qui n... si... cuan-do, por-quh..
en-ire es-las ra-mas? No ie tur - bes;que no sa-bes
"i $' 'B ul r~r,-ct li T- T -f

7The earliest dramatic score with parts that I have seen at the Biblioteca
Nacional in Lima, a solo tonadilla Del Escarmentado (Rosales), includes an 11-
page basso continuo, violins I and II, and trompas I and II parts. But this tona-
dilla bears a much later date, 1746, on its cover.
bass-note itself. On rare occasions, he even inserts the accidental
the note it controls. Unlike Hidalgo, he writes remarkably supple
He makes the bass as well as the vocal line reflect changes of
When, for instance, Mars hears rustling in the branches, Torrej6n
an agile, lithe bass. When Mars stops Cupid who has been hid
those branches, the disguised Cupid stammers above a bass that
the same time to a block of half notes (see Ex. 3). Torrej6n
indulges in plays of imitation between the bass and the solo voice
to Hidalgo's homophonic style.
Even in the choral and ensemble numbers the instrumental bass -
Ex.4
(fols. 14v - 15 [unnumbered in choral appendix) fhrs
Chorus Nopue - deA mor Ha-cermidi - cha ma-yor. Bien pue-
. , . I . ... 1.' J l J - , , , I,, I.-
)m Ha-c0r,mi
Nymphs'
Choruses - di - c ,cer m e -i ma-yor Bien pue-
Tr ~~1 1 U~- er m ma-e.B'ien puae-
1 1 I No pue - deA - mor Ha-cermidi - cha ma-yor, ha-cer mi di-cha ma-yor. en pue-
.43 43:5)~
Cortinuo
IChorus,,l
deA - mor Ha.ce, mi di - cha ma-yor, midi - cha m.yor. No pue - deA mor
;-deA A o Ha-de r~di - cha ma-yor, . ma = yor.
No pue - deA . mor

- dA . mor acrmi di - chami -came- yor. t 6
L i ml i -S a Pa-sar... del bie~n que pao-

Ni mi de-se - o Pa-sar del bienque po-se - - sar del bien que po-
Ni mi de-so - o Pa-sar.. dcl benqurpo-se - o, po- -

[ l - I I i1 i i~ l I ll III IIl - 6
- se f- o Por-quecrce rel em-ple-o De tan di-vi -no fa - vor No pue-
se - 0; Por-quecre-cerel em-ple-o De tan di-vi-no fa-vor o
se - o; Por.que cre- cer el em-pie- o De tan di- vi-no fa - vor N
ckA - mor. Ha-cer mi d; -~ cha ma - yo~r.
cGT Inr.Ha-etrmi di -cha ma. yor.
deA -mot.Ha-ceer mi di - ha ma- yor.

Si pre -1 c4 mor Ha cer mi- d~ tat~- Yo
Il r~~iue - eA - mova-cer midi - cha mna -yar.

Sipc-deA - mor Ha-cer ml di -ha ma yor.
8 si put - dtA - m Ha-car di-cha ma - yr.
though often keeping step with the lowest voice-part - carries its own
figures and preserves a certain degree of independence: as, for instance,
in the ensemble given in Ex. 4. The first group of nymphs declares
that nothing love can do would better my lot. The second contradicts.
The first again insists that my desire does not exceed the divine favor
I enjoy. The second and first join at the end in contradicting. To
dramatize their clash, Torrej6n simultaneously specifies a major chord
in one group against a minor chord (over the same root) in the other.
He delights everywhere in devising music to highlight the text.

When Mars admits that Drag6n may justly have questioned Cupid's
legitimacy, he suddenly veers to an alien sharp at the word bastardo.
After threatening Drag6n, he drops a sixth (dramatized by a false
relation) on temor.
Ex.5 (fos. 29v-30)

Mars
Gue si de Mar- +e fue-ra Es-+ar-do hi-jo elA-mor. noin-fro-du-jc-ra.Vil-meen-l li-son-

2 *
Accp+.
je- ro, Que val-ga mas toher-mo - so clue lo fie - ro, Te-mor quehoyen mi lu-
Btlona
1CAS -mc? (exi* D~ragn
- cha.Na-cdiea~qu; que - de. A~bo
6 Ij6i) T e~
He breaks the syllables

and grandeza with re
phrases as un delirio, u
fall of a tritone to wo
rhythms, he does typ
her first entry. Over t
Mars hold a war council.
-x. (.* I. Sirmes
(endling on D
Adonis - though ordinarily typed with

ures - also strides forth with a dotted rh
he announces that he will kill the boar f
"do not fear . . . what before was agility
Not only his part, but also the bass catch
ExK7 (fol48)
sfi f i,"'i#..:
. . ~ . . ,_.L J . II m "
s-sf'l -i''r J '!I
Torrej6n changes freely fro

the solo sections. But his rh
allow for the freedoms that
vary impartially between com
of the choral and ensemble p
Such four-part choruses as the two Viva Ph

the loa, and the Arma guerra and Huid pastor
with a popular aroma only rarely found in the
indeed invites a composer to quote popular t
quotes such extremely popular romances as E
(G6ngora, 1602) and Sale la estrella de Vinus
Although he does not stray to distant keys, he

No two successive choruses end, for instance, w
The first debouches on D (phrygian cadenc
(plagal), the third on F (authentic), the four
dominant-seventh) . If he writes no overt dyn
numerous contrasts of loud and soft by Venus's
by offstage and onstage singing, and by the rep
to solo song. Interestingly enough, dynamics
one way to illustrate the echo-idea in the tex
subtle means. When Mars asks, Whence this dis
these echoes? Torrej6n at this precise moment "
the strain with which the loa in Philip's honor
Only once does he actually specify the tem

suddenly opens before Mars - who had promised
hell if necessary to seize Amor - he marks the
("slowly").42 But for the most part the music itself
signs. Certainly when the black-robed pains eme
intends for them to intone Quien pena, Quien s
Quien lora slowly. Not only do the personified p
even reverts on this occasion to eye-music. Fear
38 Romancero General (Bibl. de Aut. Esp., X, ed. Ag
The one brief bit of ensemble that can be definitely linked to a duet already
popular in Peru is the duet sung by Venus and Adonis at fol. 23v (see Ex. 2).
Beginning with Ay de mi, Torrej6n recalls not only the refrain-text of No sJ a
que sombras funestas but also the music copied by Fray Gregorio de Zuola at
p. 364 of his commonplace book before 1709. See Carlos Vega, La Mzisica de un
Codice Colonial del siglo XVII, Buenos Aires, 1931, for facsimiles and transcrip-
tions of the 16 secular songs in this Peruvian 17th-century source (his Ch. V).
The full text at his pp. 24-25 proves how "folkloric" had become the Venus and
Adonis tale in Peru before Torrej6n set the Calderonian libretto.
3 Y sepan quantas, Arma guerra, Guarda la fiera, A pesar del amor.
40 Fol. 51v.
41 Sung not only by the Muses in the first tonada, but also by the bass Apollo
in the sixth. The loa (consisting of 12 items) deserves a separate study.
42 Fol. 36, 2nd staff.
Ire sequence each other in nothing but black notes: while all a
them he spreads only whites.43
Until the work is published, any analysis must remain fragmen

But enough evidence has perhaps already been assembled to prove
Torrej6n's 1701 achievement is no mere historical curiosity. The e
surviving New World opera, his setting also challenges interest as
earliest known score for Calder6n's pioneer libretto. But better sti
setting reveals itself as an artistic accomplishment of the first wat
Just as La Ptirpura de la rosa on Calder6n's own testimon

toda mrisica at its premibre in 1660, so also Torrej6n's score justifi
claim that it was again sung throughout when presented in 1
Lima.
Two years later, Italian opera first invaded Spain. Another five years
later (1708) the first opera with music by an Italian composer was
mounted in Peru. Fortunate in its survival as the earliest New World
opera, La Ptirpura on the other hand had the misfortune to be com
posed in the last years before Bourbon taste expelled purely Spanish
drama sung throughout from court entertainment at Madrid. If Torre-
j6n's representacidn mrisica be accepted as an earnest, the Spanish school

- short though its life - had already developed its own structural
devices, patented its own emotion-producing formulas, and contrived its
own unique balance between spectacle and action, group singing and
solo song, heroic action and buffoonery.44
43 Fol. 36v, 5th and 6th staves.
44 Its demise because of a change of ruling house may prove to have paralleled
the eclipse of the English lyric stage under similar circumstances.
I record my deep gratitude to Don Crist6bal de Losada y Puga, and to his able
coadjutors in the Secci6n de Investigaciones of the Biblioteca Nacional in Lima
(especially Sta. Graciela SAnchez Cerro), for exceptional courtesies and aid. The
tonadilla mentioned in note 37 was examined with the gracious permission of its
owner, D. Luis Ugarte, Director del Teatro de San Marcos. Dr. Adele Kibre kindly
obtained for me the information in note 12. Maestro Andr6s Sts has placed me under
very great debt by orienting me in Peruvian bibliography. P. Rub6n Vargas Ugarte
kindly called my attention to Torrej6n's autograph letter in the Seminary library
at Cuzco describing the Archbishop of Lima's zeal for a purified church music
and to a manuscript census of Lima taken in 1700 (MSS 3116 at the Madrid
Biblioteca Nacional) that tells where Torrej6n lived.

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Opera Beginnings in the New World

Author(s): Robert Stevenson

O PERAThosetook only shallow root in 18th-century English America.

this viceroyalty with such diverting apparatus." To whet the ap

This particular viceroy, tenth Count of Lemos (1632-1672), g

4l Ibid., pp. 298-99.

After returning to answer for his Sardinian servant's misdeed

chief justice of Chachapoyas province in upper Peru.'3 Torre

His cathedral career was marred by only the usual difficul

14 Manuel de Mendiburu's date (Diccionario histdrico biogrdfico del P

His name first reaches print in a folio published

His name again reaches print in Lima Triumphan

18 Francisco de Echave y Assi, La Estrella de Lima, Antwerp, 1688, pp. 345

~i i:i;iiii: ~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii O O Y

~ -...:...,_ i:,:iii bi~:iI:-i-i:i:iiiii:? i~ iiii. iiii:iii-iiiiiii~:i~iiii:i~ iii i i:-:-::-:i::-:-:: :::::i i::'::il:l:l:;*i~::::::::i

iiiiiiiiiiii-iiiiliiiiiiiiiiili 4iii ~ii. :-:::i:li::l:-:::::i:I:-:-:-:I:i:i:i:r~, --? ~:i iii'i?i?i?iii:i:iii?i ? V) O v,

iiiiiiiiiiii ~ al:-- :: ::-? ~i llri:,~.Ij ? ij;ij'2 7~j ii:

:: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ __ IE:::: ::-:::~?i 1?i:::l:? ~i~iiii~~iit,

,~ ~, CezcAIob~ZLOx ~zta f~O6~n edi

Tonadas solas dela Comedia sung as solos by Venus's four nymph

No happier libretto could have been found than Calder6n's L

Torrej6n copied the text of Calder6n's La Pzirpura de la rosa in

o20 Lohmann, El Arte dramda'tico, p. 324.

And in his blood that on the ground laie spild,

The "purple" of this flower indeed suggests his title, La Ptirpura de la

24 If Calder6n's spoken play, La Fiera, el rayo y la piedra (M

Beneath this main plot Calder6n weaves a subsidiary strand involv-

Calder6n's scene changes from a wood, to a garden

Trumpets and drums sound offstage to herald the

Torrej6n's surviving score, bound in yellowed par

The paper shows three watermarks which recur r

Torrej6n's notation exhibits many of the same idiosyncrasies

As for pitch, Hidalgo notates his Ni Amor se libra at least a f

Adonis sings the highest written note in any soloist's pa

Adonis, on other accounts besides range, sings t

To differentiate characters, he often endows Adonis, Mars, or

The repeats of this 12-bar refrain follow in this order: 1 2 3 . . 5

Aap.-II 'tlJ~tCI t,..* I.J h'i i (f i

a - - dron, Que hur - in . do-teel me - dio a-cen-o Er

ta oa i - aon Que 'G ue fr rel ue.o a s.

iyC1i f Ijf . ..... rP(r

tan-doen la tie - Ira y'o. eOues es - to

sighing into a duet at the third repet

Ei.2 (fois. 23v -24)

iSy__.__ dye mi... Que meda muerleaqulen lavi-da d;!

Ptc i 1:' r?i'IY .

He notates his accompaniment throughout a

Ex.3 (fo,. 3 3Z, a. (aide)

Qui~n con-hra mi 6r-den A-qu

soy, Pues ha deque-rer sa-ber La cau-sade midis - fraz

Svy qui n... si... cuan-do, por-quh..

en-ire es-las ra-mas? No ie tur - bes;que no sa-bes

"i $' 'B ul r~r,-ct li T- T -f

;-deA A o Ha-de r~di - cha ma-yor, . ma = yor.

No pue - deA . mor

L i ml i -S a Pa-sar... del bie~n que pao-

Ni mi de-so - o Pa-sar.. dcl benqurpo-se - o, po- -

- se f- o Por-quecrce rel em-ple-o De tan di-vi -no fa - vor No pue-

se - 0; Por-quecre-cerel em-ple-o De tan di-vi-no fa-vor o

se - o; Por.que cre- cer el em-pie- o De tan di- vi-no fa - vor N

ckA - mor. Ha-cer mi d; -~ cha ma - yo~r.

cGT Inr.Ha-etrmi di -cha ma. yor.

deA -mot.Ha-ceer mi di - ha ma- yor.

Il r~~iue - eA - mova-cer midi - cha mna -yar.

iSy. dye mi... Que meda muerleaqulen lavi-da d;!